Information Processing in Information Processing in Management and Management and

Marketing:Marketing:Personality Styles and Personality Styles and

Meaning ProfilesMeaning ProfilesShulamith Kreitler, Ph.D.Shulamith Kreitler, Ph.D.

Department of PsychologyDepartment of PsychologyTel-Aviv UniversityTel-Aviv University

Tel-Aviv, IsraelTel-Aviv, Israel

Tel +972-3-5227185Fax +972-3-5225371E-mail Krit@netvision.net.il

In management and marketing In management and marketing information processing plays a information processing plays a role in:role in: The daily work of the manager who has The daily work of the manager who has

to deal with large amounts of to deal with large amounts of informationinformation

The act of communication which The act of communication which consists in the exchange of information consists in the exchange of information between two or more individualsbetween two or more individuals

The act of purchasing, i.e., processes The act of purchasing, i.e., processes involved in the decision to buy, the involved in the decision to buy, the buying and the evaluation afterwards.buying and the evaluation afterwards.

Cybernetics

INFORMATION

Psychosemantics

MEANING

Purpose:Purpose:– To present a theory and methodology, To present a theory and methodology,

based on the meaning system, that based on the meaning system, that enable assessing information processing enable assessing information processing in management and marketingin management and marketing

Structure of talk:Structure of talk:A.A. Presentation of the meaning systemPresentation of the meaning systemB.B. Application of the meaning system to Application of the meaning system to

assessing meaning styles of individuals assessing meaning styles of individuals in management and in marketingin management and in marketing

C.C. Application of the meaning system to Application of the meaning system to promoting purchasingpromoting purchasing

A. A. Presentation of Presentation of the meaning the meaning

systemsystem

Developed by Kreitler and Developed by Kreitler and Kreitler, since 1968 onwardKreitler, since 1968 onward

A.A. The system of The system of meaning meaning

(Kreitler & Kreitler)(Kreitler & Kreitler)

Cognition is a system that works with meaning, namely, it responds to meanings, and produces, elaborates, stores, transforms and uses meanings.

Assumptions Underlying Assumptions Underlying the the

Meaning SystemMeaning System

Meaning is communicableMeaning is complexMeaning includes a personal-

subjective part and an interpersonally-shared part

MeaningMeaning is a pattern of is a pattern of cognitive contentscognitive contents focused focused

on a on a referentreferent. .

A A referentreferent can be an can be an external or internal stimulus, external or internal stimulus,

a situation, an event, an a situation, an event, an individual, a product, the act individual, a product, the act

of purchasing, etc.of purchasing, etc.

The The cognitive contentscognitive contents are are designed to express or designed to express or

communicate information communicate information that would enable identifying that would enable identifying

the referent, handling it, the referent, handling it, responding to it, or dealing responding to it, or dealing

with it within the with it within the psychological domain.psychological domain.

The cognitive content and the The cognitive content and the referent form together the referent form together the

meaning unit.meaning unit.

Referent – Meaning Value

Examples: Examples: Hong Kong – is a wonderful cityHong Kong – is a wonderful cityAn airport – serves for An airport – serves for transportationtransportation

The cognitive content is The cognitive content is called meaning value called meaning value

because it fulfills the role of because it fulfills the role of expressing or expressing or

communicating meaning.communicating meaning.

The meaning unit is characterized in The meaning unit is characterized in terms of the following 5 sets of terms of the following 5 sets of

variables:variables:

Referent – Meaning Value

Shifts in Referent

Types of Relation

Forms of Relation

Forms of Expression

Meaning Dimensions

The psychosemantic method consists in The psychosemantic method consists in coding the responses in terms of the following coding the responses in terms of the following categories:categories: Meaning dimensions: Content categories, such as

Feelings and Emotions, Actions, Sensory Qualities (color, shape, etc.), Size, Weight

Types of Relation: Relational categories, such as Attributive, Comparative, Illustrative-Exemplifying, Metaphoric-Symbolic.

Forms of Relation : Formative categories, such as Positive or Negative, Simple or Complex (e.g., Conjunctive, Disjunctive), Absolute or Modified (e.g., always, sometimes)

Shifts of Referent : Categories of shifts to other constructs, such as from Ocean to Lake, from House to Windows

Forms of Expression : Categories of means of expression, such as words, drawings, movements, denoted objects

Examples of Meaning Examples of Meaning VariablesVariables

Meaning Meaning DimensionsDimensions– Range of inclusionRange of inclusion– MaterialMaterial– FunctionsFunctions– Feelings & EmotionsFeelings & Emotions

Types of RelationsTypes of Relations– AttributiveAttributive– ComparativeComparative– Exemplifying-illustrativeExemplifying-illustrative– Metaphoric-symbolicMetaphoric-symbolic

Forms of RelationForms of Relation– Positive, NegativePositive, Negative– Conjunctive, DisjunctiveConjunctive, Disjunctive– NormativeNormative

Referent ShiftsReferent Shifts– Identical to inputIdentical to input– Part of inputPart of input– AssociationAssociation

Forms of ExpressionForms of Expression– VerbalVerbal– GesturalGestural– GraphicGraphic

Meaning TestMeaning Test

Instructions:Instructions: Communicate to another Communicate to another person the meaning (interpersonally-person the meaning (interpersonally-shared and personal) of a presented shared and personal) of a presented set of stimuli, using any means of set of stimuli, using any means of communication considered adequate.communication considered adequate.

Stimuli:Stimuli: Street, Bicycle, Sea (ocean), Street, Bicycle, Sea (ocean), to take, to kill, Telephone, etc.to take, to kill, Telephone, etc.

Examples of Coded ResponsesExamples of Coded Responses

Stimulus: Stimulus: Hong KongHong Kong

Meaning Meaning DimensionsDimensions

Types of Types of RelationRelation

Forms of Forms of RelationRelation

Shifts of Shifts of ReferentReferent

Forms of Forms of ExpressionExpression

A A beautiful beautiful citycity

Contextual Contextual Allocation / Allocation / JudgementJudgements & s & EvaluationEvaluation

AttributiveAttributivePositivePositiveNoneNoneVerbalVerbal

More More southern southern than than BeijingBeijing

Locational Locational QualitiesQualities

ComparatiComparativeve

PositivePositiveNoneNoneVerbalVerbal

I love it’s I love it’s centercenter

Feelings & Feelings & EmotionsEmotions

AttributiveAttributivePositivePositivePart of Part of (center)(center)

VerbalVerbal

Meaning ProfileMeaning Profile

Frequencies (proportions) of individual’s use of each meaning variable in responding to the stimuli of the meaning test.

Functions of MeaningFunctions of Meaning

In regard to cognitionIn regard to cognition In regard to personalityIn regard to personality In regard to states of In regard to states of

consciousnessconsciousness In regard to behaviorIn regard to behavior In regard to physiological In regard to physiological

responsesresponses

Meaning Variables and Meaning Variables and CognitionCognition

Cognitive contents, information

Meaning values

Cognitive processes

Meaning variables

Cognitive acts, structural schemas

Meaning profiles

Meaning

1. Meaning Values and Cognitive 1. Meaning Values and Cognitive ContentsContents

Meaning values correspond to Meaning values correspond to cognitive contents and information.cognitive contents and information.

Examples:Examples:

When the individual’s meaning profile shows When the individual’s meaning profile shows a high frequency of the meaning dimension a high frequency of the meaning dimension Locational Qualities, that individual may be Locational Qualities, that individual may be expected to have a lot of labels, words, expected to have a lot of labels, words, information in the domain of location, places, information in the domain of location, places, routes.routes.

2. Meaning Values and Cognitive 2. Meaning Values and Cognitive ProcessesProcesses

Cognitive processes correspond to Cognitive processes correspond to specific meaning variables or specific meaning variables or combinations of meaning variables.combinations of meaning variables.

Examples:Examples:Shifting from one theme to anotherShifting from one theme to another – High frequency – High frequency of referent shifts of medium degree (e.g., shifting to of referent shifts of medium degree (e.g., shifting to previous response, or to superordinate referent)previous response, or to superordinate referent)AssociationsAssociations – High number of meaning values – High number of meaning values (absolute and especially relative), high number of (absolute and especially relative), high number of different shifts of referentdifferent shifts of referentAbstractingAbstracting –High frequency of meaning dimension –High frequency of meaning dimension Contextual AllocationContextual Allocation

3. Meaning Profiles and Cognitive 3. Meaning Profiles and Cognitive ActsActs

Cognitive acts correspond to specific Cognitive acts correspond to specific combinations of meaning variables combinations of meaning variables that constitute complete profiles.that constitute complete profiles.

Meaning Profile of PlanningMeaning Profile of Planning Meaning DimensionsMeaning Dimensions

– Contextual allocationContextual allocation– Range of inclusionRange of inclusion– ActionsActions– Manner of operationManner of operation– Antecedents & causesAntecedents & causes– Consequences & resultsConsequences & results– Range of applicationRange of application– StructureStructure– Quantity & numbersQuantity & numbers– Locational qualitiesLocational qualities– Temporal qualitiesTemporal qualities– Sensory qualities (-)Sensory qualities (-)– Judgments & evaluationsJudgments & evaluations

Types of RelationTypes of Relation– AttributiveAttributive– Metaphoric-symbolic (-) Metaphoric-symbolic (-)

Forms of RelationForms of Relation– Propositional, positive & Propositional, positive &

negativenegative– PartialPartial– ConjunctiveConjunctive– DisjunctiveDisjunctive

Shifts of ReferentShifts of Referent– Close shifts: Parts, Former Close shifts: Parts, Former

responses, Grammatical responses, Grammatical variationsvariations

– Medium shifts: Input Medium shifts: Input modified by addition, modified by addition, Combination of several Combination of several former responsesformer responses

– Distant shifts (-) : Distant shifts (-) : Associations, LabelsAssociations, Labels

Forms of ExpressionForms of Expression– Verbal, Verbal desc???? By Verbal, Verbal desc???? By

drawingsdrawings

Further cognitive acts whose Further cognitive acts whose meaning profiles were identified:meaning profiles were identified:

Memory for verbal material / names / Memory for verbal material / names / facesfaces

Analogical thinkingAnalogical thinking Inventive thinkingInventive thinking CreativityCreativity Exploration and curiosityExploration and curiosity Various cognitive styles Various cognitive styles (e.g., (e.g.,

impulsiveness vs. reflectivity, monitoring vs. impulsiveness vs. reflectivity, monitoring vs. blunting)blunting)

Meaning Variables and Meaning Variables and PersonalityPersonality

Each personality trait Each personality trait corresponds to a profile of corresponds to a profile of

meaning variablesmeaning variables

Example: Example: Meaning profile of extraversionMeaning profile of extraversion

Meaning DimensionsMeaning Dimensions– Contextual allocationContextual allocation– Range of inclusionRange of inclusion– ActionsActions– Results & Consequences Results & Consequences

(-)(-)– Size & dimensionsSize & dimensions– Quantity & numbersQuantity & numbers– Temporal qualities (-)Temporal qualities (-)– PossessionsPossessions– Sensory qualities (-) Sensory qualities (-)

(experienced by referent)(experienced by referent)– Sensory qualities (of Sensory qualities (of

object)object)– Judgments & evaluations Judgments & evaluations

(-)(-)

Types of Types of RelationRelation– AttributiveAttributive– Metaphoric (-)Metaphoric (-)

Forms of Forms of RelationRelation– PositivePositive

Referent ShiftsReferent Shifts– Associations (-)Associations (-)

[Source: Kreitler, S. & Kreitler, H. (1990). The Cognitive Foundations of Personality Traits. New York: Plenum]

For example,For example,There are meaning profiles There are meaning profiles corresponding to:corresponding to:

Leadership (Fiedler’s LPC)Leadership (Fiedler’s LPC) AlexithymiaAlexithymia NarcissismNarcissism Tendency to experience anxietyTendency to experience anxiety Tendency to apply different defense Tendency to apply different defense

mechanisms, such as repression, mechanisms, such as repression, denial, projectiondenial, projection

Two Modes of MeaningTwo Modes of Meaning Personal-SubjectivePersonal-Subjective

– Exemplifying-IllustrativeExemplifying-Illustrative– Metaphoric-SymbolicMetaphoric-Symbolic

Interpersonally-SharedInterpersonally-Shared– AttributiveAttributive– ComparativeComparative

Effects on:Effects on:– Gestalt perceptionGestalt perception– CreativityCreativity– FantasyFantasy– Logical reasoningLogical reasoning

[Source: Kreitler, S. (1999). Consciousness and meaning. In J. Singer & P. Salovey (Eds.), At Play in the Fields of Consciousness: Essays in Honor of Jerome L. Singer. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum (pp. 175-206)]

Meaning Variables and Meaning Variables and States of ConsciousnessStates of Consciousness

Training Meaning VariablesTraining Meaning Variables

1.1. Determining the meaning variables Determining the meaning variables targetted for trainingtargetted for training

2.2. Training each targetted meaning Training each targetted meaning variable separatelyvariable separately

3.3. StrengtheningStrengthening the targetted the targetted meaning variable meaning variable

4.4. ElaboratingElaborating the meaning of the the meaning of the targetted meaning variabletargetted meaning variable

5.5. ExplainingExplaining the use of the targetted the use of the targetted meaning variablemeaning variable

Principles of the TrainingPrinciples of the Training

B. B. Application of Application of the Meaning the Meaning System to System to

Assessing Meaning Assessing Meaning Profiles of Profiles of

Individuals in Individuals in Management and Management and

MarketingMarketing

Administering the Meaning Administering the Meaning Test to an individual enables Test to an individual enables determining the individual’s determining the individual’s

Meaning ProfileMeaning Profile

Major Uses of the Meaning Major Uses of the Meaning Profile AssessmentProfile Assessment

Evaluation of personnelEvaluation of personnel Selection of personnelSelection of personnel Training of personnelTraining of personnel

Meaning Profile

Grasping and Comprehending InformationGetting

InformationCommunicating with Others

Cognitive Acts

Personality Traits

Personality Disposition & Emotional Tendencies

Correspondence between Meaning Correspondence between Meaning ProfilesProfiles

Possibility to determine to what extent Possibility to determine to what extent an individual’s meaning profile : an individual’s meaning profile :

Corresponds to the meaning profile Corresponds to the meaning profile of some standard, e.g., of the “good of some standard, e.g., of the “good manager”, “creative manager”manager”, “creative manager”

Corresponds to the meaning profile Corresponds to the meaning profile of the individuals (one or more) with of the individuals (one or more) with whom he/she is to cooperatewhom he/she is to cooperate

Meaning Profile of the “Good” Meaning Profile of the “Good” ManagerManager

(based on the meaning variables common to 12 (based on the meaning variables common to 12 managers in different high-tech firms, evaluated by their managers in different high-tech firms, evaluated by their

peers and supervisors)peers and supervisors) Meaning DimensionsMeaning Dimensions– Contextual allocationContextual allocation– FunctionFunction– Manner of operationManner of operation– Consequences Consequences – Causes (-)Causes (-)– Domain of applicationDomain of application– StateState

Types of RelationTypes of Relation– AttributiveAttributive– Comparative – Comparative –

DifferenceDifference– Exemplifying (-)Exemplifying (-)– Metaphoric (-)Metaphoric (-)

Forms of RelationForms of Relation– PositivePositive– Partial (not Partial (not

universal)universal)– ConjunctiveConjunctive– DisjunctiveDisjunctive– NormativeNormative– Desired (-)Desired (-)

Referent ShiftsReferent Shifts– Close shiftsClose shifts– Medium shiftsMedium shifts– Distant shifts (-)Distant shifts (-)

Index of Similarity in regard to Index of Similarity in regard to Meaning Profiles:Meaning Profiles:

Steps of Construction:Steps of Construction:1.1. Determine the meaning profiles of two individuals Determine the meaning profiles of two individuals

(or one individual and “standard” profile)(or one individual and “standard” profile)

Procedure AProcedure A2.2. Correlate the two Correlate the two

profiles. The profiles. The Spearman Product-Spearman Product-Moment Coefficient Moment Coefficient yields the measure of yields the measure of similaritysimilarity

Procedure BProcedure B2.2. For each meaning For each meaning

variable determine variable determine whether its score is whether its score is above the group’s mean above the group’s mean (for “positive” variables) (for “positive” variables) or below (for negative or below (for negative variables)variables)3.3. Count the number of variables in the meaning profiles Count the number of variables in the meaning profiles

that are both above or below the group’s mean. The that are both above or below the group’s mean. The number yields a gross measure of similarity.number yields a gross measure of similarity.

Note. The same procedures can be applied for more than two meaning profiles

Preliminary findings concerning Preliminary findings concerning team work (High-Tech firms)team work (High-Tech firms)

TeamTeamNo. of No. of

IndividualIndividualss

Mean of Mean of Similarity Similarity IndicesIndices

Mean Mean Rating of Rating of SatisfactiSatisfaction (1-7)on (1-7)

Mean Mean Rating of Rating of

EffectiveneEffectiveness (1-7)ss (1-7)

Team Team AA

44Mean Mean r=.39r=.392.72.73.23.2

Team Team BB

55Mean Mean r=.52r=.525.65.64.94.9

SelectionSelection of Personnel of Personnel

The meaning profile enables The meaning profile enables selecting, for the organization or selecting, for the organization or for particular positions in the for particular positions in the organization, individuals with organization, individuals with desired tendencies in regard to desired tendencies in regard to cognition, personality and cognition, personality and behavior.behavior.

Procedures of selectionProcedures of selection

1.1. DetermineDetermine or retrieveor retrieve the meaning the meaning profile corresponding to the cognitive profile corresponding to the cognitive act or personality trait or behavior of act or personality trait or behavior of interestinterest

2.2. DetermineDetermine the individual’s meaning the individual’s meaning profileprofile

3.3. ComputeCompute the index of similarity the index of similarity between the individual’s meaning between the individual’s meaning profile and the meaning profile profile and the meaning profile corresponding to the desired cognitive corresponding to the desired cognitive act, personality trait or behavioract, personality trait or behavior

TrainingTraining of Personnel of Personnel Steps in the training procedureSteps in the training procedure

1.1. Determine or retrieveDetermine or retrieve the meaning profile the meaning profile corresponding to the cognitive, personality corresponding to the cognitive, personality or behavior tendency of interestor behavior tendency of interest

2.2. DetermineDetermine the individual’s meaning profile the individual’s meaning profile

3.3. CompareCompare the individual’s meaning profile to the individual’s meaning profile to the meaning profile of the desired tendency the meaning profile of the desired tendency and determine in which meaning variables it and determine in which meaning variables it deviatesdeviates

4.4. ApplyApply the training process with the individual the training process with the individual in regard to the targetted meaning variablesin regard to the targetted meaning variables

C. C. Application of the Application of the Meaning system to Meaning system to

Promoting Promoting PurchasingPurchasing

Meaning Profile of the “good”

purchaserMeaning of

purchasing the item

Means for promoting Means for promoting purchasing:purchasing:

Procedure A: Focus on the meaning Procedure A: Focus on the meaning profile of the “good” purchaserprofile of the “good” purchaser

a)a) DetermineDetermine the meaning profile of the the meaning profile of the “good” (desired) purchaser“good” (desired) purchaserCriteria (examples): Criteria (examples):

amounts of purchasingamounts of purchasingFrequency of purchasingFrequency of purchasingRange of purchasingRange of purchasingSelectivity of purchasingSelectivity of purchasing

b)b) EvokeEvoke the relevant meaning variables the relevant meaning variables when advertising items or presenting when advertising items or presenting them on display for purchasingthem on display for purchasing

Meaning Profile of Purchaser

Buying it will stimulate positive

evaluations of the purchaser

Meaning Dimension

Judgments and Evaluation

Displayed Item

Procedure B: Focus on the meaning of Procedure B: Focus on the meaning of purchasing a given set of itemspurchasing a given set of items

Meaning of Meaning of Purchasing Purchasing Specific Specific ItemItem

FunctionalFunctionalPresent for myselfPresent for myself

Characteristics Characteristics of displaying & of displaying & SellingSelling

Many different kinds Many different kinds togethertogetherEach kind separatelyEach kind separately

Simple contextSimple contextElaborate contextElaborate context

High accessibility for High accessibility for handlinghandling

Low accessibility for Low accessibility for handlinghandling

No salespersonNo salespersonSalesperson involvementSalesperson involvement

No wrappingNo wrappingSpecial or selected Special or selected wrappingwrapping

Fast, simple paying Fast, simple paying procedureprocedure

Elaborative slowed-down Elaborative slowed-down paying procedurepaying procedure

Purchaser brings the item Purchaser brings the item to cashierto cashier

Salesperson or cashier Salesperson or cashier hands the item to the hands the item to the purchaserpurchaser

ConclusionsConclusions The meaning system provides concepts and The meaning system provides concepts and

tools for assessing processes underlying tools for assessing processes underlying cognitive, emotional, personality and behavior cognitive, emotional, personality and behavior tendencies.tendencies.

The major concepts are meaning units, The major concepts are meaning units, referent, meaning value, and meaning variable.referent, meaning value, and meaning variable.

The major tool is the Meaning Test that yields The major tool is the Meaning Test that yields the meaning profile.the meaning profile.

The meaning system enables improving the The meaning system enables improving the Evaluation, Selection and Training of personnel Evaluation, Selection and Training of personnel in management.in management.

The meaning system provides means for The meaning system provides means for promoting purchasing by focusing on the promoting purchasing by focusing on the purchaser or on the meaning of the items to be purchaser or on the meaning of the items to be purchased and of the act of purchasing.purchased and of the act of purchasing.