inflibnet - religious landscape of orissa-from 5th 12th...
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 3
Religious Landscape of Orissa- From 5th to 12th centuries
AD- With reference to Buddhism
3.1 Introduction
The Prologue briefly delineated the religious landscape of Orissa between 7'h to 12'h
centuries AD. From the religious standpoint alone the period was a momentous one as
the religious landscape of Orissa saw simultaneous expansion of Buddhism, Saivism,
Saktism, Vaisnavism and other cults. This expansion was only one facet of the complex
religious processes. The other strand was the existence of many autochthonous cults like
that of l\1aninagesvari, Stambhesvari and others. The emergence of temples from the
Sailodbhava period (from 7'11 centmy AD and their proliferation subsequently) was yet
another important development of the period. Juxtaposed with this expansion of
brahmanical religions was the evidence of the spread and development of Buddhism.
As d1scussed in Chapter 2, Buddhism of this period witnessed both spatial and
vertical expansions. It is argued that rather than being degenerative, Buddhism of tlus
period was more a social and instrumental religion. It tried to integrate various schools of
Buddlusm by developing eki!)lalla; it provided a normative basis to numerous deities; it
introduced rituals for the \vorship of deities, it innovated ma7Jqala and other forms of
complex rituals; it developed texts like kr[yii talltra for the daily worship of these deities; it
discouraged extrenuties of Vajrayana by making a distinction between exoteric and
esoteric Buddhism. It developed ritual specialists to conduct worship and perform
complex rituals.
This chapter deals in detail with the vertical and horizontal spread of Buddhism
during tlus period in Orissa. At the spatial level, copious documentation of sites and
sculptures has been attempted. Appendix 1 at the end of the Chapter gives a description
of the finds from each Buddhist site. At the vertical level, an attempt has been made to
document different forms of gods and goddesses of Buddhism so as to highlight their
worship by people at large. The fact that many of these gods and goddesses of Buddlusm
are found in the niches of votive stupas offered by the pilgrims attest to their worship by
people at large. 1 Secondly varieties cf mmyrjalas, which came up during this period, are
l Scholars view that Vajrayana Buddhism was confined to monastic complex alone. The presence of so many gods and goddesses in votive niches indicate their worship by laypeople at large. Further many of these gods and goddesses have been found ll1 places other than the monastic complexes alone, which suggest that they were worsiupped by laypeople.
48
also dealt with. However, the growth of Buddhism in this period is only one component.
he other vital aspect is the spread and expansion of brahmanical religions and other cults.
The period witnessed the growth of many temples, which presenre in their complexes
numerous gods and goddess of the brahmanical pantheon. Further many of the
autochthonous goddess, which were integrated to the brahmanical religions or still
remained autonomous, like Stambhesvari, emerged in this period. To understand the
d f 0 . f 7'h 12'h . AD . l changing religious Ian scape o nssa rom century to centunes Is t 1e
second objective of the period.
An attempt has been made to document various shrines and sculptures of the period
and understand the changing religious contour of Orissa during 7'" century to 12'h
centuries AD. Fieldwork of many parts of coastal Orissa was undertaken between 1999-
2002. This includes survey of Mayurbhanj district. I have relied on various books of
Thomas Donaldson for the dating of the temples and sculptures. The chapter also
attempts a longitudinal study of selective sites to analyse issues related to sacred spaces
issues like public access to main st:pa. Further, an attempt has been made to catalogue
the deities in votive JlupaJ of Ratnagiri so as to highlight the popularity of different cults
in Ratnagiri.
3.2: Rationale of Documentation
The followings are the broad reasons for such documentation.
Scholars like R. S Sharma opine that Tantric Buddhism was a product of feudal
economy and was used to integrate tribal areas. On the other hand, documentation of
sites shows that Buddhism of this period was largely confwed to coastal Orissa.
The second rationale of the documentation is to show that Buddhism did not
decline in this period; but expanded in this period along with brahmanical religions
If both Buddhism and brahmanical religions were expanding simultaneously then
the existing historiography which deals with inter-religious relations in binary category of
decline of Buddhism and ascendancy and hegemony of brahmanical religions can no
more be sustained. What comes out of the study is a poly-religious landscape of Orissa in
this period. Mapping cults will help us understand better the religions of the period.
To show the poly-religious landscape of this period is one component; the other
important aspect of such a ~tuc!y is to highlight the shift and pattern of change of various
cults in Orissa. This will help us finding the underlying causes of the shift (Not dealt in
the present study).
As argued in Chapter 2, Buddhism tried to make religion instrumental and social by
innovating many deities by creating a systematic pantheon structure. In this Chapter a
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copious documentation of sites has been made. As an extension of the instrumental role
of various deities, we have made an exhaustive documentation of these deities, which are
found from Orissa.
In our view ma'!qa!a form of Buddhism not only introduced various deities but also
brought in complex rituals to the household. We tried to document various Buddhist
mm;ga!as found in Orissa.
Buddhism introduced numerous instrumental deities from 6'h -7'h century onwards.
These instrumental deities have been documented in Chapter 2. These deities are found
in many places. Careful documentation of the deities and their forms like A valokitesvara,
Tara and Manjusri has been attempted to show cult popularity of these deities. Cult
preference of pilgrims in Ratnagiri is studied by examining the deities in the niches of
votive stupas.
3.3. Religious Landscape between 5th -71h centuries AD
The following table gives a list of sites and sculptures between S'h to 7'h centuries. We
could not take temples as the basis of dating a site because many earlier temples had
collapsed without a trace. Many of the sculptures of the earlier temples had found their
place in later temples. Sites like Bhubaneswar where there are many extant temples to
indicate their date on the basis of their architectural style and epigraphic records, there
are many other sites where earlier temples had completely collapsed. In many sites of the
Praci valley, Buddhist images are found without any trace of structure. The same can be
said of many brahmanical sculptures, which are afft.xed to later-day temples. I will prefer
to use sculpture as a more valid indicator of the antiquity and religious affiliation of the
site, where there is no extant structures of that particular period. There is one limitation
of the exercise; many sculptures have changed their locations and covered a great spatial
distance. But, I believe that many images, found in later-day temples, are taken from their
immediate environments, and indicate their cult preference.
3.3.1 Explanatory Notes
• In the tables, where there is no description of the sculptures, it means that the dating
1s on the basis of existing temple style. Tlus is particularly true in the case of Saiva
temple. Moreovel) the date of important religious structures of the period of the study is
indicated in parentheses in column 5.
• Finds from different Buddhist sites have been shown in Appendix 2.
• Date refers to the date of the images and not of structures.
50
Table 3.1: Sculptures from .J -7'h century AD2
Sites Location Oistrict Date Religious structure Important &its date sculptures of
he period
iAsanpat fA san pat iKeonjhar OSth ---------- nscription wit! ~Siva )\; ataraj !image on a rock
~surgarh IN aria [Kalahandi 0Sth_06th ~aiva (6th century AD)
10ohirasahi iS OW !Balasore 06-7th ~aiva ::,aiva lin gam inscribed with Buddhist dharani
Dehli IN aria, Nea ~alahandi Q6th !Religious affiliation no
IAsurgarh !known
Kesaribeda !Rayagada Koraput kJ6th Vaisnava Adimurti / .
Maraguda valley Maraguda (a!ahandi p6th f:)aiva (on the basis 0
temple style)
6hatrughneswar Bhubaneswar (hurd a p6th 5aiva (temple belongs to Hari-I-Iara 6~h century)
IT rilocanesvara ajpur town )ajpur P6tl•-o7th Saiva (13th century -\dimurti te;nple)
f:iiddhesvara ajpur town Jajpur 06th_07th Saiva (13th century)3 -\dimurti
IU ttaresvara ;Bhubaneswar ~hurd a 07 -OSth Saiva temple of the same IPuru~ottama temple p,eriod
Parsurameswar !Bhubaneswar <Jmrda 07th Saiva (Sa iva temple 0 fHari-Hara (2) temple the same period) Sridhara,
~'araha ~'ai~navi, Gaja
fLak~mi ,and \other
<; . ~an·,
sculptures Valunkesvara Rayagada J:(oraput p7th fSaiva (8th century ;\D) temple Nilakanthesvara Padmapur, <.ora put p7th ~aiva (6-7th century' AD) ~aivite temple• Gunupur block sculptures 111 it
raha niches
Gandharala (hariar <.alahandi KJ7th Not known
agannatha 1\fadhupurgarh Puri p7th Vai~nava (14th cen turyr) Visnu
iJ<.anakesvara (ualo: Parjanga :0henkanal 07th ;:,aiva (8th century AD) <.artikkeya and temple other Sai\-ite
sculptures fLaksmi-Nrsimha INuapatna IPuri 07th !Vai~nava (13th century) 1\'i~nu . Madhukesvara Mukhalingam ~rikakulam p7th fVai~nava (7th centuryr) fVai~navi
OSM Banpur, Bankada jPuri p7th ~aiva (7th century AD) ~ridhara
Ramesvara/ Baramba area, 01 Cuttack KJ7th ::,aiva (8th centuryr) ~aiva ::,imhanatha the rocky island
of 1\hhanadi
Suruda Bolangir town Bolangir KJ7th ::,aiva (later period) ~aivite
~culptures
:::>warnapleswar Bhubaneswar Khurda P7th ::iaiva (7th centuryr) \ 1 ai~navi, othe
For documentation of the sculptures see Donaldson 2001; Donaldson 1985-87; Donaldson 2002; Steitencron 1978; i'vfohapatra, 1986; Rath 1995-96; Dehejia 1979; Survey conducted in undivided Curtack, Balasore and Mayurbhanj district; Vasu 1981 (reprint); various issues of OHRJ, etc. ·1 TI1e Siddhesvara siva temple belongs to 13th century' but could belong to an earlier period as the present temple is built on an earlier foundation. There are Saiva sculptures found on the interior wall of the temple boundary·.
The l\iilakanthesvara temple ·preserves an inscription, which gives the genealogy of three BuJdhist amryas, namely C1ndralekha, Dharmakirti (Senapati 1966: 425).
51
Saivite scul_ptures
Vaitala deula if3hubaneswar !Khurda 07th '.Sakta (8'11 century) Vaisnavi
Varaha-Nrsimha ~imachalam ~rikakulam 07th ~aisnava (later period) Laksmi
Lalitgiri Mahanga block Cuttack 5th_6th !Buddhist (continued Vairocana, from 2nd century BC) Buddha images
Ratnagiri if3ari block aJpur psth [Vajra Mahakala temple nscription with [belongs to 15th century. Catha 0
ithe deity is worshipped Causation, as Vajra Mahakala, who ~uddha images · s a Buddhist deity.
phauli !Bhubaneswar <hurda !Buddhist
!Udayagiri Bari block aJpur Buddhist !Buddhist
Khandagiri- Bhubaneswar <hurda Uaina a1na Udayagiri Langudi Dharmasala aJpur Buddhist !Monastery,
!Buddhist sculptures
(l.ragarh Near Jatni on the Uajpur 07th Buddhist Two-storied lbank of Khurda temple, rare
Buddhist sculptures of 9th centurv AD.
!KurUtna iNear Konark "Puri 07th !Buddhist
J.3.2.Discussion Two important features marked the religious landscape of Orissa between the fifth and
seventh centuries AD: First, the beginning of the construction of temples, both in the
Buddhist monastic complex and the emergence of Kalil}ga-style Brahmanical temples
and the second, the take-off phase of various religions. While the period saw the
beginning of the construction of Ratnagiri monastery, Buddhism continued to exist in
many early historical Buddhist sites like Lalitgiri and Langudi.5 There are many new
centres, which came up in this period. One such centre was Aragarh, which yielded some
of the rare Buddhist sculptures of post gth century AD. However, the flat-two storied
temple of Aragarh could be architecturally dated to 6'h century AD.6 Some of the
Buddhist sculptures of Kuruma can be dated to 7th century AD.7 The period also saw the
expansion of Buddhist sites of Lalitgiri and Ratnagiri. While the beginning of Ratnagiri
could be dated to 5th century AD on palaeographic ground, it was only after 5'" century
AD onwards that Ratnagiri began to flourish. The Mahrutt7pa of Ratnagiri began to be
5 T11e excavation of Langudi reveals a stupa, monastery, images of Buddha, red ware of early medieval period, lamps, number of rock-cut images of Buddhist div'nities dated to 8th century-9th century AD and number of brahmi inscriptions and allegedly an image of /\.soka as well. The inscriptions are found before I made the survey of the site in 2001. However, the Yak~ha relief at the site proves the early historical character of the site. 1' According to K. C Panigrahi, stylistically the two-storied temple belongs to 7th century AD (Panigrahi 1981: 397-422). 7 Kuruma is referred to in the in the A£thasahamka-prajl~aparamitd Manuscript NS 135 (AD 1015 AD) and housed in Cambridge University Libra1y (1vfanuscript No, Ace. 1643). The Manuscript refers to Alagatarutara, AJagachchhatra-caitya and Kurum;; stupa of Odradesa. Foucher mentioned this first in his book on Buddhist iconography. (Foucher 1900).
52
constructed around 6-7'h century AD. On the other hand Monastery II and IV of Lalitgiri
came up in the same period (L4R 1988-89: 65-68; 1989-90: 89-90; 90-91: 54-55; 1991-
92:84-86). Buddha's descent from the heaven; the image of Mahavairocana with his
mantras on the backslab can also be to dated to 5'h-6th century AD. There are many other
Buddhist sites but the precise dating is difficult as no stratigraphies of those sites exists,
nor are they subject to systematic spadework. However, the frieze of the gateway of a
stupa, as found from Badagarh and preserved in the Orissa State Museum (OSM)
indicates that a stupa complex existed at Bhubaneswar. This excludes the possible Asokan
stupa, which might be atop the Dhauli hill.H On the other hand many Buddhist rock-cut
sites of Vishakhapatnam and Srikakulam districts declined.
In the sphere of brahmanical religions, Saivism and V aisnavism began to spread
to Orissa. The Asanpat inscription of Satrubhanja and the image of Siva relief above the
said inscription clearly indicate the presence of Saivism in central Orissa around 5'h
century AD (Das 1965: 1-8). The Panduvamsi inscriptions refer to the presence of
Saivism in Senkapat and Sirpur. The Lodhia plate refers to the donation of land to Lord
Isanesvara by the Panduvamsi king Mahasivagupta. The donated village Vidyapadraka is
identified with the village Baidapalli in Baragarh region of the Samabalpur (Pandeya
1947-48:319-325) In northern Orissa there is hardly any evidence of early Saivism. It
could be as late as 6-7'h century AD. The evidence from Gohirasahi in Soro shows that
Saivism reached Northern and northeastern Orissa in 6tl' century AD (De 1953: 271-73).
Evidence from Khiching and other places show that Saivism is a late arrival here
and began to penetrate substantially in post-8'h century AD. On the other hand,
Dhenkanal district preserves some early Saiva monuments. The Kanakesvara and
Bhringesvara temples belong to 8'h century AD (Donaldson 1985 I: 19).
Meanwhile Saivism was emerging as the most dominant cult in and around
Bhubaneswar region. KC Panigrahi suggests 4'h century AD as the tentative date of the
conversion of Asokan pillar into Bhaskaresvara lingan;. The Shatrughneswar of
Bhubaneswar can be dated to 6'h century AD. Saivism spread to Jajpur region slightly
later.
On the other hand, Sa1vism emerged in the South quite early. The Gangas of
Svetaka were ardent Saivites. Archaeological evidence: also indicates the presence of
Saivism in 5'h -6'h century AD in Srikakulam and Vishakhapatnam regions, which were the
core regions of ancient Kalinga. Willie the Siva Gokarnesvara of the Mahendra mountain
R Buddhist stupa which was atop the Dhau!i hill continued to exist as late as 19'il century A.D (1876-77) ASIAR X.XI; 95-98.
53
emerged as an important deity under the Gangas later in the 6'h-7'h centuries AD,
Madhukesvara, Nilesvara, Kurmanatha, Pottisvara, temples at Jayati in Gajapatinagar
taluka and N rsimha temples formed the nucleus of temples in Kalinga region in 8'"
century AD. 9 There are some Buddhist cave sites of Vishakhapatnam and Srikakulam
districts, which declined in this period. 10 But Buddhism continued in K.ali~ga in later
period, which is known from many Marici images, which are stylistically dated to 9-11 th
centuries AD from the Madhukesvara Visnu remple complex .. As regard to Saivism, the
Pottisvara temple, located in the Someput talk of Srikakulam district and the temple at
Jayati are early Saiva temples. The Kanas Plate of Lokavigraha refers to a grant to a deity,
M . 11 arunagesvara.
3.}.2.a Vaisnavism.
The inscriptions of the Gangas of Svetaka refer to the donation of villages to Vaisnava
temples, which have been located in the Chicacole region of Srikakulam district. The
Varaha-Nrsimha temple of Simachalam in Srikakulam district preserves Visnu in1age
dated to late 6'h century-early 7'h century AD. In Kangoda region, Bankada, which is
identified with the capital of the Sailodbhavas has yielded an early fort, preserves early
trace of Vaisnavism. The Bankada image of Visnu, which is now in the Orissa State
Museum, is iconographically dated to 7'h century AD. Nuapatna on the Praci valley has
also yielded a Visnu i.tnage, which is now Laksmi-Nrsimha temple, which was
constructed in 13'" century AD. The school compound at Dolasahi in Tiliidi block (near
Kumaresvara temple Guamala) preserv~an early Adimurti image, which can be dated to
7'h century AD.
The earliest epigraphic evidence of the Vai~nava presence in Orissa is the two
Nala grants, namely the Podagarh grant of Skandavarman Oater part of S'h century) and
Rajim plates, which refer to the cons1:1uction of temples of Hari. Podagarh is located in
Koraput district. 12 From Koraput district we also get some of the early sculptural
specimen of Visnu. The Kesaribeda Visnu image is iconographically dated to early 6'h
'J The Madras Museum grant of Vajrahasta III, dated to Saka year 98-t AD, while registenng a separate gift of the J;rama Tamaceruvu refers to Lord KoteS\·ara (EI IX: 94). The Gallavalli grant of i\fanjendravarman of 1 0'" century refers to god Kaunduka Gundesvara (Rao 1991). 10 Rock-cut Buddhist sites of Vishakhapatnam ~nd Srikakulam districts like Salihundam (Srikakulam district), Ramatirtham, Sankaram, Kotturu and Thotalakonda. Sankaram, Ramatirtham among others declined while sites like 1l10talakonda continued to exist (Sastry 1992). For Sankaram (ASL\R XXVII: 46). 11 Epigraphists have different opinion regarding the regarding the deity, while Rajaguru reads it as Maninagesvara and does not fmd any alphabet
1which refeuto ambika. On the other han~Kulke and others
read it as ambika tfarunagesvan and argues it as evidence of appropriation and integration of tribal deities. They cite the present temple of Maninagcsvari in Ranpur as evidence o\- the continuity of the worship of the goddess (Rajaguru 1953: 31-46). 12 The Podagarh stone inscription of Skandavarman records the setting up of a sanctuary (pada-mula) of Visnu (Krishnamacharlu 1931-32: 153-57)
54
century AD (Donaldson 2001 b: 15). Jajpur, famous as Virf!Jd Ks_etra also yields some of
the early specimens of Visnu. The Siddhesvara temple, on the outskirt of the Jajpur town
and the Trilocanesvara temple preserve some early images of Visnu. Slightly later is the
Visnu image, found from the Ramesvara temple of Jajpur town. One early trend, which
1s seen in the Bhubaneswar Group of Saiva temples, was the presence of Hari-Hara
rmages from quite an early date. In fact, the Lingaraja, the presiding deity of
Bhubaneswar is considered to be a Hari-Hara Ksetra. The early group of temples of
Bhubaneswar - the Swarnajaleswar and the Parsurameswar preserve two early images of
Hari-Hara. So there was an attempt to superin1pose Vaisnavism in a classical Saiva K{etra
from the very beginning. The Parsurameswar also preserves an image of Varaha-Visnu.
Madhupurgarh Visnu image in Badacana block of Jajpur district (in undivided Cuttack
district) is also dated to late 7'h century AD.
It is to be noted that the Gaja-Laksmi as a decorative motif on the door lintel
emerged quite early in all religions and sects. While such a motif is flrst found in the
Parsurameswar temple in 7'h century AD, it is also found in the door-lintel of the
Monastery I of Ratnagiri and Udayagiri, both of which can stylistically be dated to 8'h and
9'h century respectively.
Saktism spread little late here. Viraja in the Jajpur town was an old deity, who has
been referred to in the Mahabharata. But the expansion of goddess cult in Orissa took
place only in the next phase i.e. between 7'h to 9'h centuries AD onwards. 13
3.3.3.Conclusion:
The above discussion indicates that Buddhism was concentrated in the Daya valley, in
Bhubaneswar, most probably in the Chitrotpala valley but most notably in the Birupa,
Kimiria valleys. Buddhist presence in other parts could be slightly later, most likely in 8'h
century, particularly in Mayurbhanj and the Praci vall.ey. The sculptural evidence suggests
a slightly later date for the sculptures of the Praci valley and Mayurbhanj district, but to
reach such a conclusion requires more study. The same can be said of Jainism as well. I
will prefer an early date for Buddhism in Brahmani valleys in Jajpur district.
But the perusals of the sculptural and epigraphic evidence are suggestive of things to
come.
Buddhism began to b~ concentrated in the Kimiria-Birupz. ar1d Brahmani valleys
m Jajpur and Cuttack districts. However, there was also a substantial presence of
Buddhism in the Daya valley as well. Bhubaneswar was beginning to emerge as a Saiva
11 In the Brahma Pura11a (40. 6.8) eight holy sites within Viraj:i k[ .etra are enumerated. They are Kapila, Gograha, Somatirtha, "\labutritha, i\Iryutunjaya, Kwdatirtha, Vasuka and Siddhesvara. (Brabma Purana: n~. .
55
K[etra as well but the sculptural evidence also suggests simultaneous presence of other
brahmanical religions, Buddhism and Jainism.
However, there were two notable developments in Bhubaneswar: flrst, from the
very beginning we have evidence of Vaisnava presence in Saiva temples in Bhubaneswar;
there was an attempt to bring in Hari into Saiva complex. This attempt at syncretism/ or
incorporation of Vaisnavism element reached its climax in the Ganga period when the
pilgrims were exhorted to visit Ananta-Vasudeva first before they pay their obeisance to
Lingaraja. In the Ganga period there was thus a deliberate attempt to superimpose
Vaisnava element in Saiva place, as known from the tradition behind the change of the
qyu,dha of the Lingaraja temple from earlier trident to half-disc-half trident by
Anangabhirna Chodagangadeva. This syncretism or superimposition started ill
Bhubaneswar form the very beginning, as known from Hari-Hara images from early
group of Saiva temples of Bhubaneswar.
On the other hand, Buddhism had presence in close proximity to Saiva temples.
There was mutual borrowing from each other. While Lakulisa resembles more like the
Buddha in dharmacakraprawt1ana mudra as in the Parsurameswar and in other early Saiva
temples, there was also attempt by Buddhism to develop parallelism as in case of
Halahala Lokesvara (as in the Meghesvara temple sculpture, who looks more like Uma
Mahesvara.) The sculpture is, however, of slightly later date. In Praci valley, which was to
emerge as a major religious cluster in the next period, we have hardly any evidence,
which point out to the presence of any religions between 5th-7th centuries AD.
3.4 7th-9th centuries AD
The period was marked by four new elements in the religious landscape of Orissa This
period saw the expansion of all religions. Buddhism experimented with new themes.
Buddhism innovated new deities, introduced elaborate rituals for them, erected stupa
ma'!qa!a, etc. The period marked the emergence of major clusters around which religious
shrines \Vere located. Third, there were evidence of the growth of many autochthonous
cults like Maninagesvari and Stambhesvari. Fourth the period saw a marked increase in
tl1e growth of Sakta sites. A perusal of the sites would point out these developments.
56
Table 3. 2: Shrines and Images between 7'h -9'h centun'es AD
Sites Location ~istrict Date of the Present Important sculptures Religious sculptures of
structure the period Anantesvara "-'en dura Cuttack 08th '" 11th \Saiva (08'h ::,aiva , temple 14 Bhagavanpur entury entury) of sculptures, Sah
(Badacana panmyatana type shrine
rlock) !Bada J agannatha !Baripada i1'1ayurbhanj P8'" jVai~nava (17th fl\dimurti 1;
temple)
IBelkhandi IKesinga, f<alahandi P8'"-09th ~aiva (8th IBelkhandi entury)
IBhringesvara IBajrakote, 32 [Dhenkanal KJ7th-8th ~aiva (Satva fKartikkeya, temple16 jKmfrom 1'-entury temple of 7th Hari-Hara,
~alcher town entury) Four-armed jMahi?ainardini
!Brick temple of Maraguda valley (alahandi 08th frakta (modern jivfahi~amardini,
Mahala Trisula17 tr;mple) f\lisnu 5aksinacandi IBhubaneswar Khurda P8'" ~akta '" century) l£ight-armed lremple Mahisamardi.ni i(5aksineswar IBhanjanagar, l13hanjanagar, Ganjam psth_09th jSaiva (7th Saiva and Siiktt temple !Badagaon century2 mages !Dharapagarh 15 km south- BolangJr 08th-09th Dastami sagar, !Durg~
east of Sa1antala 10usmg 1umerous temples, two-armed Durga 9 p8th century)
!Dolasahi !Bhadrak PS-09th ----- -\dimuru
!Durga temple, IBanki Cuttack p8t" 'Jakta (OSth Vamana IBaidesvara c~nturv)
Gramesvara ~erundia, 4 IPuri 08th_9th Saiva (OSth) niles on the
INimapara- Gop IHamsesvara ajpur town, aJpur p8'h f)aiva (now jGmuJ!da temple18 Champa ruined but the
~undai nscription of ~haumakara refers to Cimunda ., mage)
jKalikadevi IBhubaneswar ~hurd a p8th fc;akta (modern) ;Eight-armed
1 ~ Lendura Bhagavanpur is on the southern bank of river Chitrotpala in Salepur block of Cuttack district. It is opposite the Kalamai temple at Kahmisn. At present the Si:ikta shrine \vithi.n the Anantesvara Siva temple complex has completely collapsed and the detached images are kept haphazardly. Important images, which could be iconographically dated to 8th century are: Camunda image, a Mahisamardini Durga, Ganesa, Kartikkeya, Siva Gangadharamurti, Bhiksatanamurti, etc. (survey). 1; Many old images, which are collected from different places, are affixed in the temple complex, which also include unages of Tirthimkaras. 11' Bhringesvara temple is one of the earliest speci!'1en of Kal..U~ga style temple and could be dated on architectural ground to 7'h century AD • 17 ~[ahala mound is one of the three important mounds of the Maraguda valley, the other two being the Trisula mound and the Rani Mahala m;mnd. Maraguda valley was one of the important religious clusters from 6th century .-\D onwards. One Sakta monastic complex was discovered from the Trisula mound in 1982. Among various brick temples, one houses an image of !vfahisamardini Durga in the sanctum. An inscription on the pedestal reads, Mahes~ar/Bhabeidam (from this grows Mahesvari) (Panda 1988:~). JN The Hamsesvara temple inscription of Mahadevi, probably a \Vife of Subhakara 1/ecords the ouilding by the queen of a temple of god Bhava (Siva) under the name l'vfadhavesvara. The record also refers to a pond and !>"alta (marker place) (Sircar 1950: 180-83)
S7
~amunda
lkhajuresvara Siva :::,heragarh, IBalasore 08th ~aiva-Sakta (the !Mahisamardini
temple Nilagiri block !Khajuresvara !Durga, ~iva temple ~Tai~navi,
ollapsed long ago; the present temple is a ecent one but
the temple omplex
preserves pakhara temple of 8th entury
lk:illakesvara Siva Kualo, Parjanga !Dhenkanal district 08th_Q9th ~aiva (7th
temple entury)
iKapilesvara ;Ersama Jagatsinghpur 08th paiva (date IPu1usottama, ould not be ~aiva. sculptures
ascertained)
Kapotesvara INathuabara ajpur district 08'"-09'" ~iva-Sakta (buil IDurg·a
temple and rebuilt again and again ))' sculptural friezes points out a date around 9th
enturyl
!Madhava Mudgala Niali Cuttack 08-09th !Vai~nava (13th -\dimurti <zntu_ry tem_ple) /
Madhukesvara Mukhalingam, ~rikakulam Q8th_Q9th fSaiva (7'" ,Sakta shrine temple on the left of century)
Vamsadhara /
Mahadeva temple Chasapada Cuttack Sadr 08th_Q9th ~aiva (08th s akta shrines
l<=fll tu_!Yl Mallikesvara Rayagada, Rayagada 08t"-09'" Saiva (08th ~ akta shrines temple 19 lpadmapur !c~ntu1y AD) Manikesvara ~uklesvara, Cuttack p8th Siva (7th century ~;;kta shrines211
temple, including ~alepur- -\D) the Bhagavati <:.uanpal temple within the section om pound
IMarkandeyesvara Bhubaneswar <Jmrda ~8th f:>aiva (08th Hara-Hari entury)
!Mohanagiri Ram pur Kalahandi 08th century ~aiva (08th Madan_IJ_ur 1'-entury)
!Mohini temple Bhubaneswar Khurda 08th ~akta (8th '(;tikta shrines entury)
1 ~ Mallikesvara temple complex has two other temples within its compound. 1l1ey are Ramesvara Siva temple and Biranci-Narayana temple. Sculptures found from the place include image of Lakulisa, Ardhanarisvara, j\jaikapa .. da, Yogadaksinamurti.
1 20 Throughout the late 8th century there are many Saiva temples, which were of Pancqy,atana class with subsidiary shrines on four corners of the compound. At Bhringesvara temple, a trace of the foundations of these corner subsidiary shrines remains visible. Included in this class are Mahadeva temple at Chasapada in Cuttack Sadr, the Kanakesvara Siva temple at Kualo in Kamakhyanagar, the Daksinesvara temple at Badagaon, the ;'vfadhukesvara temple at Srikakulam, the Patalesvara temple at Paikapada, the Mallikesvara temple at Padmapur, the Manikesvara temple at Suklesvara in Cuttack district, the Kapotesvara temple at Nathuabara. , numerous denuded compounds of Jajpur including Siddhesvara and Trilocanesvara, Anantesvara temple at Lendura Bhagavanpur in Salepur division, Simhanatha temple near Baidesvara in Banki block, Siva temple at Bankada in Puri district and Yamesvara temple (slightly later) and Kundesvara Siva temple at Kundesvara inJagatsinghpur division of undivided Cuttack distnct.
58
!Paschimesvara ~hasapada, Phenkanal 08th ;:,aiva (Q8th) !Buddhist, Siva
temple phenkanalSadr fNataraj ~vision
Paschimesvara [Amangeikuda Cuttack 08th ::,aiva (8th Ganesa, Hara-
temple !Athagarh, entury) IParvati, Siva
IKandarpur ~ancing on !Nandi.
!Patalesvara jRayagada, jRayagada p8th_09 th ~iva (08th ~akta shrines
temple IPaikapada enturv)
~amesvara temple IJajpur town aJpur p7th-08th ~aiva 0ater V\dimurti I tperiod but built Hrisikesa
pn an earlier foundation
~atnagiri aJpur ajpur jo8th !Buddhist (5th !Buddhist, Gaja-century) .uaksmi motifs
jsiddhesvara Cuttack, Naraja Cuttack ~)8th ;:>aiva 0ater !Buddhist, $aiva temple temples) sculptures and
L IPurusottama
~ikharacandi Patia, near IKhurda p8th ~akta( 08th !Mahisamardini temple IBhubaneswar entu_trl ~imhanatha jBaidesvara, Cuttack p8th ~iva (0 7th ~akta and Saiva temple South bank of entury AD) ·mages22
Mahanadi in jBanki
~isiresvara II3hubaneswar <..hurd a joSth ~aiva (08th Visnu, Hari-entury) iHara, Gaja-
jLaksmi motif j!J_11 door lin tel
T rilocanesvara Kalimisri, Mudupur, A.laka valley p8th_09th ~iva temple Mahisamardini ~iva temple, ivfudupur on 1J agatsinghpur (08th century) ncluding the Chitrotpala
jKalamai temple23 /valier Cuttack Siva temple !Ersama, On the bank of Alaka, jo8th_09th ~aiva (rebuilt in ~ akta shrine
Kundesvara J agatsinghpur the last century ton the foundation of an earlier one)
jsiva temple Bankada on iPuri Q8th_09th ::,aiva (8th 1·fahesvari, (T rilocanesvara) the Salima, in entury) ;:,imhavahini
Ban pur ;Durga, '
Camunda Sakta shrine. Visnu
/ 21 \'V'hile at present there is no Saiva temple, which can be dated to 7-8th century, sculptural evidence clearly suggests an early presence of S~ivism in Jajpur. I found numerous S~iva sculpture both within the Viraja temple complex as well as in its vicinity, in the inside niches of a tank called Brahmakunda. In the Viraja temple one finds Siva Gangadharamurti, Ardhanarisvara, Camunda, Ekapada Bhairava, Hara-Parvati, Lakulisa, Mahisamardini Durgi Near Atharnala at Titulamala, One ftnds Ekapada Bhairava, ,-\rdhanarisvra. One finds images of Lakulisa, Gane~a, Ardhanarisvara at Brahmakunda. ,-\t the _-\kulesvara temple I found an i.tnage of Parvati \Vith Godhra as vahana. In the ,-\khandalesvara temple one finds images of Jaina ti1thankara, Bhairava, Surya, seated image of Parvati. These images can be iconographically dated to 7th_gth century AD. The Virqja ks.hetra Mahatmya which was written in 15th -16th century AD, refer to numerous Saiva sites which pilgrim should visit. They include Asthasambhu-Bha.;,ra''a (17th chapter), Belesvara ( 22nd chapter, Akhandalesvara (23'd chapter) Brahmesvara (25th and 26th chapter) (Birajah-kshetramahaf!J!)'O 2001). For other works on Viraja kshetra, see Padhee 2001; Rajaguru 1980; Panda 1985. 22 Kittoe during his travel through Orissa I}! made a copy of the beautiful Khakhar"a Durga temple of !Baidesvara, which was within the Simhanatha Compound (Kittoe 1838-39). Numerous detached sculptures, includi.t1g four Visnu images, images of various forms of Siva, including ,-\ndhakasura, Ekapada Bhairava, image of Ganesa, Nataraj are lying scattered in the temple precinct. All of them are iconographically dated to 7-Sth century AD. Also see (Mitra 1960: 21). 2·1 The Kalamai temple, which is within the adjacent rebuilt temple of Trilocanesvara Mahadeva temple. Strewn within the compound are images and architectural ruins, dating from 8th to 12th centuries.
59
shrine, Visnu
!image
~omesvara and Ranipur-Jharial !Bolangir ~8'h-09th ~aiva (08'11
jLiyahari-mandir entury AD)
temple I
tfalesvara :Shubaneswar jKhurda ~8<11 )Saiva (08th) f:>aivite sculptures as ~pvarana deity, G~a-Laksmi
tT rilocanesvara ajpur town ajpur district ~8'h-Q9<h ;:,aiva (temple Camunda
~iva temple 1ear Viraja built in 13'11
entul")' but ould be of arlier tim~
ru ttaresvara !Bhubaneswar !Khurda ~7th 8th ~aiva (Saiva IPurusottama
emple temple of the ~nd other same period ~aivite
scu_J£_tures
iVai tala !Blmbaneswar [Klmrda p8•h ~akti Camunda,
,- l\r araha
IYiraja ajpur town )ajpur ps•~> ~akta (5'11 anardana, 1Hari
entury ,-\D; f5'akta and Saiva jbut the present sculpture temple is built
~ 5'11 centu__l:J'} [Y amesvara temple !Bhubaneswar IBlmbaneswar ~8<h_Q9<h )Saiva (13'11 f5' akta sculptures
centul")') of 9<h century -\D
This period is marked by three important developments. First in the sphere of
Buddhism, we have the evidence of stupa and sculptural mm;ufalas (Dealt in Section II).
Second, we have the evidence of expansion of Saktism and Saivism in all parts of Orissa.
As pointed out in ff 20, one finds numerous examples of S!ikta temple within 8'h century I
Saiva complex. In the sphere of Buddhism the evidence suggests continuation of
establishments of Chittotpala-Bitupa and Kimiria valleys, as well as the emergence of
new sites like Vajragiri, Kolanagiti and Kalyanpur in the same belt. But the large presence
of Buddhism in the Alaka-Lower Mahanadi valley in present-day J agatsinghpur district
and in Praci valley was a significant development of the period. Similarly Buddhism
began to find foothold across Vaitarani in J ajpur and Balas ore region, where
establishments like Solampur and Ajodhya came up during this period.
In the sphere of brahmanical religions, most notable development is the spread ' I
of Sakta cults and presence of pmuqyatana temple within the Saiva complex. Further Gaja-
Lak~mi motif is found in religious shrines of all religions. Various scholars believe that
6()
') . .. ....,..,.. ....... <'
/ BIHAR ;. "'·"'·"'- WEST ~ BENGAL
'"'\ CHHATISGARH
• Slrpur
.Raj1Tn
• Samba! pur
•Ganiapal•
.Sa:whata • Sonepur
• Baidyanath
/r.'l... . ..rvv- ·~ .~ J . 5 '"}
Asanapat • Khiching
•Bajrakol
Tatdler •
Tamul•
Banchua •
Kapilas hill • Kisenpur
Kishorpur •
Pedagad":.
Shergarh6
Avana·•
Bhadrak •
Banesw~nasi • • Vatesvara
KalltiJO e e Banki e Cuttack
Satbhaya
•
(r"'l \.., .
Jalesvara
BHU8A~JESWAR "tr, Jhanl-;~ , •
Alii • • GolobaJ J" Paradip • ASurgarh
• Ka}'i'na • Die • 2.eya1iabah . Tangi • • Bhu$andapur .J
• Buo.Jda ~ • Ko'"'"' - . .~ Pxmpur
N.uayani• ~
Bri.t,manacha• ro · BAY OF BEt~ GAL
lara·Tanv·ni • •Palur Mahendragiri •
j·~ •Jeypore ~}'.&\~ C:'$' .rF ·~ !"'"' r-J' ·~~ ~anapuram !.J"·!V'
~ • "P Sangairi • • ('' Nar'ldapur • Mukhaltn.gam
.f' .. ·"1 . ..1 S'r M•lkonag;n .~ ·~~ ~"'1...,:;ANDHRA PRADESH
( 011\ei • ~ i !'w(l.'~'\,~
• Junagarh
• Pappadahandi • Bissamcuttack
• Paikapada
Temple sites of Orissa
MAJOR TEMPLE SITES OF ORISSA
some of the temples of the Praci valley belong to 8'h -9'h century, which Donaldson
'b 13'h 24 ascn es to century.
3.5. 9-12th Centuries
The three centuries between C. 9'h to ctrca 12'h saw a great change in the religious
landscape of the period. The most notable development is the level of increase in the
numbers of sites and sculptures; the second important characteristics is the
preponderance of goddess cult across religions - both in brahmanical Saktism and in
Tara and other goddess worship within Buddhism. Third striking development of the
period is the emergence of gigantic temples and the emergence of Bhubaneswar as
important Saiva Kfelra. The period was a momentous one from the number of new
centres which came up during the period. The following Tables documents the religious
landscape of Orissa district-wise. The administrative block in which the religious sites are
located is carefully verified from 2001 Census.
J.J.J. Undivided Balasore District
In Balasore district the religious sites are concentrated in Bhadrak-Balasore division and
not many sites are found in north Balas ore, particularly in Basta, J aleswal5 and Bhograi
blocks, which were to emerge as important religious centres in the medieval period.
Major concentration is along the basin of river Salandi; the other along the river Son;
many sites of Mayurbhanj district are also located along these river basins. The third
major concentration is along the coast.
But the above list indicates expansion of all religions, and cults, including that of
Jainism in Balasore region. Different forms of Viznu are found in Kaupar Solampur, in
the Khajuresvara temple complex of Sheragarh (De 1953b: 257-258). The following table
presents the number of sculptures of different cults which are found from undivided
Balasore district.
24 Donaldson argues that most of the temples pf the Praci valley belong tO 13'" century with the exception of Purnesvara Siva temple of Bhilideuli (11 '" century), Somesvara temple of Kakatpur, Gramesvara temple of Lataharan and Varahi temple of Caurasi, which can be dated to 10'"-11 '" century. On the other hand, he ascribes the other temples of the Praci valley to 13'" century. On the other hand earlier scholars like Tripathy on stylistic similarity with the Bhubaneswar group of temple ascribe an earlier date for Sobhanesvara temple and Gramesvara temple of Lataharan (Donaldson 1985-87 I: 15; Tripathy 1988). ~:; The fame of Jaleswar pi~/;a was such in 16'" century that Sri Caitanya visited the shrine. In the Jalamava !antra, Jaleswar pit!Ja figures as no. 41 in the list of 50 Sakta pi1Jas. (van Kooij 1972:170).
61
Table J.J:Sculptures from Balasore district (9 -111h)
Sites Location Date of the Present Religious Important ~Sculptures structures Scu~tures
Candi temple, A vana26 Soro, 20 km southeas p9rh_11 rh rSakta (8'h century) !Buddhist tmages
/of Bahanaga tvotive seals terracotta plaques am a tirtbankan mage, Ganesa
Parvati, two ~fahisamardini
m~es
!Ajodhya27 INilagiri p9rh 11 rh Brahm ani cal, !Brahmanical anc Buddhist and J aina !Buddhist
!Badagaon !Bahanaga, Soro P9'h-11 th i3uddhist Vajravarahi, '\stikajaratkuru, ten armed pYfahisamardini
!Qu:g_a
!Badia ~ J09'h-11 rh !Buddhist [Ibree headed De,·i
iJ3alasore IJ3alasore J09'h-11 rh am a a ina
!Balasore town IJ3alasore Fl\f College, ir 9•h-11 rh F:>tupa remams Museum ·'walokita, Maitre\·a,
i\faninagesvara temple tJ3ardhanpur, Balasore 09<h_11 th ~aiva (1 9'h century) F:>aiva and Sakt, Sadr milt on the materia sculptures
of an ear her temple (Camunda, IJ3hairava, a\·aran~
~eity in the form o Ganes a, Durga anc (artikkeya).
/Basta tJ3asta block 09<h_11 th -------------- :\ valokitesvara
IJ3himapur IBalasore Sadr 09•h-11 th ~.-· tlfe!a Camunda, J aina
tJ3iranci-Nan1yana Palia, Tihidi 1 O•h Vaisnan (13tl :\nantasayin \'isnu . century) i'vfah..isamardini,
ll'Jrsimha
IJ3udhar Candi Sajjangarh Nilagiri 1 0' 11 -11 ,;, ~cfkia (18'" century) Camunda, Marict
Charampa Bhadrak J09'"-11 rh atna am a
pakesvari Chan bali block 09'"-11 th ~akta0ater) ~asarpana Orasahi 1'-'okesvara,
i1fahisamardini
~~a !Dhupasila Nilagin block 09'"-11 th ------------ i1Iarici
IDomagandara Domagandara, east 0 p9•h-11 rh ~akta Varah..i, Nritt.
Ajodhya Ganesa, four-armed :\gni, ;\farici
!Lankesvara Siva temple ~1aira block p9th_11 '" :::,aiva (new pidh2 Buddhist and Saiva
21' Students of Belabhumi College accidentally discovered the site while digging the ground for college campus ir1 1981. The discovery brought to light a rich archaeological antiqu..ity of the site. Brahmanical, J ai.na and Buddhist antiqu..ities were discovered, ir1eluding numerous terracotta seals inscribed \vith B'Jddhist dbara'!is BodiJisattvas and J aina im?ges, Ganesa, Parvati, a SaptarriatJka panel, and the Candi temple. The temple bu..ilt of laterite block is a Khakhard temple and 1s devoid of any decoration. It contains an inscnption which could styhstically be dated to 8-th-9'" century (i\fohapatra 1986 II: 103). 27 _-\jodhya is a rich archaeological site, which is left to ruin. The present State archaeologtcal sculptural shed preserves some important sculptures. Uttaresvara temple and ;\faricai temple contain some others. ;\fost important sculptures are Vajra Tara image in Uttaresvara temple, Manjusri ;\farici, Cintamam .-\.valokitesvara 1n the sanctum of Maricai (Khutai) temple, Jairu tirtbcmkara images in the same compound, cakra with images in the axle as found in \' ai~nava sites of Or:ssa, a Radha-Krsna image, Dancing Ganesa, nuns of a laterite temple, mouldings being visible, outer wall of a fortified settlements, etc. These sculptural specimens can be dated between 9<1> to 14'1> centuries •"\0.
62
Gandhibeda temple on a sculptures ollapsed foundatio~
iGohiritika rhamnagar block 09th_tl rh ------- Buddhist (Stupa emains)
Kumaresvara Siva temple Guam ala Bhadrak 99th_11 th ~aiva (11th) Manasa, T rivikrama Balasore
ayarampur Bhograi block p9th_11 th ---------- Buddhist
Kasba ,Kasba, near Bhimapur p9th_tt th ---------- Buddhist Dakini
iMa~slala
~nheibindha ;:;oro block lOth Sakta (recent) iMahisamardini iDurga
~aupar28 !Bonth block p9th 1\Tai~nava (Biranci INrsimha Visnu ~arayana temple o ~aiva, Sakta, Ekajata the last century)
IKhadipada iDhamnagar block p9th_11 th !Buddhist remains ~tupa remams transferred to '\ valokitesvara, Orissa State Mahisamardini Museum and Sakta recent)
Khaira <haira block 09th_11 th ------------- Avalokita, lvajrapani, ~uddha
COinS
ii(hila tesvara <hadipada, Dhamnaga 12th Saiva (old temples Trivikrama Visnu [block, Bhadrak ollapsed) ~ma-Mahesvara
:(.hajuresvara temple Sheragarh, on the Soro-09th_11 th ~aiva-Sakta ~~va, Visnu, J aina omplex29 IN ilagiri road akta, Buddhist
[Kupari30 <haira block 09'11 -11 th IParvati temple !Buddhist Stup~
emains, Tara !Lankesvara Mahadeva Gandhibedha, Khaira 1 Qth_ll th ;:;aiva temple of the l$aiva sculptures
ast century built on an earlie foundation
Mangalpur31 Khaira block 99'h-11 th ------------ Buddhist
Manikchauk Baliapal P9'h-tt th am a am a
Maninagesvara temple Bardhanpur, Balasore P9'h-torh ::,aiva ~aiva, Bhairava padr Camunda,
fKartikkeya, Ganes a f.lnd Durga
!1'-1artasol iBhograi/Basta 09th_11 th ------------- am a
28 While Steitencron dates the Nrsin1ha image of Kaupar to 8<h century, Donaldson prefers to date it to Ia te 91h-early 1Oth century. 2'J The Khajuresvara temple compJex preserves some early Khakhara-style temple, which can be dated to 8th century A.D. \Xlhile the main Saiva temple had collapsed long ago and in it place is a new temple the temple compound preserves some other temples, which are extant. The Durga temple is a Khakhara deula is pancaratha in plan. The chlorite doorframe is decorated with two bands of scrollwork. Gaja-Lak~mi is seated on the door lintel. The detached architrave is chlcritc and consists cf a caitya design housing an image of Hara-Parvati. A horizontal moulding at the base is decorated with the Saptamatrkas and attended by Virabhadra and Ganesa (Mitra 1960: 12-13). 30 John Beams, while he was a Magistrate of Balasore in 1869, discovered at Kupari extensive ruins of a Buddhist monastery, as well a, a great Buddhist temple, which according to his conjecture had enshrined an image of Buddha (Beams 1871). The Neulpur grant of King Subhakara of the Bhaumakara dynasty records the donation of Komparaka grama to brahmanas. which is identified with Kupari (Mishra 1934; 1-7). 31 Mangalpur preserves many 18th century structures, which include the Durga temple built in the 19<h century by the local zamindar, a Gaudiya matha in commemoration of Caitanya's visit to the place, a newly built J agannatha temple.
63
N arendrapur32 On Candbali road 09th_ll th Pattamangala Varahi, Ganesa, Siva temple IS a 1911 ~gam · entury temple
~olampur33 phamnagar block P9th_tt th ~:ikta (Thakuran· !Buddhist, Visnu shed Vaisnava [brahmanical (Raghunatha temple)(recentl_
JJ.J.a. Discussion I
Buddhist sculptures are found from 25 places followed by the Sakta sculptures. There are
not many Visnu sculptures.
However, such a classification for
cult popularity is too oversimplistic.
First, many of the Buddhist
sculptures are now worshipped in
brahmanical temples and their
original provenance not known.
More importantly sculptures of
different cults are worshipped in one
complex. Third as we have argued in
10
Sculptures from Balasore
5
0 Buddhist
25 •Jaina '
~ Sakta I
e::!Saiva I!Vai~nava
7
the Prologue that a rigid classification which simplistically divided divinities up under the
headings, Buddhism, Saivism, and V aisnavism, would be pure nonsense; under different
names, and at different levels, the same gods are the most part common to different
confessions.
More unportant from the standpoint of our discussion is the pattern of
distribution of deities and their concentration in a particular site, if any. It is to be noted
that unlike the Hari-Hara cult of Bhubaneswar, as in the previous period, Balasore does
not yield many images of Hari-Hara cult. On the other hand Visnu images are either
restricted to various forms of sthimkasmurtis as in the case of Adimurti image of
Raghunatha temple of Solampur or Purusottama image of Sheragarh, or Da~avatara set
as in case of the Nrsimha image of Kaupar. The Belesvara temple also preserves a
beautiful Visnu, which can be dated to 12th century AD.
From the standpoint of Saivism1
Narendrapur in the Chat~ali block of the
present Bhadrak district was B1e most important site. Right from the Pattamangala
:;2 Narendrapur can be approached when one takes a left turn while going to Candbali. The village starts with Chatrapada where the temple of Pattamangala is located. The temple is not too old. The deity can be iconographically dated to 13th century AD. At the entrance I found a painted image of Surya wearing heavy boot and a sword hanging, which is stylistically dated to 8th century. :;3 Solampur, which is referred to in the Bhauma grant, preserves rich Buddhist remains as well beautiful images ofVisnu.
!i4
temple at the start of the village, we encountered around ninety-nine Siva /ingams of
myriad size. Further an Nritta Ganesa and and image of mother goddess Varahi,
stylistically similarly to the SaptamatT;ka image of Jajpur are found. A nabagraba panel on
the door lintel with an inscription of 12'" century character is also found during the
survey. From the huge amount of Siva lingains, Narendrapur can safely be regarded as an
important Saiva centre.
The Khajuresvara temple complex has a number of temples stylistically belonging
to 9'h century AD. But the main Khajuresvara Siva temple had collapsed long ago, and
the present temple is a pidba temple reconstructed recently. Similarly the original
Maninagesvara temple of Bardhanpur in Balasore Sadr had collapsed and in its place is a
rekba style temple of 18'" century AD.
Three main concentrations of Buddhism are Solampur in Dhamnagar block,
Ajodhya in Nilagiri block, and Jayarampur in Bonth block, and Avana in Bahanaga block
and Kupari in Khaira block.
Solampur preserves a vast array of Buddhist and brahmanical sculptures in the
Thakurani shed and on the exterior of the Raghunatha temple. Fieldwork reveals debris
of habitation settlement. The Neulpur grant of Subhakaradeva of Bhaumakara dynasty
refers to donation of the village to two hundred brahmanas but curiously it preserves
many Buddhist sculptures (Mishra 1934).
Ajodhya was another important early medieval Buddhist site that has been left to
ruin. The Maricai temple preserves beautiful inuges of Marici, Manjusri and Lokesvara
dated to 1 fh -12'h century. The Uttaresvara temple preserves a beautiful rare image of
Vajra Tara. But Ajodhya was an important religious centre with a number of sculptures
scattered here and there. Survey reveals the moulding of a mined laterite temple as also a
rampart. It also brought to light beautiful image of Ganesa, Tara, a Radha-Kr.~s ~na inuge
of a slightly later period, Jaina Tirtharikara images and other remains that testify its poly
religious background.
Kupari in Khaira block, at the time of John Beams in the middle of the 19'h
century, had remains of a ruined Buddhist establishment but now we got nothing except
an image of Sinihavahini Durga.
However what is important from the standpoint of our discussion is the p•esence
of important sites where images of different cults are concentrated. I have identified the
following sites, which were important to understand the religious dynamics of the period
and provide clue about the way religious equation in a poly religious context to be
understood.
65
J..J.J.b. Ajodhya, Sheragarh, Avana, Solampur:
Ajodhya:
Ajodhya is located in the Nilagiri block of Balasore district (86 11 45'10. 7"E; 21° 33' 29".).
The village is modelled on Ajodhya of north India and is surrounded by the Garghara on
the east, Sona on the north and Sindhu on the south. Ajodhya is rich in archaeological
heritage. While earlier scholars have focused on more famous Buddhist images of the
place, exploration have brought to fore many more artefacts and images, which indicate
the religious dynamism of the settlement.
Apart from Buddha, Cintamani Lokesvara and Marici and Manjusri images in the
Maricai temples, and some of the Tirthankara images of in the Siva temple in the Marici
temple complex, exploration have brought to fore images of Tara, Vajra Tara in
Uttaresvara temples, image of Uma-Mahesvara, Uma-Mahesvara with a child on Parvati's
lap, Image of Visnu with kneeling Garuda, cakras, miniature temples, six-armed
Mahisamardini, Sarasvati, Ganesa, etc. The Maricai temple was built not long back on the
ruins of an earlier temple. The mound of a ruined temple is encountered in the village
whose laterite mouldings were partially visible.
Sheragarh:
Sheragarh in Soro block contains images of all cults and religions. While Jaina ti11bankara.r
are found here, tl1e Khajuresvara temple complex and the surrounding area preserves
beautiful images of Mahisamardini Durga, Ganesa, Vaisnavi in Durga temple and an
images of Purusottama in a small shed. The Khajuresvara temple complex preserves
Khakhara style temple and a rekha style temple belonging 9'h century AD. Made of laterite
block, Khajuresvara temple complex was one of the most imposing temple complexes of
Balasore in that period. Further, on the exterior wall of S. Senapati's house is affixed an
image of Buddhist A~~amahabhaya Tara, which is iconographically dated to 10'h century
AD.
Avana
Located 1n the Soro block, A vana was excavated by students of a local college.
Brahmanical, Jaina and Buddhist sculptures were found in 1981, including numerous
terracotta seals inscribed with Buddhist dhara'!is, Bodhisattva and Jaina images, Ganesa,
Parvati, two Mahisamardini images, a sapta matrka panel and the Candi temple. The
Candi temple, made of laterite block is built in Khakhara style and contains an inscription,
which can be palaeographically dated to 1 O'h century AD. The presiding deity is a three
headed, eight-armed emaciated Camunda.
66
Solampur:
Solampur is located just opposite of the Jajpur on the other side of river Vaitarani. Many
of the sculptures found their way to different museums in India and outside. Still there
are around 40 sculptures found in the Thakurani shed and Raghunatha temple complex
of the village, which include some rare Buddhist images, like the eight miracles of
Buddha on the exterior wall of the Raghunatha temple. While the Buddhist site of
Khadipada is located to its northwest, the Varaha temple of Jajpur is just three km from
Solampur. The Varaha temple preserves a 1 O'" century image of Varaha as also an image
ofDhanada Tara. Similarly Khadipada also yielded beautiful images of Durga.
From the above discussion it is clear that the religious landscape of Balasore
between 9'h to 12'h centuries AD reveals a great expansion of all cults. It is to be noted
that as one moves northwestward from Jajpur one witnesses the preponderance of the
goddess cult in northwest Balasore and Mayurbhanj. There were many centres where
different cults coexisted viz. Bhimapur, Bardhanpur-Kasba belt in Balasore Sadr region,
Sheragarh, Kaupar, Ajodhya, and Solampur- Khadipada.
How does one conceptualise the relations between different religions? Saivism
Saktism are clearly allied as known from the numerous temple complexes of
Bhubaneswar (Sisiresvara and Kapalini). What is about other cults? There was no attempt
to develop syncretic Hari-Hara cult as in Bhubaneswar or in western Orissa (as in case of
Siddhesvara Siva temple at Gandharadi or Nilamadhava Visnu or in Sonepur). Nor do
we have any example of parallelism in Buddhism as we find them in Bhubaneswar and
Jajpur (as in case of Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara who looks like Siva in Dharmasala area
or in case of Halahala Lokesvara, who resembles Uma-Mahesvara as in the Achutarajpur
hoard and stone image in the Meghesvara temple.
3..5.2. Mayurbhanj District (9th-ll'h century34
The following table represents the provenance of sculptures in Mayurbhanj district.
Sculptures
Table 3. 4:Sculptures from Mayurbhanj distn'ct (9 -ll'h)
Sites Location Date of Religious structure Important sct~lptures he !of the period
sculptures
IBada Jagannath IBaripada kJSth_Q9<h [Vai~nava (18th century) '\dimurti
IBaidyanatha ~fanatari 12th !Saiva (1St-16th century) IDamodara, J aina
IBeguniavandha IN ear Khiching kJ9th_11th -------------- am a
IBhimakand IBhimakand 9<h_1 Qth ---------------- Anantasayin Visnu
.H N. N Vasu has documented the old temples and sculptures in his excellent book. For other sites I have primarily relied on i\fohapatra's Archaeology ofOnssa (V asu 1911; Mohapatra 1986).
67
L,
!Bhimesvari IBhimasri near Q9th_11 th
IIJedagadi ,Kaptipada
~akta temple (1 Q<h-11 <h) ~ikta and Saiva sculp_tures
Devagrama !Manatari, 3 miles from Q9<h f:>aiva (ruined temple of ~a1cta temple, sculptures 11th)
tamunda Khiching 09<h_11 rh ------------ ~tupa remains
aganntaha Kaptipada p9rh_11 rh IVai~nava (recent) !Buddha
emple _L /
fKicakesvari :r<Juching 1Qth j:=>aiva-Sakta 1t'h-12'b century) !Kicakpvari (Camunda);
emple and other two Siva temples,
temples in its ~anardana, Vaisnavi,
surrounding Daina, Buddhist, p\ksobhya mandala,
/ Manjusri, Tara,
Candi temple fKishorpur, Northeast p9th ~akta (ruined Khakhani Camunda
pf Jugal on Rlipsaw- temple of 9<h century)
!Baripada Railway line
IKoisali jBadasahi (near Bada i09'h-11 rh fRuined site lPurusottama, cakra, ~a hi) / IParsvanatha image
~oisarigarh Badasahi block (28 j09th_10th ~akta temple (1 Q<h) (Uma-('ftahesvara, jmiles from Baripada) Manasa, Ekapada
~hairava, ~osangarh !Near Sajjangarh p9rh_1J<h /Marici
~Lokanathevara jseven km from Udala p9rh_11 rh Saiva (recent)
temple ( I
lPasa Candi !Badasahi p9rh_J1 rh j::>akta (Ruined temple 9 1 Q•h Sakta and Saiva, Mario,
temple centut1'2_ ~uddha
Siva temple , Badasahi jQ9rh_J1 th r:>aivaJ.recen_!l '\ valokitesvara, Tara
iRasikaraya temple if1ariharpaur p9rh_J1 rh j\T ais_nava (16'h century
and surrounding jareas
. IUdala !Udala i09'h-11 th ------------------- SamksiE_ta i\farici
3J.2.a. Discussion
In Mayurbhanj district the preponderance of goddess tradition become quite evident
from the distribution of sculptures. If one looks at the distribution of sculptures and sites
one finds that the major concentration is in the Son- Budhabalang basin on the one hand
(particularly in the Bada Sahi block and Khiching in the Bahalda block. It is to be noted
that Bahalda was the main line of communication with the Singhbhum district and
Roman gold coins were found from the place.
Khiching was the capital of the Bhanjas of Khijjingakotta in 1 O'" century, and has
yielded Neolithic potteries and iron implements. Khiching and the surrounding area like
Koisari (Ajaikapaada Bhairava), Itamundi (stupa remains), Maninagesvara temple of
Purangaon Saiva temple of 11'" century), Chaudigarh (Bhairava), Sankhuaraja (Uma
Mahesvara), Kakkatiput and Kutai Qaina tirthcmkarm) preserve sculpture of diverse cults.
These sculptures are mostly dated between 9'" to 11'h century while some of them belong
to 8'h century AD 0 oshi 1983: 86-1 00).
(i8
.J
• Sitabhinji
BRAHMAN! R!VER
Gandibedha •
0Kupari oKhaira
Kunchibindha •
'-·"'/ \.... BENGAL . .............._
o Tihidi <.Juarnala
· .....
Hast a •
BAY OF BENGAL
Chhatrapad~• Dolashai • • Narcndrapur
\ 0amra
ChandbaH • • Orasah· •
IMPORTANT RELIGIOUS SITES IN NORTHEAST ORISSA
3.J.J. Undivided Cuttack Distn"ct
The following table represents different sculptures found in different sites. Date of the
structure, if any, is mentioned in the parentheses in Column 5.
Table J.J:Sculptures.from Undivided Cuttack distn"ct (9 -ll'h)
Sites Location New District Date of the Religious Important sculptures
(Block, sculptures structure of the period
village)
Bairoi ? Cuttack 09'"-11 th Buddhist, A.ppendix 1
Barudi ;> Cuttack 09'"-11 th Buddhist, Appendix 1
Gopalpur ? Cuttack 09'"-11 th Appendix 1
Kumbhesvara J\thagarh, Cuttack 11th Saiva Saiva sculptures I temple Depada; temple(!!'"
Athagarh- century) Khuntuni road
Svapnesvara Banki, Cuttack 09'" Sa iva
I"vfahadeva Ratnagarh, previously known as Saranda
Hatamal Bankil Cuttack Q9th_JJ th ----------- Uaina Baramba
Baramba Baramba Cuttack 09'"-11 th ------------- am a
Simhanatha Baramba Cuttack 09'" .Sal\· a(7' 11) Hara-Hari, Visnu, Sridhara, H:tri-Hara Janardana
Durga temple Baramba Cuttack ()9th Sakta (7'11 ) anardana and other Baidesvara, Sakta sculptures
Champesvara Baramba Cuttack 09'"-1 0'" ISaiva (9'"-1 0'") Siva temple Champesvara,
between Baramba-N arsinghpur
Kapil a Binjharpur Cuttack 09'"-11 th ---------- Buddhist block
Baidesvara Choudwar Cuttack 11th jSaiva (11 '") temple
Chatesvara Siva Choudwar Cuttack 12'"-13'" Saiva; Ganesa, temple Kartikkeya and
Pan·ati
Choudwar Choudwar Cuttack 09'"-11 th ---------- ITaina
Choudwar Choudwar Cuttack 09'"-11 th ----------- Buddhist
Kapalesvara Siva Choudwar Cuttack 11th Saiva(11 '" ]Saiva sculptures temple century)
U ttaresvara Choudwar Cuttack 11th Saiva(11 rh ]Saiva and Buddhist ~~Iahadeva century) sculptures
i\Janinagesvara Choudwar, near Cuttack 12'"-13'" Saiva (12' 11)
temple Charbatia
Cuttack Cuttack Cuttack 09'h-11 th am a
l3hanpur, near Cuttack Sadr Cuttack 09'"-11 th ------------ atna Pratapnagari
Kapilesvara Cuttack Sadr Cuttack 1 0'" Sa1va: pidha ~aiva temple temple temple( 1 0'"-
11 '" century)
Khaira Cuttack Sadr Cuttack 09'h-11 th ----------- !Buddhist
Temple shed Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack 09'"-11 th ---------- Buddhist Charichhak,
Pratapnagari Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack lOth_ll th Vaisnava( Uanardana Cuttack- rec~ntly Bhubaneswar built)temple road shed)
Siddhesvara Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack 09th century Saiva Qater) Visnu, A valokitesvara temple Naraja 99th century) and other
Buddhist sculptures
Dhakulei Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack 09th_ll th Sakta (recent) Eight-armed Camunda Thakurani Pratapnagari on
Cuttack-Bhubaneswar road
Pascimesvara Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack lOth Saiva (1Oth)
temple Khanderpur( Ama~gai island)
akhesvara temple Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack 12th Saiva (13th) Phulnakahara
Cuttack town Cuttack-Niali Cuttack 09th_11 th ----------- Buddhist (brought from road Lalitgiri and Ratnagiri)
Sisua Cuttack Sadr, Cuttack 09th_11 th eight-armed Kantapara Mahisamardini
Jagannatha 1\1adhupurgarh Cuttack 09•h century Vaisnava ( 14- Visnu teffi£Ie Darpani 15th)
Bagalpur Govindpur Cuttack 09th_11 th --------- Tara(11'h), Varaha, Trivikrama_( 12th)
Svapnesvara Govindpur Cuttack 10th Saiva (13th) U aina, ten-armed temple and Adaspur Mahisamardini Buddhist Durga temple sculpture (1Qth), Varaha,
N rsimha( 10-11 rh) "\nanta-Vasudeva Govindpur Cuttack 10-11 th Visnu (11 rh Uanardana
!Anala, cei;tury)
Guptesvara Govindpur Cuttack 10th Saiva ( 11 rh) Saiva sculptures, temple Berhampur via
Chasapada, Mahisamardini Durga
Govindpur B
Narayanesvara Govindpur Cuttack 11th Saiva(11 th) temple Berhampur via
Chasapada< Govinc!E_ur B
.\gikhia matba Govindpur, Cuttack 09•h-11 th --------- Buddhist( Appendix 1) Adaspur, Sohagpur, in the Praci valley
Chatesvara Kendra para- Cuttack 10'" !Saiva, RekM temple Cuttack,- deula(1 Oth)
Kendra para
Kusupur Mahanga block Cuttack 09th_11 th --------- Buddhist ,Appendix 1
Lalitgiri Mahanga block Cuttack 09th_11 th ---------- Buddhist
i\fahanga Mahanga block Cuttack 09th_11 th ------------- Buddhist
Bhagavati Mahanga block Cuttack 09•h-11 th Saiva-Sakta(( ten-armed Ma~sa Suklesvara, 7'h)
i\fanikesvara Mahanga Cuttack 09th century \Saiva (7th) anardana, other forms Suklesvara, of Vi~nu, S~iva
sculptures Baujang Mahanga, Near Cuttack 09th_11 th ---------- Buddhist, Appendix 1
Lali!gi_ri
Kesariapur Mahanga, Near Cuttack 09•h-11 th ---------- Buddhist Lalitgiri
Parabhadi Mahanga, Cuttack 09th_11 th ------------ Buddhist
70
opposite Lali tgiri hill
Champesvara Narsinghpur Cuttack 09'h-11 rh ------------- al!la
Baneswamasi Narsinghpur Cuttack 09<h_ll rh ---------- Buddhist, Appendix 1
block /
Bhattarika Narsinghpur Cuttack 09'h-ll rh Sakta (14'h) Buddhist
block
Bhagavati temple near Salepur Cuttack 11 rh Sakta-Saiva i\fahisamardini
Batesvara, 12<h)
Amanakudagarh Niali Cuttack 09'h-11 rh Saba
Ananta-Vasudeva Niali Cuttack 10-11 rh Vaisnava (13'h) anardana
Angesvara Niali Cuttack lO<h S~iva (13-14'h) anardana
Mahadeva
Sobahanesvara Niali Cuttack 10-11 rh Saiva (12'h) anardana, Varaha
Laksmi-N rsimha Niali Cuttack 1 O'h-11 rh Vai~nava (13'h) anardana \mareasvara
Madhavananda Niali on Praci Cuttack 12th \' ai~nava (12- Dasl'ivatara set
temple ;\fadhava, 13'h)
Svapnesvara ~\daspur Niali Cutrack 10'h Saiva 910<h)
Mahadeva Govindpur
Bhavanakundesva Niali, Cuttack 09th Saiva (1 Oth_J1 rh) Saiva: Parvari, Ganesa
ra temple e ~\mankuda: 3 miles south-west of Niali
Valunkesvara Niali, Cuttack 11th Saiva (11th) Saiva: Parvari, Gan~sa
temple ~\mankuda: 3 miles south-west of Niali
Kapilamuni ::\liali, near Cuttack 09t11 -11th Recent Camunda Asrama ~\daspur
Phirphira Niali, Phirphira Cuttack 09tll_11th --------- Buddhist, Appendl.x 1
Siva temple Niali, Cuttack 09'h-1ltL rsaiva (12th) Ten-armed Camunda, Amaresvara Buddhist
lAngesvara - Pitapara Cuttack 09ti'-11 rh Temple shed, i\fahisamardini Durga,
Mahadeva Charichhak, Saiva temple Janardana Niali 12-13th)
Paramahamsanan Paramahamsa, Cuttack 12th Saiva (11-12th)
atha on the bank of Kathjori
------------------ Banki Patapur, Cuttack 12th Saiva, Ganesa, Kartikkeya, Parvati
Batesvara Siva Salepur Cuttack 09'h-11th Saiva (12th) i\fanasa, and other Saiva temple rekha deula of sculptures
IPancaratba
---------- Salepur Cuttack 09<h_J1th --------- i\fanasa, Camunda Kendupatna
---------- Salepur block, Cuttack 09th_11 rh -------------- Buddhist Kendupatna
------------- Salepur block Cuttack 09th_11 rh ----------- Buddhist Nagaspur
---------- Fakirpatna, Cuttack Q9th_11th ------------ Buddhist N ischintkoili, Salepur block
-------------- Ramesvara Cuttack Q9th_11th Buddhist Salepur block
Padmesvara Salepur, Cuttack 11th Sa!Va(llt 11) Saiva sculptures temple Bahugram,
near, Tentola
Ramesvara Salepur, Cuttack 1 Qth Saiva (1 Qth) ---
71
temple Bhagagvatpur, Ramesvara
Natara Salepur, Cuttack 09•11 -11 th --------- Buddhist, Appendix 1).
Kendupatna
Kalan pur Salepur, Cuttack 09•11 -11 th ----------- Buddhist, Appendix 1
Kendupatna area of Salepur /
Kalagni, Salepur, near; Cuttack 11th Saiva temple; Kalagni, Betei, Pidha style (
11 '")
Visvesvara Salepur, Cuttack 10'" Saiva; Pidha
temple Raghabapur; temple ( 1 0'11)
Sisua
Marici temple Balikuda block agatsinghpur 11th Sakta (recent) Buddhist
Maricipur, with the Buddhist deity ?vfarici in the Sa)lctum
Kuttamcandi Balikuda, agatsinghpur 10'" Si!ikta (ruined Nrsimha, Hara-Parvati,
Deb idol temple) ~fahisamardini,
Camunda
----------- Ersama ITagatsinghpur 09'11 -11 th ------- Buddhist Durgapur /
U ttaresvari Ersama, G agatsinghpur 09'11 -11 th Scikta (recent) 1 0-armedMahisamardini
temple Ebirisingh Durga
------------- Ersama Garam ~ agatsinghpur 09'11 -11 th Sakta (recent ;\fahisamardini, temple shed) Simhavahini Durga
---------- Ersama Jagatsinghpur 09t1'-11 th Buried shrine Saiva: Ajaikapaada Sathalapura Bhairava Vais,navi,
/ ;\fatrka, Ganesa
Kahnduala Ersama agatsinghpur 09'11 -11 th Sakta (rebuilt Buddhist, Sa:kta temple Dihasahi, on an earlier sculptures of the same
f9undation) period
Kapilesvara Siva Ersama Ps, 1
T aga tsinghpur 09•11 Saiva Oater Mahisamardini Durga temple Kopala, temple)
Brahmesvara Ersama, U agatsinghpur 10'" Saiva (date not Saiva, Uma-Mahesvara, temple Dihasahi, near ascertained) ~farici
at Kaupar
Bhagavati temple Garam, Ersama ~ agatsinghpur 09'" Recent but built Hari, l\fahisamardini on an earlier Durga collapsed temple
Denua matha ITagatsinghpur agatsinghpur 09'"-11'" ------- Buddhist
Narayani temple 0 agatsinghpur, IJ agatsinghpur 09'"-11 th ------ Eight-armed Mudupur l\fahisamardi11.i Durga,
"4, valokitesvara
Nasikkotian ~ agatsinghpur IT agatsinghpur 09'"-11 th ------- IT aina, Buddhist I 1 "4, ppendix 1)
T rilocanesvara Jagatsinghpur Uagatsinghpur 9-12th'" Saiva (rebuilt) Camunda, seated Durga, temple Kundesvara, on Dancing Bhairava and
the bank of Camunda, Surya AI aka Kartikkeya, Visnu,
/l.ndhakasura-samhara-muri, Ravananugraha-muri, ,4, valokitesvara
Siddhesvara 11 agatsinghpur, lJ agatsinghpur 09'" Saiva (11 '") ,4,jaikapaada Bhairava
temple on the bank of ;\!aka in ,4,lalnaha t
Dondua matha Kalyanpur U agatsinghpur 09'"-11 th ------------ BuC:dhist (Appendix 1)
72
Paraclipgarh Paradip port ~ agatsinghpur 09'h-11 th --------- Ten-armed
town Mahisamardini Durga, Buddhist and J aina images
Tara pur Tirtol block agatsinghpur 09'"-11 th ----- Marici
Tirtha matha Turanga ~ agatsinghpur 09th Vaisnava N~simha, Hrisikesa and (rec~nt but other forms of Visnu preserves numerous Vaisnava sculptures which can be dated to 8'" to 12'" century)
~-\maravat:i Kataka Badacana ~ajpur 09'"-11'" --------- Buddhist, i\ppendix 1
Benipur Badacana aJpur 09'"-11'" ----------- Buddhist, Appendix 1
Duburi hill Badacana block ajpur 09•h-11th -------- Buddhist
Sakuntalapur Badacana aJpur 09'"-11 th -------- Buddhist, Appendi.x 1
block, near Chat:ia
Pancapandava Badacana ajpur 10th Vai~nava Uanardana, other forms
Ganeswarpur, (continuation of Visnu, Buddha as an from earlier avatar of Visnu )period)
Varaha temple Badacana, ~ajpur 09'"-11'" ----------- Surya, Bhairava, and Varahapur, near Varaha-Laksmi,
Chat:ia Dhanada Tara mandala
Varaha temple )ajpur town ~ajpur 11'" Vai~nava (16'") Varaha-Laksmi
~-1-liabad Bari ajpur 09'"-11'" --------- Buddhist, A.ppendix 1
Khandara chak Dasrath pur ajpur 09'"-11'" ---------- Buddhist
Kuas Mangala Dasrath pur a)pur 09'"-11'" Sakta (recent Ten-armed temple built on Mahisamardim, a collapsed Jambhala s~ructure.)
Pasa Candi Dasrathpur 'Tajpur 09•11 -11'" Sakta Camul}qa, temple block Taranga Mahi~limardini Durga, a
dancing Bhairava, Buddha
,-\sia pat Dharmasala ajpur 09'"-11'" -------- Buddhist, i\ppendix 1
Backslab of Dharmasala ajpur 12th ----------- Kr~!]a, Dasavatara set Visnu-Krsna image now in , OSM
Chanclia Dharmasala Gajpur 09•h-11•" ------ Buddhist
Dharmasala Dharmasala ~ajpur 09'"-11•h ------------ Buddhist
Durgapur Dharmasala ~ajpur 11'" Saiva, Uma-I\1ahesvara
~araka Chak Dharmasala aJpur 09'11 -11 th Buddhist
Bandaresvara Dharmasala ajpur 09'" --------- Buddhist, Appendix 1 Bandaresvara
Deuli hill Dharma sal a ]ajpur 09•h-11'" --------- Buddhist block
Erada Dharmasala Jajpur 09•h-11th --------- Buddhist block
Kauna/ Dharmasala Uajpur 09'"-11'h --------- Buddhist Radhanagar block
Kolanagiri Dharmasala uajpur 09•"-11'" --------- Buddhist block
73
Madhuvana near Dharmasala Oajpur Q9th_11 th Buddhist Oddiso block
Singhpura Dharmasala Uajpur Q9ti'-tt th ---------- Buddhist
block
Vajragiri Dharmasala Uajpur Q9th_tt th ----------- Buddhist
block
Gokamesvara Dharmasala, Uajpur 12th Saiva (12th)
araka
Kapilesvara Dharmasala, Uajpur 11th Saiva (date Visnu
Patapur could not be ascertained)
Odisoandeigoda Dharmasala, ajpur Q9th_tt th Buddhist
Singh pur
Mahakala temple Dharmasala, Uajpur Q9th Saiva (recent) Buddhist Udayagiri, near I Chan eli a,
---------- aguleipitha ajpur Q9th_tt th Yaraha , Manasa
----------- ajpur B., ajpur Q9th_t1 th --------- Taina, Visnu temples and Singh pur Singh pur different forms of Visnu
in the pond.
Dasasvamedhagh ajpur Jajpur 1Qth Sakta Saptamatrka set at
----- Chahata, Uajpur 1 Qth !Sakta (recent) Saptamatrka set Dharmasala
Belesvara IJ ajpur town bajpur 12th Saiva (12th Trivikrama (13th), century) but Ganes a 11th) now ruined
Khilatesvara Jajpur town Uajpur 11th [s'aiva 9 rebuilt Uma- Mahesvara on a collapsed one)
Siddhesvara ~ajpur town ajpur Q9th_11 th Saiva (13th Buddhist temple century but can
be of earlier date)
Trilocanesvara Oajpur town Uajpur Q9th Saiva (13th \'isnu century but could be earlier
Viraja oajpur town aJpur Q9th Sakta (5th) Hari, Hrsikesa , IT anardana (8th) -\rdhanarisvara,
Camunda, Ekapada Bhairava, Kartikkeya, Ganga-Yamuna, Lakulisa, Mahisamardini
Ravana Tapasya Jajpur town l1ajpur tQth Saiva 911 th) kunda Somanathapur
(Trilocanesvara complex)
Haradiha Kantabania llajpur Q9th_11 th ----------- Uaina Dhanurjaya Korai Oajpur 1 Qth Saiva (11th) Saiva sculptures temple includin_g a Parvati image Badacharpoi Mangalpur ajpur Q9th_11 th ------------- Uaina ,-\li Ali block Kendra para Q9th_11 th ------------- Buddhist Appendix 1
Mansi Ma temple Kendra para Kendra para Q9th_t1 th Vai~nava Oater) Buddhist (brought from town Ratnagiri\
Nahahkababu Rajnagar, Kendra para 11th Sakta Mahisamardini Durga temple Bhitarkanika, (Renovated
KJ1akhara style
temple; date could not be
'74
ascertained)
Siva temple Rajnagar, Kendra para 11th Siva (11th)
Bhitarkanika. Raj nagar
~aya-Durga Rajnagar, Kendrapara 1Qth Siikta (recent) N rsimha, 10 armed
Dangamal Mahisamardini Durga, Hara-Hari, Anantasayin Visnu
JJ.3a.Discussion
Three distinguishing features of this period are the emergence of the Praci valley as a
religious cluster, nucleaisation of Buddhist settlements in Kimiria-Birupa-Keluo belt, and /
great expansion of Saiva-Sakta sites. There were hardly any independent Visnu temples
but Visnu worship was gaining momentum. Further, unlike Bhubaneswar where there
was a conscious attempt to develop Hari-Hara cult, there is no such evidence here in
Cuttack. However there is sizable presence of different forms of Visnu, which points out
the . . mcreasmg presence of Visnu
worship in Cuttack district. Buddhism
had strong presence in the area and new '
Buddhist establishments like Chandia,
Duburi, Vajragiri and Kolanagiri came
into being, and the existing ones were 1
expanded. However1
an iconographic I ___ _
Sculptures from Undivided Cuttack District-9-11th century
tO BUDDHIST
'riDJAINA ' , -
!'JSAIVA-SAKTA
iGlVISNU
study of images reveals that most of the Buddhist sculptures belong to 10'h centry-11 '11
century AD, and some to 12'h century, when Buddhism began to decline in Orissa and
Saivism was on the ascendant. This aspect again raises the ques6on of how religions are
to be understood in the early medieval periods.
JJ.3b. Buddhism
One of the most important features of Buddhism was Its great expansiOn in Cuttack
district and the emergence of Chitrotpala-Birupa-Kimiria valley as the principal cluster of
Buddhism. Monastery I and the Mahastupa of Ratnagiri expanded during this period.
Many of the rock-cut sculptures of Langudi also belong to this period. Outer wall of the
Monastery I of Udayagiri also expanded during this period. New Buddhist establishments
like Vajragiri, Kolanagiri, Fakirpatna, Chandia, Gohiritika, among others came into
existence between 8'h -lO'h centuries. More importantly Buddhism began to experiment
with new themes and introduced new rituals. One innovation is the concept of stupa
ma~1ala, sculpture of ma~11ala (described later).
Another important feature of the period was the introduction of many Buddhist
deities, who act as the Buddhist counterparts of the brahmanical deities. Durga as
75
savwuress in distress was taken up in Buddhism by introducing Astamahabhaya Tara
(Ghosh 1980: 17) This parallelism was not modelled on brahmanical examples alone for
Buddhism introduced AvalokiteS'vara as a saviour from 4'" century AD onwards. What is
quite distinctive is the degree of parallelism found in Buddhism. Buddhism developed its
own pantheon by brining in elements of brahmanical gods and goddesses. As a corollary
to the massive expansion of Saivism in this period, Buddhism introduced many forms of
' Avalokitesvara betraying strong Saiva influence. One is the image of Sugatisandarsana
Lokesvara, who is represented as holding a staff with snake entwined in it, a feature of ('
Siva. This form of A,·alokitesvara is found from Dharmasala, where Siva Gokarnesvara
was an important shrine in this period. So also the example of Halahala Lokesvara, who
resembles Uma-Mahesvara.
A classification of Buddhist deities and their forms reveals another trend in
Buddhism. Buddhism tried to introduce new deities by conflating two or more deities of
brahmanical pantheon, thus incorporating the potency of two popular brahmanical
deities. One example is Yamantaka, who is a conflation of Yama and Antaka (Durga).
Another example is Mahasri Tara, who was the conflation of two popular brahmanical
goddesses, Laksmi and Sarasvati.
With regard to mutual relation between Buddhism and Vaisnavism, two
simultaneous trends seem to be at operation. At one end is the experimentation to bring
in brahmanical god and give them Buddhist hue as in the example of Halahala Lokesvara.
Similar instances of Buddhist engagement with Vaisnavism are encountered in Cuttack
district. One example is Visnu-Lokesvara as found in the Siddhesvara temple of Jajpur.
Another trend is the rare example of subordination of brahmanical deities, so profusely
given in the Vajrayana texts and found in great number in Nepal and Tibet. Two such
examples of subordination are found- one from Baneswarnasi in Jagatsinghpur and the
other from Fakirpatna. The latter image is iconographically more accomplished. Dated to
11 '" AD century on iconographic ground, Buddha 1s here represented in
bhumispar.famudrii. On the uppermost corner of the backslab are found Hindu deities
riding on their 1iahanas with right arm raised in threatening posture to suggest that they
are the army of Mara. On the left side the four gods- Brahma, Visnu, Mahesvara and
Indra - are repeated and but now each holds his principal set of hands in aijali mudra to
indicate that they are paying homage to Buddha (Donaldson 2001: Fig 91).
J.J.Jc. Saivism
Saivism-Saktism emerged as the most popular cult in this period if one go by the number
of shrines dedicated to the god and goddess. It is during this period that great edifices of
76
Bhubaneswar began to be built. Bhubaneswar, known as Ekamra Ksetra emerged as a / . /
classical Saiva Ksetra. In Cuttack district, Praci valley emerged as a Saiva Ksetra. The . . Paramahamsa temple of 42-mauja on the bank of the Praci marks the starting point of the
religious cluster along the right bank of river Praci which continued up to Kakatpur.
3J.4 Puri district
Most prominent feature of this period was the substantial presence of Saivism in the I
region. Bhubaneswar emerged as Saiva centre, the most magnificent being the Lingaraja
temple, which was built in the 11th century AD. More than 200 brick temples dot the I
landscape of Praci valley, most of them being Saiva brick temples, but their dating is a
problem. Most likely the major temples were built in 12'h century, except perhaps the
Gramesvara temple of Nibharana (12'h) the Purnesvara temple of Bhilideuli (10'h-11'h),
Caurasi temple of village Caurasi, Madhava temple of Madhava and Madhava Mud gala of
village Mudgala. On the other hand many Sain temples, notably the Kapilesvara temple
of K.apilesvara, Gramesvara temple of Tetundia, Somanatha temple of Bisnupur,
Angesvara Mahadeva of Pitapara, Durga temple of Motian, Trivienisvara temple of
Tiruna (Nayahat-Gop road), Gangesvari temple of 42-bati, and the Gramesvara temple of
Lataharan (Gop block) belong to 12'h-13th century onwards However the number of I .
Buddhist sculptures found from these Satva temples suggests that Saivism gained
foothold in the Praci valley only after the decline of Buddhism. (Sic)
On the other hand we have evidence of the some of the Visnu sculptures of 9'h_
12'h century, which suggests that Vai~navism was gaining ascendancy in Puri district.
Important to note is the presence of Visnu in1ages in Puri as in the K.apalamocana
temple (12'h) of Puri dated to 1 O'h century. However, we have no reliable archaeological
details about the emergence of Jagannath temple in 9'h-10'h century AD. However, there
are many epigraphic and literary references to Purusottama of the coast (Stietencron
1978: 1-31). At Kuruma a prosperous Buddhist establishment existed close to the Arka
Kretra of Konark where the Sun temple was constructed two centuries later, Kuruma has
yielded the remains of a stupa, monastery, images of Buddha, Yamantaka, Lokes\'ara and
Trivikrama. The Affasabasrika Praj~aparamita Mam1.rcnpt in Cambridge University Library
Manuscript (No. Add. 1643), dated C. 1015 AD, illustrates Alagataru Tara,
Alagachchhatra-Cairya and Kuruma stupa of Odra defa.
In Khurda division, especially in Daya valley we have evidence of some Buddhist
establishments, notably Kukrimunda and Aragarh. Aragarh near Jatni preserves some of
the rare Buddhist sculptures of Vajrayana pantheon, which could be iconographically
dated to early11 <h century. Here also Saivism and Saktism predominate. There is evidence
77
/ of the presence of numerous Saiva temples in Khurda division dated to 1 0-12'h century
most notable being the Jalesvara temple of Atri-Golbai, Brahmesvara temple of Beraboi,
Gatesvara temple of Algum and numerous other temples of Bhubaneswar, including the
grand Lingaraja temple.
On the other hand Bhubaneswar emerged as a classical Saiva k!etra, even though
the archaeological and sculptural evidence indicate the presence of Buddhism and
Jainism here. While the Dhauli complex preserves epigraphic reference to the presence
of Buddhism in the Bhaumakara period, the Jaina tirthankara images atop the Khandagiri
and Udayagiri and epigraphic records of the Somavamsi period attest to Jaina presence in
Khandagiri-Udayagiri.
However, more noteworthy is the adaptations Buddhism was making to cope
with Saivism here in Bhubaneswar. Most of the Buddhist sculptures and artefacts are
found in the close vicinity of Bhaskaresvara and Brahmesvara, indicating close proximity
of Buddhist establishments with substantial Saiva presence in Ekamra Ks,etra. In such
scenario Buddhism tried to evolve itself by introducing many Buddhist deities, who
closely resemble Siva. One example is Halahala Lokesvara, who closely resembles Uma
Mahesvara. As referred to earlier, Amoghapasa and Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara are also
modelled on Siva. Cintamani Lokesvara image, which is found from Bhubaneswar and
now in the OSM, Bhubaneswar, represents Lokesvara as a giver of prosperity.
While we do not have literary evidence, which allude to the religious equations
between Saivism and Buddhism, their co-existence in a shared sacred space poses
interesting questions about religious equations in the context of Orissa during 7'h to 12'11
centuries AD.
Table 3.6: Sculptures from Undivided Pun" distn"ct (9 -ll1h)
Sites Location (Block, New !Date of Religious Important sculptures
!village) District he structure Jof the period !sculptures
Gartesvara temple jDelang, Algum !Khurda 11th ~-aiva (11th)
IK.ukrimunda IJ3aghamari/Begunia !Khurda P9th-11 th tB"uddhist
~T a sud eva temple Balianta, Balakat:i !Khurda 12th IV ai~nava (14th) anardana
Gopinatha temple IBalianta, Jhint:i !Khurda l}th Vai~nava (14th) lNrsimha ~asana /
-\ngesvara temple IJ3alipatna, !KJmrda 1Qth ISaiva (13th) anardana IPitapara /
IDaksap~ajapat:i IJ3anpur ~urda p9th_11 th ~aiva 0ater) !Buddhist tern pie /Tikiri a temple
-\chutarajpur IJ3anpur !Khurda 9-12th ~onze hoard !Buddhist, Jaina and
f lbrahmanical ~iva temple Banpur, Bankada jKhurda p8th_Q9th ~aiva (7th)
Jon the Salima, in !Ban pur I
Hatakesvara Siva IJ3egunia (Jmrda 1Qth Saiva (date not !Two eight armed
78
ascertained) IMahisamardini
IDakhinesvara IBegunia, Bagalpur !Khurda P9'"-11 th j::jaiva (date not aina, four-armed Varahi
temple ascertained)
~andagiri- !Bhubaneswar fKhurda p9•h-11 th am a aina tirtMinkara image
fl.Jdayagiri land temple
IManibhadresvara !Bhubaneswar Khurda 11 '" I ~aiva. \Dasavatara set
temple Valunkesvara IBlmbaneswar \Khurda 11th \Saiva IHara-Hari
p...ingaraja !Bhubaneswar [Klmrda JJIH f)aiva fHara-Hari
;:;ikharacandi IBhubaneswar, Patia \Khurda 9th_J Qth r:;akta (8'")
alesvara temple ankia, Golbai \Khurda P9'"-tt •h S'aiva (1 Q•h) 8-armed and 10 armed (almost ruined Mahisamard.ini, Parvati bcept the deula) land other Saiva
sculptures, Buddhist
/ sculptures
f:>iddhesvara temple ankia, IKhurda 11th f:>aiva (11 rh )
Gopinathpur, near
\Nirakarpur
--------- atni, !Khurda p9th_JJ th !Buddhist
'\ragarh/Haripur
!Bhagavati temple & Jatni ,Kalaharang,, Khurda 10'h Sa1va -Sakta (1 Q•h) ~ai\·a sculptures,
alesvara Siva jbetween i\Iahisamardini Durga
temple Bhubaneswar-
Nandankanan,
iAmaresvaragarh \Khurda block \Khurda 09•h-11 th !Buddhist
Candesvara Siva (hurda, 28 miles \Khurda JQth ;:iaiva (1 Qth)
from Khurda on
NHS Candesvara temple !Tangi Klmrda 12th Saiva 11th) ~r araha-Laksmi
Gopalpur ~anpur, Ranapur- \Nayagarh 09•h-11 th ~farici Candapur road
II3hainchua \Puri Q<)th_11 th am a
Chadehibar Puri p9th_11 th am a
!Benupada ;l Puri Q9th_11 th Buddhist
--------------- ) Arkarata Puri KJ9th_Jl th Buddhist
Kururna IAstaranga block Puri p9th_11 th Buddhist, brahmanical sculptures
f::>iddhanatha temple IJ3al.ianta, Near tTl uri 1Qth Sa1va
Hirapur, Bhainchua
)(Bhargavi valley)
64-Y ogini temple IJ3alianta, Hirapur (hurd a 1Q<h )Sakta 64 )'oginis and hypetheral temple
Kenduli IJ3al.ipatna Kenduli tTl uri JQth I
!Visnu, J anardana
~iva temple !Banamalipur tTl uri 12th lsaiva
lruruntira; Nimapara
!Road /
j.Buddhanath temple !Banamalipur, t?uri 11th ~aiva (11 t1'-J2th) ~~va sculptures, Gardeipancana fsuddhist sculptures
!Ban pur IJ3anpur IPuri KJ9th_11 th IBrahmanical
Malusamardini, Camunda,
tihddhist in1ages
\Bhadrapatna IPuri p9rh_J1 th --------- tBuddhist
f:>omanatha temple IBisnupur IPuri J3th \Saiva
!Kapila Prasad pelang block IPuri p 9,h_ 11 •h !Buddhist
Brahmesvara pelang, Beraboi, tTl uri 11th ~aiva(11 th)
temple
phantesvara Delang, IPuri 09th_11'h !Saiva (11th centul) !Dancing Bhairava, eight-temple Gadabeguniapada ruined temple farmed Camundii
fSomanatha temple !Delang, Ghorodia I'Puri 11th ~aiva (11th) ~aiva, Camunqa,
{')
I uddhist Images
C7ramesvara temple ~op, Lataharan IPuri 11th ~aiva (11 '") ~aiva sculptures, Buddhist sculptures, aina tirthankara
!Taila matha C7op, Taila matha IPuri 09'"-11'" --;----- Buddhist
IT rivienisvara C7op, Tiruna IPuri 09'"-11 th ::Saiva (13'") Buddhist
temple rTribenisvara C7op, Tiruna Puri ? ::Saiva
temple --------- C7op, Upula Puri 09'"-11 th --------- Buddhist
Kapilesvara J ankia, N irakarpur Puri 10th'" t:>aiva (1 0'")
pia,
alesvara Siva atni Kalaharang, 14 Puri 12'11 f:'aiva (12'")
temple ~from IBhubaneswar I
~omesvara temple rr<akatpur IPuri 11th Saiva ~aiva sculptures, eight-armed Camunqi, Anantas;jyin Visnu
f:'omesvara Kakatpur IPuri 11th jt:>aiva (11 '")
-- Kakatpur, Kakatpur IPuri ~9'h-11'h am a
~svaranatha Kakatpur- Juinti, IPuri i09'h-11 th jSaiva (13'") Buddhist
---------- Kakatpur IPuri i09'h-11 th Buddhist Sarangdharpur
Nilamadhava Kakatpur, ;\fudgala IPuri 11th anardana
------ .K.akatpur, Astaranga Puri 09'h-11 th iBuddhist
--------- Kantikula Puri 09'h-11 th ---------- !Buddhist
-------------- ,Khurda block Puri 09'h-11 th !Buddhist (Guhya Amarprasadgarh Nanjuvara)
Visvanatha temple !fCrsnaprasadgarh Puri 1 0'1'-11 th baiva( 12-13'h) anardana
!Hara-Parvati image Madhipur, near Puri 12-13'h ~aiva; Uma-IKon ark Mahesvara
IN andikesvara INandigrama IPuri 11th anardana /
C7ramesvara INibharana, near IPuri 11'h ~aiva (12'h) anardana, Varaha, !M:ahadeva Nayahat Nrsimha
Batesvara temple Nimapara !Puri 09'h-11 th Buddhist
Bamadeipur Nimapara block !Puri i09'h-11 th !Eight-armed Camunda
Nilamadhava Nimapara Chahata, Puri 10-11 th Vaisnava anardana . Amaresvara temple Nimapara Chahata, Puri 09'h-11 th ---------- !Buddhist
pear, Caurasi,
Nilakanthesvara it'-Jimapara Denua Puri 1Qth Saiva temQle !matha, Buddhanath temple INimapara, 1\landa Puri 12tll ~aiva
Bhramanisvara INimapara, Balanga Puri 11th f:>aiva temple II3adasiribala near IPurnesvara Siva INimapara, Bhilideuli IPuri p9th f)aiva (1 Qth) Adimurli
---------- Nimapara, IPuri KJ9th_11 th Manasa, Astikajaratkuru Bhilligrama
[Varahi temple Nimapara, Caurasi, !Puri i09'h-11 th
-------- Nimapara, Nayahat !Puri Q9tl·-11 ,h ----------- !Buddhist !Ketakibana area
IAmb a pad a Nimapara, Near Puri 09'h-11 th Sakta ( lfen armed ;Moria Mahizamardini Durgi
(Inscription dated to early 12'h century.
iLaksmi-N rsimha INimapara, IPuri 12'h IVai~nava (13'h) anardana INuapatna
rr rilocanesvara INimapara,Sadansha IPuri 12-th-13'h ~aiva(13'h) baiva sculptures
so
Goi'al
• 1ndesvara
KapRas Hill
•
DcuJi e · Duburie
Sakun~apur
oarPa,ni•
Madhupurgarh •
• Na···endrapur
BAY OF BENGAL
SITES OF MAHANADI DELTA
,
\
· ; :. ~.
temple I
!Gramesvara temple INimapara, Terundia IPuri 10'" !Saiva( 12-13t")
tr'ulasipur Nimapara, lPuri jo9th.ll rh mna tr'ulasipur /
jVanabhoga temple !Nimapara/Gop, lPaidapatna
lPuri jo9th.ll th ISaiva (13th) !Buddhist
---------------- fPanchagaon IPuri jo9th_11 rh aina, brahmanical sculptures
!Akhandalesvara IPrataprudrapur IPuri ~9t"-11 th ISaiva (11 '") !Buddhist
temple IPuri IPuri lPuri lo9•"-11 tit am a
iMarkandeya Tank IPuri IPuri lOth ~akta , Saptamatrka
agannatha temple IPuri IPuri 12'" K1 ai~nava (12'") anardana
ambesvara temple IPuri South of IPuri 12th ~aiva (12th) agannath temple
IKapalamocana Juri town IPuri 10-11 th Saiva (12'") anardana
tBadatara IPuri town, near IPuri p9th_tt •h !Buddhist -\pendix 1 jsundara Mahadeva IPurusottamapur lPuri 11th ISaiva (date not anardana
ascertained)
IKosalesvara temple jsakhi Gopal !Puri 11th Saiva ~ankanjia, near
tBadasiribala Nimapara, eight km "?uri p9th-11 th Manasa, .-\stikajaratkuru from district
;:;uvarnapur, 3km Gop, Suvarnapur, "Puri io9th-lt rh ~akra MahisamardHu from Gop 3km from Gop
Table 3.7 Bolangir District
Sites Location (Block( New Date of the Religious Important PS), village) District sculptures structure sculptures of the
(period
Back slab of Visnu Saiantala Bolangir 1Oth IDasavacira set Image
Back slab of Visnu Saiantala Bolangir 10d1 !Dasava tara set Image
Balpadar Titlagarh Bolangir lOth Religious affiliation not known
Siva temple Saiantala block, Bolangir lOth Saiva Deogaon
Ghodar Sindhekela, Bolangir 10th Religious Titlagarh afftliation not
known Indralath Sindhekela PS, Bolangir 10th Vaisnava Yoganarha
Ranipur-Jharial • Dasanti\ra set Janardana
Sindhekela PS, Bolangir 09th-11th Saiva Ranipur )haria!
~agati Gandharadi Bolangir lOth Hara-Han
Kansil Bangomunda, Bolangir lo9th Not known Kansil
Kosalesvara Sonepur, Bolangir 09-lOth Saiva Hara-Han, Baidyanatha 0:rstmha
.-\nantas:lnn \'tsnu
Kumda Titlagarh Bolangir lOth Religtous affiliation not known
81
Kusang Bolangir block, Bolangir 09th-10th s;kta Kusang, northeast century of Bolangir town
Nilamadhava and Gandharadi Bolangir 09th-10th Vai~nava
Siddhesvara temple
Nilamadhava temple Gandharadi Bolangir lOth Vaisnava Janardana
Nilamadhava and Gandharadi Bolangir 09th-10th
Siddhesvara temple :~olangir Patnagarh Patnagarh 09th Saiva
Saiantala Saiantala, Bolangir Bolangir 09th century
Sauntpur Bolangir block Bolangir 09th-10th Saiva
Silman Titlagarh block Bolangir 09th- lOth Not known century
Sinai Titlagarh Bolangir lOth Religious affiliation not known
Sirekela Sindhekela Bolangir 10th Religious affiliation not known
Udeypur Sindhekela Bolangir 10th Religious affiliation not known
Ranipur- Jharial Bolangir 10th Nr;simha
Gandharadi pgati, Sonepur Bolangir 10th Saiva ( 1 O•h)
Kapilesvara Charda, Near Binka Sonepur 10th Saiva ( 1 O•h) Anantasayin Visnu35
Salebhata Sindhekela, on the Bolangir 09th-10th Durga 20-armed bank of river Ong iNiahi~amardini 10 km north of Bolangir town.
Table3.8: Baudh and Phulbani and Kalahandi
Baudh Baudh Baudh 09th-11 th Buddhist
Kapilesvara Baudh Baudh 09th-10th Sw, .. c,...
-G Udayagiri Phulbani Baudh 09th-11th Buddhist
Pascima Somanatha, Baudh Baudh 09th-10th Saiva Bhubaneswar and Kapilesvara temple
Candi temple Kesinga RS Kalahandi 09th Sapta-mat~ki set Belkhandi, near
~unagarh ~unagarh Kalahandi 09th-11 th atna
Nilakanthesvara Siva Bhawanipatna Kalahandi 11th Saiva (1 Q•h) temple Dadpur, 10 km
from Bhawanipatna
Patalesvara Khariar, Nuapara 10th -
Budhikomna S:~vll.
Nilakanthesvara Siva Dadpur, 10 km Kalahandi 11 tl' Dasavatara set temple from Bhawanipatna
Brahmesvara Budhikomna, near Kalahandi 11th ~o..AvP. Khariar
r-----Pa talesvara Khariar Budhi Kalahandi 10th Saiva (1 O•h)
Komna
Siva temple ) Sankushgarh On the Kalahandi 09th Saiva confluence of Buda and Tel
:to Two temples of Sonepur, namely the Suvarnameru and Ramesvara temple, both being originally Visnu l •
temple,-now-con,·erted-to- Satvism, can be dated to 12•h_ 13•h century and not to 10'--11 th century.
82
Amath Near Belkhandi Kalahandi 09th-10th Religious affiliation not known ..
Table J. 9: Keonjlzar, Koraput, Dhenkanal and Gan1am Dtstnct.
Keonjhar
Anand pur Anand pur Division Keonjhar 09th-11 th am a
Bhainchua Anandpm division Keonjhar 09-lOth f:>aiva, Uma-Bhainchua llvfahesvara,
IAstikajaratkuru [Varahi, Mahisamardim !Durga, !Buddhist !A valok.i tesvara,
am a tirthankara, TriYikrama, anrdana, Hara
Parvati,
Podasingidi :\nandpur Division Keonjhar 09th-11th ~aina
Sainkula "\nandpur Division Keonjhar 09th-11 th ~aina
Thun.igaon Anandpur Division Keonjhar 09th-11 th ~aina
Gadacandi temple Anandpur Division Keonjhar 09th-11 th Sakta temple a111a, Vaidakhia (modern) [brahmanical
~-fahisamardi.t11, Manas a, ifirthankara
Bhainchua "\nand pur, Keonjhar 09th-11 th Buddhist Bhai.t1Chua
Behera Sahi Bhainchua KEONJH 10th Visnu }anardana ,\R
Biridiha Anandpur, two Keonjhar 10th Saiva Uma-miles of Mahesvara
Dadhivamana temple Deogaon, 7 miles Keonjhar 10th Vai~nava Oater) ;:>aiva, Uma-from Anandpur fMaheS..·ara
Durgapur Anand pur Keonjhar 09th-11 th S!ikta
Hatadiha },nand pur Keonjhar 09th-11 th Mahisamard.ini
Kusolesvar a Siva of A.nandpur Division, Keonjhar 10th Saiva , Bhairava Deogaon Deogaon I
Malaga Keonjhar 09th-11 th Sakta T'vfahisamardini
Koraput, Dhenkanal and Ganjam Biranci-Narayana Paikapada Koraput 10th anardana
~fallikesvara temple Rayagada, Koraput OSth century Sa iva Kesava Paikapada
Patalesvara Paikapada Koraput 09th Saiva Hara-Hari
eypore eypore Koraput 09th-11 th 0ama Jaina
Kotapat Kotpad, Koraput 09th-11 th ~aina Nawarangpur
Dhenkanal Kanakesvna Kualo Dhenkanal 09th ~aiva( 8'11) Hara-Hari Hara-
Hari Va.isnavi, Visnu and other deities
Kapilasa Dhenkanal 09th-11 rh Saiva (13•h) iBhairava and
I Camunda
83
- -11--------------------------- --- ------------.,.- ·-. ~ -~--- ---· - ------·- -~-- ---·--·------
NOT TO SCALE
I )
Ran.ipur -Jharial . .
SITES OF UPPER MAHANADI VALLEY
ORISSA
Bhimakhand Kanika Taluk Dhenkanal lOth --------- Anntasayin Visnu
Athamalik Athamalik Dhenkanal 09th-11 th ---- ~aina
Ramacandi Dhenknal, Dhenkanal 10'" Sakta ( Eight-armed Bhimagiri recent mahisamardin1
temple built on an earlier foundation)
Bhringesvara Mahadeva Kamakhyanagar, 09th-1oth c Saiva 97'") Bajrokote Dhenkanal /
Svapnesvara group of Parjanga, Kualo 09th Saiva(7'")
temple Dhenkanal
Balangi Kankadahad Dhenkanal 09th-11th ---------- 1aina
Paschimesvara Talc her Dhenkanal 09th-11 th Saiva Qater) Buddhist
Saranga Parjanga block, Dhenkanal JQth I .\nantasayin Visnu ~------
Saranga I
Tamul NearBhimgm Dhenkanal 10-11 th 1Sakta :Eight-armed \(modern) ;\Iahisamardini
purga
Ganjam Dakhinesvara temple Badagaon Ganjam 09th Saiva Varaha
Ganjam Ganjam Ganjam D9th-11 th 1 am a
3.J.J Dhenkanal
In Dhenkanal district Saivism and Vai~navism, which began ill 7'h centuty AD, continued
in this period. However Buddhism appeared here in this period. While the Paschimesvara
temple preserves some Buddhist sculptures of 10'h early 11 rh century, the epigraphic
reference suggests the presence of Buddhism in the Kodalaka mm;qa!a . . '6• On the other
hand, Saivism and Vai~navism sites began to expand in the area. While the Bhringcsvara
temple and Kanakesvara temple continued in this period as well, new temple like the
Paschimesvara temple at Chasapada came up. Important to note is the scattered Vaisnava
presence here in Dhenkanal, the most noteworthy being the huge Anantasayin Visnu
image (it is the largest image in Orissa) found from Saranga. The image can be
iconographically dated to 9'h century AD. There are scattered Jaina presences in
Dhenkanal district as well. Equally important to note is the presence of autochthonous
cults from the epigraphic records of Sulkis, who claim themseh·es to be the worshippers
of Stambhesvari.37
In Keonjhar district, the concentration of religious establishment is in Anandpur
plain. The pattern and distribution of religious sites indicate that the line of diffusion is
36 TI1e tws- Talcher plate of Si\·akaradcva Yr 149.rcfers to rhe grants made by Sivakaradcva, the Paramamabesvara, the request of riittaka Vmitarunga to Jansrama monasten• a village Kallani in the Punrarastra vi.fa;·a in northern Tosali \\~th additionaT taxes. such as ~axes from \veavers, cowherd, etc. with rights over fernesllandtng places and forests ,-\nother mscnptlon ot the same ruler also records a donation to a Buddhist esta Jlishment. (Ivfishra 1934: 51).
:;~ TI1e Dhenkanal plate of Ranasthamba, the Sulki record reads thus: a.s;•a kula-dez;afabhaga11ati-Stmnbhesvan saJan"[rilkam krtt!d" ,-\ccordtng to H P. Shastri's interpretation, the king's family g_oddess IS here said to the adorable Stambhesvari, who was installed by the king having seen her(Sha>tri 1916: 396-427),
8-l
from Bhadrak side rather than from the north, where Asanpat, the 4'h century Saiva site is
located.
Ganjam district, which has not been explored, has yielded hardly any
archaeological materials to substantiate epigraphic sources of the period. While
Srikakulam, Vishakhapatnam and Mukhalingam and Jayati which form core of K.alinga of
early medieval times preserve many temples of Visnu and Saiva, most notables of which
are Madhukesvara temple of Mukhalingam and Ramesvara temple at Gallavalli, there are
not many in Ganjam district. The Mahendra mountain was considered to be a sacred
mountain in the Puranic literature, and there are epigraphic records of the Eastern and
Imperial Gangas which refer to the their tutelary deity, Gokarnesvara on the Mahendra
mountain. 38 At present there are three temples atop the Mahendra Mountain -Bhima
temple, Kunti-Gokarnesvara and the Yudhistira temple - but no sculptural evidence of
9'h__ 11th century came to light. On the other hand there are two inscriptions in Kunti
temple, one is on a slab to the right of the entrance and can be dated to 1123 AD. It
records the gift of lamp to Mahendresvara, indicating that there was a temple by this
. 12th name ill century.
3.5.6. Bolangir & Kalahandi Districts
In Bolangir district Vaisnavism and Saivism continued to expand in this period. In one
way the district as a part of Dak~ina Kosala, was influenced by what was happening in
upper Mahanadi basin particularly in Sirpur, Mallhar and Rajim, where Vaisnavism and
Saivism were very dominant. Some scholars also argue for a distinct regional architectural
style of Dak~ina Kosala (Sebak 2004). Literary and epigraphic evidence record land
grants to brahmanas and some were even brought by the Somavamsis from north India.
However, there is also evidence of the autonomous trajectory of religions in this region.
First of all, Buddhism and Jainism were almost absent here in this region, except perhaps
at Ganiapalli in Melchamunda block of Samabalpur where image of Mucalinda Buddha
(6'h century AD) was found. This is in contrast to upper Mahanadi basin where we have
evidence of Buddhist presence in Mallhar, Sirpur and in other places. Moreover, we have
evidence of strong goddess traditions here in Bolangir and Kalahandi in comparison to
upper Mahanadi valley. The Maraguda valley, which preserve a good deal of religious
38 In the grants of Annatvarman Chodagangadeva of the Imperial Ganga dynas!)', it is revealed that Virasimha's son Kamarnava came to Kalinga wtth his four brothers where, tli.ey like five Pandava brothers, worshipped the god Gokarnasvamin. They killed one Savaraditya in a battle and Kamamava founded a kingdom arouncf Mahendra after distributing lands among his four brothers. According to Oriya l\fanabharata,_ written bY. Sarala Das in the16 ' century, the five Paqqava brothers came to Mahencfra moun tam while 111 exile. To perform the midha of his father .-\rjuna one aay went huntlt}_g_ for a rhinoceros but mistakenly killed a sacrea cow called J>apila that was grazing at the fogt of the hill. When the brothers realised thetr mistakes and prayed to Krsna who arranged a devasabha on the top_ of the Mountain Mahendra. Siva-lingas sprang from the places where parts of the cow's body fell. -lhe Pa1Jdava brothers worshipped the Siva-ltn!f, which spranp from the ear of the cow, as GokarnesvaralJndian Antiquary 18: 143-146 161-65; 165-172; 172-17u/.For Sarala lJas's account (Rath 1977: 82-84). '
85
structures has not received adequate attention, but the available evidence from Mahala
and other mounds indicate strong Sakta presence; same can be said of Ranipur Jharial
where the hypetheral 64- yogini temple was built in 9'h century AD. Another trend was
the idea of having two structures for Hara and Hari side by side on one platform. Such
twin temples for Nilamadhava Visnu and Siddhesvara Siva were built on the bank of
Mahanadi at Gandharadi in undivided Bolangir district. However, the Vai~nava and Saiva
presence in the region was quite substantial here. Not many sites of the period is known
from Samabalpur district except the N~simhanath temple, which can be dated to 10'h
century AD.
In Koraput district where we have the evidence of some of the early images of
Visnu Saivism and Vaisnavism continue to exist but there is also evidence of J ainism in
this period.
J.J.7. Discussion
There was a distinct Buddhist cluster in Citrotpala-Kimiria-Birupa valley; however, we
have the evidence of the presence of Saivism and Saktism. Most of the Buddhist
sculptures of this cluster belong to 1 O'h century, thus indicating their coexistence with
Saivism, Saktism and Vai~navism. Important Buddhist sites of this cluster include
Fakirpatna, Ramesvara, Chandia, Lalitgiri, Udayagiri, Ratnagiri, Kolanagiri Vajragiri and
Langudi except one instance at Fakirpatna in Citrotpala evidence where Visnu and
Mahesvara are represented as attacking Buddha. However, there are not many sites
where there is evidence of Buddhism, Saivism, Saktism and Vai~navism existing
simultaneously, but the mean distance from one site to another is most probably not
more than 10 km. While we tried to show the simultaneous existence of Buddhism and
brahmanical religions, it is important to understand the equation between Buddhism and
brahmanical religion on the one hand and among various Buddhist establishments on the
other.
In Praci valley Saivism gained ground only after the decline of Buddhism. However, the
Praci valley right from Paramahamsa to Kakatpur preserves traces of Saktism Saivism
and V ai~navism in this period.
Bhubanes\var emerged as a classical Saiva Kfetra. But there is also evidence of the
simultaneous existence of Buddhism and Jainism. In fact most of the Buddhist remains
are found between Bhaskaresvara and Brahmesvara area.
Jajpur, on the other hand, presents a more complex pattern with the
simultaneous existence of Buddhism, Saktism, Saivism and Jainism. Solampur
Khadipada were important Buddhist establishments here.
86
Further up in Balasore, we have numerous instances where all cults exist pell
mell. Ajodhya, Sheragarh, Kaupar, Avana, etc. indicate a poly-religious environment. As
we further move up in north and northeast direction to Mayurbhanj the preponderance
of goddess traditions become imminent. There is a virtual absence of Buddhism in
western and central Orissa, where we have the predominance of Saivism, Vaisnavism and
goddess tradition. The notable exception is the Anandpur plain, Anugul division of
undivided Dhenkanal and Baudh, where we have simultaneous existence of all cults. But
the mean distance between one site and the other in undivided Dhenkanal is much more
than what is found in undivided Cuttack district. Except in Bolangir where there is strong
presence of Vaisnavism in other areas we have evidence of the presence of Saivism,
Saktism and other autochthonous traditions as in the case of Stambhesvari
In Puri district major concentration is in Praci valley. There is steady increase in
Vaisnavism here but their dominance becomes evident only after 12th century AD.
However there are sites in the Praci valley and other areas where there is evidence of
many cults existing side by side. Kuruma and Achutarajpur belong to this category.
Buddhism is largely confmed to Cuttack, Bhadrak; the Praci valley in Puri/
Cuttack district, the Daya valley in Khurda, region around Chillika Lake, Anandpur plain
area of Keonjhar and two pockets (Khiching, Udala and Manatari belt) in Mayurbhanj,
Srikakulam and Vishakhapatnam districts. On the other hand brahmanical temples are
more widespread.
This exhaustive cataloguing highlights the religious environment of Orissa in
seven centuries from 5th to 12th centuries AD. In such an environment Buddhism
expanded but it did by making some great innovations. The last chapter deals with some
of the innovations it made to make religion more instrumental. The next section further
elaborates the process of adaptation and change Buddhism was making to compete with
V aisnavism, Saivism and goddess tradition.
SECTION II Documenting Vertical Growth of Buddhism in
the Period
3 11.1: Documenting the vertical growth of Buddhism
The documentation of sites in the previous section tried to show the poly-religious
landscape of Orissa between Th to 12th centuries. An effort is made to document the
expansion of various religions, including Buddhism. In many places Buddhism, Jainism
and other brahmanical religions shared the same temporal-geographical space. While the
87
prevtous section shows the horizontal spread of Buddhism and other religions, this
section tried to document the vertical spread of Buddhism.
3 II. 2 Diversity in Buddhist pantheon
One indicator of the vertical growth of Buddhism was the rich diversity in ter~s of the
pantheon structure. Buddhism introduced numerous deities in its pantheon in order to
make the religion more this worldly. These deities, as mentioned in Chapter 2, performed
various instrumental roles and hence, were invoked and worshipped by people. The
diversity in Buddhist pantheon reflects the attempt to extend the religion further by
encouraging greater involvement of people in the form of worship of these instrumental
deities, performing rituals, observing bratas and celebrating calendrical festinls of
Buddhist divinities. The following table categorise these divinities according to their
different forma and the places of their provenance, which indicate the spread of different
cults.
3.II.2.1 Tara
The SadhanamiiH and other texts refer to different forms of Tara divided into five on the
basis of their colour. The following diagram represents various forms of Tara, which are
described in the Sadhanamii!Ci. Goddess Tara was introduced quite late, only in 6'h century
AD and gained enormous popularity by 8'h century AD (Ghosh 1980).39 While I\fahasri
Tara is a conflation of Sarasvati and Laksmi, Sirnhanada and Durgottarani Tara are ..
modelled on Durga, who is called dur;gatinasini (Devi Mahatmya IV (in Agrawala 1963: 67).
Tara in her form of saviouress from perils first appeared in cave 9 of Ellora40
Sarvajnanamitra wrote Arya-T circi-s~agdhara-stotra in 8'h century and the Candi Kalas an
temple in Indonesia, dated 778 AD invokes the name of Tara who delivers people from
the world of infinite sorrows. 41 Sri Harsa, the author of the Naifadhacarita (7'h-8' 11) speaks
of the custom of making a circle in camphor mixed with musk in the shrine of the
goddess (Nazjadhacan'ta 22. 136). Tara cult was very popular in Orissa. Tara is found in
the niches of 99 monolithic stu pas of Ratnagiri. Though the Jadhanamffla describes many
forms of Tara, the classical Tara mantra T eire Tuttare T ure .rtfiiha is only for 11 is reserved.
In Orissa all these forms are found except Mrtyuvacana Tara and Vasyadhikara Tara. On
the other hand we have evidence of Caturbhuja Sita Tara.
39 I have followed Hiranand Shastri, i'vfallar Ghosh, Puspendra Pal, and Lokesh Chandra for the srudr of Tara. ,
41 The panel no. III.2 of cave (ascribed to the middle of 7'" century "-\D) represents Tara \Vith a stalk of a lotus in her left hand; stands on a lotus, the stem of which is held by nagas. The panel is badly damaged. Still one ca!1 recognise the dread of fire and shipwreck on the left and elephant, serpent and brigand on the right. (Sengupta 1955-57: 12-15). 41 The Kalasan Inscription invokes Tara as a saviour thus: May she, who, seeing the world immersed 111 the sea of existence, duly delivers it through the three means ... (Sarkar 1971 I: 34-40).
88
Table 3.10: Tara and her Dijferentforms in Orissa
Different forms of Tara Place
1.Tara in lalitasana, varada mudra Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, Achutarajpur, Solampur, and other places (129)
2 Standing Tara Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, Solampur, etc. (10)
3 Astamahabhaya Tara42 Sheragarh (1), Ratnagiri (2)- 3
4. Simhanada Tara Ratnagiri (3), Sheragarh (1), Bhubaneswar (1),43 -(5)
S.Khadiravani Tara Jaraka (2), Tikiria Temple in Banpur Achutarajpur4, Ratnagiri,
Baneswarnasi, Choudwar, Sundargram-(9)
6. Mahattari Tara Ratnag~ri (2), ~-\chutarajpur, Tiadisahi, Baudh, --(6)
7. Mahasri Tara Bhubaneswar- (1)
8. Dhanada Tara Kapiles\·ara Temple In Bhubaneswar, Varaha temple Jajpur45,
brought from Solampur, Baseli Thakurani at Bania Sahi in Cuttack,
Kapila Prasad 1 - (4)
9. Four-armed Sita Tara Solampur -1
10. Four-armed Durgottarani Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri (2)
Tara
11. Vajra Tara-16 ~-\jodhya, Ratnagiri (2)
12. Cintamani Tara 0-'agaspur, Adaspur-2
Total -12 178
42 The idea of Tara as a Saviouress found seYeral references in the epigraphic records of different places from 7'" to 12'" century AD. For example the Nalanda inscription of \'ipula Srirnitra, assigned to the first half of the 12'" century she was invoked as Jagat-tarilfi (llfajumdar 1931-32:97-101). The more famous Kalasan inscription of Java and the Dambal inscription also mvoke this saviour aspect of goddess Tara . .J3 While the Siidhanamala and the NifPannqyogifva!/ do not describe this variety of Tara, Getty and i\ K Gordon found such variety in Tibet. Gordon refers to Simhanada Tara as green in colour, she is endowed with two hands, one head and is seated on a lotus throne supported by a roaring lion (Gordon 1967:75). Alice Getty also refers to this form of Tara (Getty 1978:123). 1\·fallhar Ghosh refers to a Simhanada Tara at Bhuinpara, Sheragarh (Ghosh 1980 54).
44 The Ban pur Inscription of Somavamsi king Indraratha records a donation to the temple of Khadiravani Tara of Kongoda region (fripathy 1966: 271-76). The sama Tara image is most likely referred to in the AJ(asahasrika-Prqjnilparamita manuscript (AD 1015) housed in the Cambridge University Library (11itra 1978-27 -8). 45 Sadhana no 107 describes Dhanada Tara as green in complexion, benign in appearance and has the radiance of the moon and seats in sattvaparyankasana. She has four hands showing rosary, the varada pose, the utpala, and the book .... She bears image of A.moghasiddhi on her crown and is surrounded by eight goddesses (Sadhanamaltt. 219). On the exterior of\' araha temple of Jajpur is affixed an image of Dhanada Tara, which was most likely brought from Solampur. She is seated in vajraparyakasana on a lotus seat holding a rosary, nilotpala, book dJ__her uplifted back hand. She is flan'.i.ed by six bodhisattvas rather than by eight goddesses, as enjoined in the Sadhanamala (Donaldson 2001!: 253). 46 The beautiful Vajra Tara i..<nage is preserved in the Uttaresvara temple of Ajodhya. The deity is seated in vqjraparyakasana on a visvapadma. Her principal right hand, upraised, wields a vajra, while the corresponding left dtsplays a tarjani mudrtf. Tl1e lowered right hand holds a conch, while the other two right hands, upraised, wield a nose and a pair of arrows. On the other hand, she holds a vajra, kula, a bow and nilotpala in her four left hands. However deviating from the texts like the Sadhanamalti (S adhana No 90, 93, 97, and 11 0) and the Ntjpannayogavali( Vajra Tara ma'!cfala of the NtfPannqyogava!i''(N o 16), the sculpture represent only four p'!fapokara~as rather than the usual ten. In the Tibetan and Japanese ma'!t£alas the P'!fiipokara~as appear in Apsara form. Vajradhupa (Southeast), corresponding to Aksobhya offers incense and therefore, holds an incense burner; Vajrapu~pa (Southwest) corresponding to Ratnasambhava offers flowers and thus, carries a flowers in a pot; Vajradipa (northwest), representing Amitabha family, offers a lamp and holds a candle wick in a pot wlule Vajra gandha of :\moghasiddhi family holds a pot (Shashibala 1989: 344-55).
89
FIG.3.1 DIFFERENT FORMS OF TARA
B C Durgottarni Tara Khadiravani Tara
A Astamahabhaya Tara
Ratnagiri (9th Century) Ratnagiri (10th Century) Choudwar (10th Century)
D Vajra Tara
Ajodhya (10th-11th Century)
E Sita Tara
Solampur (10th Century)
J.I1.2.2. Avalokitesvara
A valokitesvara was the most popular bodhisattt;a in the Buddhist pantheon and his
position in Buddhist countries is next to Buddhas. One of the reasons for his popularity
is his infinite karuna and one passage of the Karandaryuhya characterises him as taking the • •
shape of all gods of all religions ... "(Bhattacharya 1968: 124). He is the ruling divinity
during the present ka!pa (bhadra ka!pa), which started with the Mahapan·nitJanna of
Gautama and will continue till the advent of Maitreya. Right from the fifteen forms in
the Sadhanamtiiti', Avalokitesvara's forms multiplied through centuries. In 18'h century
paintings in Machandar Vahal in Nepal, his 108 forms are illustrated (Lokesh Chandra
1981). In Ratnagiri monolithic stupa he is the second most popular divinity after Tara
represented in the niches of 42 monolithic stupas. The scriptural justification for his
numerous forms was one strategy to absorb elements of other cults. In Nepal
Karunamaya Matsyendranath is identified with Krsna. A valokitesvara is also identified / / /
with Siva. A valokita shares with Siva the epithets ist;ara, mahefvara and Lokesvara. Siva
was worshipped as a bodhz~ratttJa and as a form of Avalokitesvara (Thomas 1933:193) 47.
Various forms of A valokitesvara can be conceptualised as a strategy of adaptation
of elements of other cults. While Amoghapasa, Sugatisandarsana, Nilakantha are
modelled on Siva, Halahala Lokesvara closely resembles Uma-mahesvara. On the other
hand, Visnu Lokesvara is a conflation of Visnu and Lokesvara; Sankhanatha Avalokita
has striking similarity with another form of Visnu.
Table J ll:Forms of Avalokitesvara
1.Cintamanicakra Avalokitesvara4H Ajodhya, Ratnagiri, Siddhesvara Temple- 3
2. Cintamani Lokesvara Khutia temple, Ajodhya 491-, Bhubaneswar (OSJ'vl), Ratnagi.ri, 3
47 A valokitesvara is also conceived as having thousand forms, which is influenced by the visJPampa of Visnu. (Lokesh Chandral988). 4R Cintamanicakra Avalokitesvara as dispenser of prosperity is very rare in India. Out of the three examples in Orissa, the Siddhesvara image is affixed to the interior wall of the ]agamohana of the temple and he could be either Visnu Lokesvara or Cintamanicakra Avalokitesvara ( Donaldson 2001: 185). In the Cintamani Lokesvara image of Ajodhya, Cintamanicakra Avalo:Gtesvara is seated in front of the ghata out of which emerges the kalpavnkfa. In the niches of stupa 97 in the area east of Temple No 6 at Ratnagin is an image of Cintaman.icakra Avalokitesvara. His right hand is in the meditation mudra wh.ile the left holds the vessel from wh.ich the kalpavrikfa is sprouted.( Mitra 1981 II PI CC!..XVII: 333). 49 In the Khutia temple (Maricai temple) there is an image of Cintamani Lokesvara who flanks the main I\-farici image. Lokesvara stands in a flexed pose with h.is right hand lowered in varada and the left hand, holds a lotus .. he is flanked in h.is lower left by Cintamani cakra Avalokita, who seat in front of a ghata. Issuing from the gha!a a kalpavrik~a whose foliage arches to the other side of the image. Dispersed alo~g the meandering creeper are saptardtnas. Beneath the right hand are flve pretas with their raised hands clasped to receive the jewel. He wears a richly ornamented Jat(imukufa. In the Badagada headless chlorite image, which is now in the OSM Bhubaneswar, the pretas, including Sucimukhi are sranding v.1th their hands clasped to receive the jewels. The kalpavrik;-a's trunk is overarched.
90
FIG 3.2. DIFFERENT FORMS OF AVALOKITESVARA
A Amoghapasa Lokesvara
Ratnagiri (8th-9th Century)
c Sugatisundarsana Lokesvara
Vajragiri (8th Century)
B Halahala Lokesvara
Meghesvara Temple (11th Century)
D Vajradharma
Ratnagiri (9th-1Oth Century)
3. Khasarpana Lokesvara In different places -17 Achutarajpur, Balasore,
4. Lokanatha Udayagiri (3), Jajpur, Kapila, Solampur, Bhubaneswar, Ramesvara in Baudh, Lalitgiri - 9
5. Harihara r> Lokesvara/ Avalokita 1n Kolanagiri, Balasore, Choudwar - 4 Dharmacakra-mudra
6.Vajradharma/ Rakta Lokesvara50 Siddhesvara Temple 1n Jajpur, Ratnagiri, Achutarajpur, Aragarh-
7. Sadaksari Ratnagiri - 2 8. Jatamukuta In different places -38
9. Sankhanatha Baudh, Udayagiri now in San Francisco Museum, Mudgala 1 -4
10. Amoghapasa Lokesvara Solampur, Udayagiri, Ratnagiri (4) --6
11. Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara Udayagiri (Patna Museum), Cuttack, Dharmasala- 3
12. Halahala Lokesvara Achutarajpur, Meghesvara Temple51 in Bhubaneswar
13. Standing Lokesvara and Seating In different places -37 Lokesvara in conventional mode
14. Visnu-Lokesvara Siddhesvara temple at J ajpur- 1
15. Simhanatha _-\ valokitesvara Baneswarnasi 1
Total 14 130
J.Il.2.3 Forms ofManjusn·
Manjusri is the Buddhist god of wisdom and knowledge, and hence is represented in
sculpture holding a sword and Prajn!iparamita book. The sword, called prf!Jifakharjga in
some sadhana.r, invariably in his right hand, is intended to cut asunder all ignorance, while
the book, in his left hand, is the means of attaining transcendental wisdom. As
bodhisattva of wisdom he is some times identified with ultimate substance dham;adhatu.
In fact it is to one of the forms of Manjusri, Dharmadhatu Vagisvara that the most
common sacred object after caitya i.e dham;adhatu is dedicated in Nepal. Sylvain Levi in
the context of Nepal records that dharmadhatu is dedicated to Dharmadhatuvagis'"vara
Manjusri and if a Vt:fjra is kept on the top, it is called V ajradhatu, which is dedicated to
Vairocana. (Levi 195 II: 19). Thus Manjusri, particularly dharma variety is always identified
50 Six-armed Rakta Lokesvara with two principal hands opening the lotus petal has been discovered from Aragarh. On the other hand the Sadhanamala describes only four and two armed varieties of Rakta Lokesvara .. Clark refers to a six-armed form of Rakta Lokesvara. He holds the arrow, Pafa, ankusa, and bow while embracing the Prajna in his two principal hands ((Clark 1965 II 265).0n the other h;nd, the Aragarh image causes a lotus to bloom in his two principal hands. His uplifted back right hands hold a rosary and a vafra, w:llle one of the corresponding left hands holds a kama'lqalu. An effigy of Amitabha appears on his head indicating his affiliation with the Amitabha fanllly.
51 Mailman has brought to light this sculpture in her article how the Buddhist deity is worshipped as Brahma and Sarasvati (Mailman 1961: 203-20). Worshipped as Uma-Mahesvara in the]agamohana of the 12'11 century Meghesvara temple of Bhubaneswar, Halahala Lokesvara is six-armed and has three heads. The trident, entwined by a serpent stands on the right back comer of the seat while the kiJpala is at the back left corner. Lokesvara is seated in la!itasana. He has principal right hand in varada, as prescribed in the Sadhanama/0 (S adhanamalti. 65-66) where as Siva is usually depicted in abhqya mudra when he is with Parvati and holds a chin of Uma and/ or a nilotpala. On the other hand the raises middle hand holds a rosary while the arrow in the uplifted back hand is partially obliterated. With one of his left hands, she embraces the Pra;lia (Donaldson 200i :209).
91
FIG. DIFFERENT FORMS OF MANJUSIRI
A /
Dharmadhatuvagisvara Mar:a~ala Ratnagiri (9th Century)
D Guhya Manjuvajra
Amar Prasadgarh (10th-11th Century)
F Dharmasankha Samadhi Manjusri
Ratnagiri (8th Century)
B Dharmadhltuvagisvara Manjusri Haripur/Aragarh (11th Century)
E Manjuvajra
Khiching Museum (10th Century)
Arapacana Manjusri Ratnagiri (8th Century)
with ultimate essence. The Nispannayogavali refers to Dharmadh"atuvagisvara ma'!tfa!a.
Dharmasankahsamadhi Manjusri of Ratnagiri corresponds iconographically to Vajraraga
Manjusri or Vairocana, according to the traditions of Amoghavajra (who took Vqjradhatu
mandala to China) and the Tibetan version of Mahavarocanasambodhi ('Wayman and Tjjima .. 1992: 37). Mallman and following her Van kooij observe that some sort of unification
took place between Manjusri and Vairocana and other Buddhas (Mallman 1975).The
Sadhanama!a describes 13 forms of Manjusri.
Table 3.12 Forms ofManjusn·
1 Siddhaikavira Ratnagiri (bronze) -1
2. Dharmasankha samadhi Ratnagiri - 3
3. Dharmadhatuvagisvara Aragarh -1
4. Arapacana l'vfanjusri Ratnagiri 2, .-\chutarajpur 1, Kusinga 1, Khiching (Baripada Museum) 1 -5
5. Manjuvajra Amarprasadgarh52 -1
6. Manjuvara Ratnagiri (5), Khiching (3), Nagaspur (1), Vajragiri (1), Kalyanpur (1) - 11
7. Manjughosa Ratnagi_ri monolithic stupa -1
8. l\·faharajalila l\fanjusri Ratnagiri (3), OS:M (1), Paschimesvara Siva temple in Talcher (1)-5
9. Vajraraga On the back slab of ,-\ksobhya and Amitabha image at SDO-compound Museum -2
10. Two-armed with book on Ratnagiri monolithic stupa - 29, other images at Ratnagiri -12, utpala and varada mudra (non- Lalitgiri -1, Brahmavana -1, Vajragiri (OSM) -1, Udayagiri- as textual) - both standing and attendant deity in various ma'!cfalas as well as the central image in seating the rock-cut l\fanjusri ma~1alas -8, So lam pur -2, Dihakula -1,
Achutarajr_ur -3 - 58 Total tO 88
Table 3.13 Cult of Eight Bodhisattvas" and other Bodhi'sattvas
1. Samantabhadra Lalitgiri (I) 3, Udayagiri-6, Solampur( s) 1, Ratnagiri(s) 3 - 13
2 l\fai treya Ratnagiri(s &i) 4, Udayagiri 7 (s), Lalitgiri 4 (i), Achutarajpur (i)2, Solampur(s) 1 Khiching (s)1, Baud 1-20
3. Lokesvara In manyplaces 4 Ksitigarbha Lalitgiri (i&ii) 2, Ratnagiri (s) 3, Udayagiri(s) 7, Achutarajpur (I)
1, Solampur ~ 1 Khiching (s) 1- 15 5 Vajrapani Ratnagiri (s&i) 4, Vajragiri (i) 1, Lalitgiri (i) 1, Achutarajpur (i) 1,
Solampur(s) 1, Udayagiri (s) 5, Khiching (s) 6.Akasagarbha Lalitgiri (i) 2, and at other places under Vairap_an:i section 7. Manjusri In many places 8. Sarvan:ivaranaviskakambhin Lalitgiri (i &sl2, Ratnagiri 3 Udayagiri (s)8
52 Guhya Manjuvajra of Amarprasadgarh is_wropgly identified as Trailokyavijaya ')" Sahu (Sahu 1958: 217). The Man;uvqra ma~1ala of the Nz[Pannqyogavalt (ma'!cfala Nu 20) {NtfPannayogtiva!t: 48) descnbes stx-armed Manjuvajra variety to which the Amarprasadgarh image closely resembles. The six-armed deity sits in vqjrapatflikasana. His two principal hands holds a vqjra and ghan{a in vcyrahunkara mudrti.. By the second right hand he brandishes a sword over the heads and holds an arrow in the third right while in the second and third left hands he holds a bow and a lotus. The right face exhibits loud laughter and appears ferocious while the left one shows complete absorption in meditation . •
The Bodhisattvas either surround a Tath-;gata image on the backslab or exist independently and
mentioned as 's' or 'i' respectively.
92
that independent, freestanding Bodhisattvas as part of a mandala is
found exclusively at Lalitgiri. Given the size of these bodhisatttJasas one can surmise the
extensiveness of Tathagata ma~;cfala in Lalitgiri, of which Donaldson has identified five.
3.Il.2.4.Panca Buddha and their emanations in Orissa
3.II.2.4a. Aksobhya
In the absence of elephant or tJrgra symbols by which Aksobhya is identified, the
recognition is mainly made on the basis of the absence or presence of attendant
Bodhisattvas and specific mudrii, in Aksobhya's case it 1s the earth-touching
(bhlfmisparfamudra). His image is found in many places but the largest is found in
Udayagiri where there are at least four Aksobhya mandalas. The following table represents ' ~
his emanation.
Table 3.14: Emanation Of Aksobhya
GODS PLACES GODDESSES PLACES Candrosana Ratnagiri Heruka Ratnagiri, :\chutarajpur, Mahacina Tara ---------
Choudwar Kuruma
Hayagriva As attendant of Lokanatha Janguli Haripur, Kuruma he is found all over Orissa
Krsnayamari Ersama, Ratnagiri (as an Parnasabari Ratnagiri attendant of :\valokita
Jambhala In Numerous places \' asudhara Udayagiri, Ratnagiri, Dharmasala, Lalitgiri
Trailokyavijaya Achutarajpur, Ratnagiri Nairatma Trivienisvara temple, Tiruna
Sambara Ratnagiri
3.Il.2.4.b. Amoghasiddhi
The following table represents gods and goddesses of Amoghasiddhi family.
Table 3.1 J: Emanation Of Amoghasiddhi
GODDESSES PLACES
Khadiravani Tara See different forms of Tara Sita Tara Dhanada Tara Parnasabari Ratnagiri, Dharmasala and Udayagiri
Mahamayuri Kosangarh, Badasahi, Ratnagiri
* Vajra111fta is the sole god in Amoghasiddhi family, and is not found in Orissa.
3.11.2.4. c. Amitabha Fami{y
Similarly the following gods and goddesses of Arnitabha family are found in Orissa. The
Sridhanamala refers to Mahabala and Saptasatika. I have not come across any image of
Saptasatika Hayagriva, who is described as holding t;rgra and da'!1a in his two hands and
has a horse face. At Lalitgiri I found an image of Hayagriva having horse face but his two
other cognisance are absent. On the other hand, Hayagriva in IJandanavinqyi-mudm is
93
FIG. 3 AKSOBHVA & RlS FAMn:Y -
A Aksobhya Surrounded
by 8 Bodhisattvas Ratnagiri (8th-9th Century)
E Jambhala
Solamour (8th Centurv)
8 Vasudhara
Lalitgiri (8th Century)
D Hayagriva
Lalitgiri {7th Century)
F Heruka
c Vajrahunkara/Trailokyavijaya Achutarajpur bronze {OSM)
Bhubaneswar {10th-11th Century)
G
Ratnaairi (8th-9th Centurvl 12-armed Sambara
Ratnaairi (Patna Museum)
found in Khasarpana and Jata.mukuta. Lokesvara images of Orissa. Mahabala also figures
as an attendant deity on Jata.mukuta Lokesvara image. Among the goddesses, different
varieties of Kurukulla and Bh.t;kuti are found in Orissa. On the other hand, I have not
come across any Mahasitavati image. /
Kurukulla: There are three different forms of Kurukulla, namely Sukla-, Uddiyana and
Tarodbhava Kurukulla. The second one suggests the popularity of the god in Uddiyana.
Tarodbhava Kurukulla variety is found at Ratnagiri II monastery area, Udayagiri rock-cut
image, Candana Ma'!1apa in K.akatpur, now worshipped as goddess Narayani. Uddiyana
Kurukulla is found from Achutarajpur bronze hoard. On the other hand Bhrkuti is
found as attendant deity in Jatamukuta and Khasarpana Lokesvara images of Orissa and
also occur independently.
3.11.2.4. d. Emanation OfVairocana
While Vairocana linage is found in many places including at Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and
U dayagiri, his prajna Locana is discovered from Ratnagiri, Gardeipancana and possibly a
three-headed Devi image near the Raghunatha temple at Solampur. The three-headed
De,;.), holds a lotus on her left and a sword on her right. Vairocana's male emanations,
Namasangiti is not found in Orissa. Out of eight goddesses of Vairocana family, six are
found from Orissa. They are Marici, Usnisavijaya, Sitapatra Aparajita, Vajravarahi and
Cunda.
The Buddhist counterpart of Surya is found all over Orissa attesting the
popularity of the goddess in Orissa. Asokakanta lv1arici is found from the bronze hoard
of Achutarajpur, Ratnagiri and many other places. Eight-handed standing Marici, called
Maricivupa, who is without any companion, is found from numerous places. Also found
are eight-armed standing Marici with companion called Samksipta Marici and Uddiyana
Marici from Maricipur and Odosingoda in Jajpur district.
Table 3.16:Emanation ofVairocana
Goddess Place l\farici In many places U snisavijaya Ratnagiri Vajravarahi Choudwar, Baseli Thakurani, Badagaon Cunda Ratnagiri, OSM, Udayagiri, now in Patna Museum, Achutarajpur and
other places
Aparajita Lalitgiri, Udayagiri and Ratnagiri
94
FIG. 3.4 VAIROCANA & HIS FAMILY
A Vairocana Surrounded by Four Bodhisattvas
Ratnagiri (9th Century)
c Maricivupa
Baripada Museum (9th Century)
E Aprajita Trampling Elephant
Lalitgiri (8th Century)
8 Usnisavijaya
Ratnagiri (1Oth Century)
D Vajravarahi
Badagaon Balasora (1Oth Century)
F Six-armed Cunda (in bronze)
Achutarajpur (9th-10th Century)
While Jambhala and Ucchusma Jambhala belong to Ratnasambhava family, Vajra Tara,
Vajrayogini, Vasudhara, Mahapratisara and Prasanna Tara belong to Ratnesa family.
Aparajita image is found from Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri and Udayagiri but in no image is she
trampling on Ganesa as is enjoined in the text .. On the other hand in Orissan images,
she is represented trampling on an elephant (Ch 5). Vasudhara images with ear of corns
are found in many places (Lalitgiri, Ratnagiri, Udayagiri, etc.)
J.Il.2.J. Images Associated with Great Events of
Buddha
While Buddha images of different postures are
found all over Orissa, there are only few images, which
depict the life of Buddha. Most important from
iconographic point of view is the eight-mahapratihtirya
image from Solampur now afflxed to the back wall of
the Raghunatha temple. Descent of Buddha from
Lalitgiri, Brahma and Indra as parasol bearers of
Buddha from Udayagiri, Mucalinda image from
Lalitgiri, Ganiapalli and G. Udayagiri (OSM) are Fig 3.6 Buddha i11 bhttmisparsamudra depicti11g the eight makapratiharya (eight great miracles) of Gautama's life. (Solampur JO'h cmturyAD) other sculptures which deal with Gautama' life.
3.11.3 Longitudinal Studies of Selective Sites
J II. 3.1. Ratnagiri
In terms of size, historical prominence and large number of archaeological artefacts ,
Ratnagiri was the most in1portant Buddhist establishment in Orissa. Excavations have
revealed a huge monastic establishment, which in the past was also known as Ratnagiri
mahavihara. It was not the earliest Buddhist establishment, but from the textual account
in Tibetan and other sources as well from the presence of numerous votive stupa
donations, Ratnagiri was one of the important sites in the Buddhist circuit of ancient
times. In terms of votive stupa presence, which is an archaeological barometer of pilgrim
flow, Ratnagiri could rival the holiest of the Buddhist site, Bodh Gaya.
The nucleus of the Buddhist establishment of Ratnagiri can be dated to S'h
century AD or still earlier, but it began to flourish from 8'h century AD till 13'h century
when the site declined. Taranatha's account also corroborates this date of the foundation
in Gupta times: "Now, near the coast of the ocean, on the top of a hill in the country of
Odivisa in the east, king Buddhapaksa, in the later part of his life, built a temple called
Ratnagiri (rin-chen-ri-bo) ."(faranatha: 144).
95
CANAl;'
Ratnagiri ans surrounding Buddhist sites
RATNAGIRI & SURROUNDING SITES
According to Taranatha acarya Pito brought Ko/acakra Tantra to Sambhala and
other texts, which He taught at Ratnagiri-mahavihara (Sahu 1958: 148). On the other hand
the Blue Annals credits Cheluka, who read KiJiacakra Tantra at Ratnagiri-malfavillara, of
introducing the Kalacakra Tantra in Sambhala (Roerich 1949, 1953, II: 755). Cheluka's
association with Ratnagiri monastery was also highlighted by other Tibetan texts as well
(Mitra 1978:18).
These reference to Ratnagiri attests the importance of the monastic
establishment in the dissemination of Buddhism outside, as well the prorrunence it
enjoyed in Tibet. This is further known from the archaeological remains of Ratnagiri.
In the absence of stratigraphy, the dating of the establishment is difficult but on
the basis of the character of inscription on stone slabs of the stupas, the establishment is
dated to 5th century. However it did not flourish till 7'h century after which there was a
great spurt in building activity. The life span of Ratnagiri monastic establishment, as
known from the archaeological evidence, span across eight centuries from 5th century to
13th century and can be divided into three phases: Formative Phase (5th century to 7th
century AD, take-off phase from 7'h century to 11'h century, Renovation phase from 11th
century to 13th century and period of decline from 13th century onwards .
The monastic establishment is located on the top of Assia group of hills, which
are spurs of Eastern Ghat in deltaic topography defined by SOmetre contour level. The
monastic establishment had an imposing view over its surrounding area and forms the
head of the Buddhist triangle at the base of which Lalitgiri and Udayagiri are located. The
habitational settlements dotted the surrounding area and I found habitational remains in
the form of bricks in the
village as also in Lalitgiri.
The exact nature of the
monastic establishment and
the surrounding settlement
is not known; nor can a
detailed study of the
organisation of sacred space
along the dimension of
public-private 1s studied.
The plan of the Jtupa area
reveals a quadrilateral Fig. J. 7 Door Frame of RLltnagiri Monastery 1 (8tll-9'h century)
enclosure wall that was built in
Period II, dated to 10-11'h century. Remained buried under it are many small monolithic
stupas, suggesting perhaps that the enclosure wall was built to protect the stupa area which
underwent a period of modification and protect them from pilgrims. Earlier pilgrims had
access to stupa area and the buried stupas under the enclosure wall suggest so. However,
the enclosure wall was erected to restrict public access to the main stupa in Period II. In
fact it is important to note that the majority of the monolithic stupas are found only to
the south-west of the main stupa suggesting that the dedication of the votive stupas were
made not near the mahastupa but further southwest.
Monastery 1 and 2 were built in about 7'h century. The mahastupa area underwent
restoration in about 10-11 th century AD when the upper part of the stupa and top edges
of the platform of Period 1 had collapsed and the lower portion of the platform had , been engulfed by a thick shroud of debris. The stupa underwent extensive restoration
which entirely changed its plan: in stead of a polygonal base, it now assumed a circular
plan from its bottom." By 12'h -13'h century, the building activity suffered a great decline
but the site continued to exist till Mukundadeva, in 16'h century, who is credited by
Taranatha to have established in Odivisa" the temple for the insiders and also a number
of smaller centres for the doctrine. Thus the Law was spreads a little." (Taranatha: 321).
The monastery1, built in Catuhs'tlla style, is to north of the main stupa. So far as
plan, embellishment and symmetry are concerned, it is " the finest structure so far
unearthed in India." It is to be noted that the beautiful fac;:ade of the monastery's shrine
belongs to Pd. II.
In terms of the pantheon structure, Ratnagiri preserves a rich variety, indicating
the popularity of numerous cults. Particularly interesting are the images on drum-slab
and niches of small- and votive stupas indicating the popularity of different Buddhist gods
and goddesses. These two diagrams represent the number of deities found on votive
I Gods and Goddesses at Ratnagiri stupas to the south-west corner of stupa I and no,
as well as various rounded free standing found
in Ratnagiri. I I I
I
1 Buddha 2. Dhyani Buddha 3. Manjusn· 4. Tara J. Avalokitesvara 6. Man"ci 7. Vajrasattva 8. Jambhala 9. Other deities 24(Heruka 3, Mahamayun· 1, Knnayaman· 2, Sambara 1, Hayagn"va 1, Aparajita 1, Vasudhara 4, Maitreya Cunda 3, Han"ti 1, Arya
Sarasvati 2 and Usnisavijaya 1).
More important indicators of cult popularity at
Ratnagiri are the votive stupas, which were donated by the pilgrims, who visited this
sacred site and left their cult preference in the form of votive stupas with figures of gods
97
and goddesses in the niches. The following diagram represents vanous gods and
goddesses as found in the niches of monolithic stupas found to the southwest of the main
stupa.
120
J.Buddha 2. Tara J. Marici 4. Avalokitesvara J. 1no
Manjusn· 6. Vajrapani 7. Maitreya 8. Vasudhara 9. "''
Heruka 10. Ekajata 11. Kurukulla 12. Cunda 13. "'
Arya-Saras11ati '" 20
J II. 3.2. Lal£tgiri's Candraditya Mahavihara:
Deities in Ra1nasiri monolithic stupa N• 270
I 2 J -' j (, 7 8 'J Ill II 12 13
With its nucleus going back to 3'd -2"d century BC, Lalitgiri's Candraditya Mahatlihara was
the oldest and biggest establishment in Orissa (Dhauli and Langudi belong to the same
period). The excavation reveals a mahastttpa, an apsidal cairyagrhya, four vihtiras (Monastery
I being two storied), numerous minor structural stupas near the cairyagrf?ya and a number
of votive .rtupas. The monastic establishment was on the Landa hill and on the opposite
across the village is the Parabhadi hill, where I found a stone .rtupa and rock-cut Df?yiini
Buddha image. There were other images which were now shifted to the Site Museum.
Apart from the Buddhist
establishment on the Landa hill, bricks
9'h-1 O'h century are found from the
village suggesting the presence of
habitation settlements close to the
monastic residents of Candraditya
Mahavzhara. In terms of sculptural
remains, Lalitgiri preserves some of
20 19
15
10
5
0
sculptures from Lalitgiri of
<') 1.0 J'-. Ol <') 1.0 J'-.
the oldest Buddhist
including sculptures,
numerous varieties of
freestanding bodhisattt;a.r
forming mandalas around a
1. Buddha in different postures (19) (excluding those in the niches of monolithic stupa), 2.Aksobhya (2), J.Amitabha (1), 4. Abhisambodhi Vairocana (1), J. Tara (J), 6. Avalokitesvara (J), 7. Samantabhadra (2) , 8. Ma£treya (2), 9. Akasagarbha (3), 10. Vajrapani (J), 11. Manjusn· (4), 12. Sarvanivaranaviskhambin (2), 1J. Candraprabha I, 14. Hayagn"va (1) JJ. Aparajita (2). 16. Marie£ (1) 17. Vasudlzara 1
98
Tathagata Buddha. The chart represents different sculptures in Lalitgiri site museum.
Other sculptures at Bhubaneswar branch of the Archaeological Survey of India could not
be examined. 53
Lalitgiri was one of the earliest Buddhist establishments of Orissa, the nucleus of
which goes back to 2nJ century BC. The brahmi inscription on the pavement of cairyagrfya
can be palaeographically dated to 1" century BC. The two earliest structures of Lalitgiri
are the mahastupa and the cairyagrfya. The brahmi inscription on stone pavement, east of
cairyagrfya, Lalitgiri, dated to 2nJ century AD recorded the completion (samvita) of a seat
by Vinaya, a resident of Vadhamana, Vinayadhara and his disciple Buddhitini (a nun), a
resident of Aggotisila. Further, a fragmentaty sherds of dull red ware with inscription of
five letters in brahmi (palaeographically dated to 1 '' century BC) attests the early date of
the caityagrhya (IAR 1987-88: 88). The mahastupa, to north,vest of the cairya was made of
random rubbles and mud mortar and veneered with sand stone astylar masonry. The
. stupa contains a relic casket in Chinese puzzle box style, reminiscent of relic casket
excavated at Taxila by Marshall.
Around the same time as the cai[yagriha, the monastery 3 was built. The structural
activities encountered here point out at least three phases, the lowest layer - la\·er no 4 -
yielded BRW, black-slipped ware, etc. (JAR 1991-92: 84-86). It saw subsequent addition
in Th century AD. Further the earliest sculptures of Lalitgiri belong to S'h century AD,
including the image of Abhisambodhi Vairocana. Layer-3 yielded Gupta moulded
pottery. A boundary wall along northwest and southeast was added. In the fag end of this
phase Lalitgiri saw great sculptural activity; especially many images of Buddha belong to
this phase. The next phase from 7'h-9rh phase saw greatest activity with free standing
Bodhisattvas and other images added. The last phases from 1 0-13th centuries are devoid of
any activity.
J II. J.J:Udayagin· Madhavapura Mahiwihara
Udayagiri's Madhavapura mahallihara was one of three largest monastic complexes of
Orissa- the other three being Ratnagiri and Lalitgiri - all three are in the Assia groups of
hills, which surround the Buddhist establishment on three sides and the entrance is from
the east near by of which flows the Birupa riv~r. The horseshoe-shaped valley is bisected
vertically into northern and southern sections. The northern section contains the
mab"astupa as well as the Monastery 1. The southern section contains the up!uana gri?Ja as
5·1 However thee excavator has mentioned 95 sculptures including fragments. \Ve could exami:1e 51 only. There is also a Ganesa plaque and Mahisamardini Durga as well an image of Jaina tirtbaflkara. (Chaule 2000).
99
well as the monastery 2. Most of the
votive stupas are on this side rather
than near the mahiistupa area.
The mahiistupa was built in the
Mahakarunagarbhodbhava mandala
(see section on ma~tja/a) with four
Dhyani Buddhas in four cardinal
directions between Mahastupa and the
circular Monastery !1 were
pavements on both sides of the of
the pathway measuring 41. 40 sq. m
and 47 sq. m. This might be for
Fig.J.8Madhavapura mahavihara's Mahiikaruniigarbhodbhava mandala with Vairocana on the north,· Aksobhya on th; ., east (towards n"ver), Ratnasambhava on the south and Amitabha on the west (81
h century AD)
congregational purpose. There are at lest two stupas near the Mahastupa area. The
mahcutupa and the monastery 1 were founded around 7'h century AD. The monastery
underwent four phases of consttuction between 7'h to 12 the centuries AD (Nigam 2000:
495-506). On the northwest direction across the monastery lie the rock-cut images of
Avalokitesvara, Kurukulla and others with inscriptions of Sugata and Simyaka inscribed
on some images. (See donation to Buddhist establishments in Chapter 5) .
On the southern side across the ridge is located another two-storied monastery
facing in the direction of mahastupa. To the right of the main entrance lies cell 13, which
contains the secret cella. The main secret cell, which can be entered through cell 13,
appears to be a secret sanctum chamber with niches and a brick platform for rituals. To
its west lies the upasanagrhya, near which stands the half-buried Jatamukuta Lokesvara.
The backslab of the image is inscribed
by a long inscription of twenty-five lines,
which states that the tathagathtidhi[thita
dhatugarbha stupa (a stupa with a relic
inside and dwelt in by the T athagata) was
set up on that very spot. It invokes the
12 10 8 6
. 4 2 0
Sculptures from Udayagiri
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
-------·----------'
name of Tara and Padmasambhava (who I. Buddha 2. Aksobhya 3. Amitabha 4. Vairocana f. Ratnasmabhava 6. Avalokita 7. Manjusn· 8.
introduced Buddhism in Tibet) (Sahu Kurukulla 9. Vajrapani 10. Cunda 11 Aparajita.
1958: 146). The fact that the Udayagiri stupa was built in Mahakam'!agarbhodbhava ma~cjala
indicates that the said inscription's reference to a dhatugarbha refers to Udayagiri ma'!qala
stupa; which contains the relic of an important monk. Udayagiri stupa might have
contained the relic of Padmasambhava, who is invoked with other deities of the Buddhist
100
pantheon. The difference between his age (8'h century) and the character of the
inscription (9'h century) precludes the possibility of his deification unless he was attached
to Madhavapura mahc;vihara. It might be due his association with the Udayagiri monastery
that the monastic establishment acquired great fame.
The upiisanagrhya is a rectangular shrine chamber with twenty-three pedestals
length-wise and 6 each on two sides. It faces east and there is a flight of steps to
approach the pedestal from the monastery 2. To the north west of this upiisanagr~a is
found the largest concentration of votive stupas, twenty-one votive stupas in front of the
Monastery 2, which also include some panctfyatana ones along with seven more near
upiisanagr~a.
Detailed analysis of deities in Udayagiri reveals the following deities, which are
represented in the following diagram. 54
J II. 3.4 Langudi
Langudi was another early historical Buddhist establishment, which continued for about
thirteen centuries. This long continuity of Buddhist sites of Orissa was one of the
remarkable features, which is in contrast
to many sites of the Krishna valley,
which declined after S'h century AD.
The excavation of Langudi
reveals a mahastupa on the northern side
of the hill. With a square base its drum
is made of laterite block. In contrast to
the other Buddhist sites, Langudi
contains rock-cut stupas and images in
high relief (Not rounded as in western
Deccan sites of Kanheri and others).
Fig. 3.9: Knob ware with concentric circle; mandala symbolism in earry histon"cal site of Radhanagar near Langudi { -41
h century AD)
Towards the southeast of mahastupa is a rock-cut rounded stupa. A number of relief
images of Buddhist deities, Bhrkuti, Tara, Manjusri and Buddha (from right to left) are
found. The excavation brought to light a monastery, number of Buddha images in
different postures (having affinity with Buddha images of Java), number of brahmi
inscriptions, which refer to name of the monastery as pu_spa sabhargirjya, identified by the
5~ This excludes many o ther deities, which are now in Bhubaneswar.
101
Excavator as famous Puspagiri monastery of Xuanzang's time. 55 The excavator claims to
have found the first iconographic representation of Asoka. Near the site of Langudi is
the Patapur mafha, which preserves many Visnu images of 11 '" century AD. Other sites
near Langudi are Kaima, which is a rock-cut Buddhist site of early historical period.
Kaima contains rock-cut caves and brahmi shell inscription of 5'" century AD character.
Near Kaima is the early historical fortified site of Radhanagar, which reveals knob ware,
terracotta earrings, and beads of various stones (Mishra 2002: 506-50).
These are some of the major Buddhist establishments of Orissa. All of them are
concentrated in the cluster of the Birupa-Kimiria-Keluo. Other sites in the belt include
Vajragiri, Chandia, Kolanagiri, all of which preserve remains of stupa and monastery.
Most of the sculptures of Vajragiri have been shifted to the State Museum. However
recently a votive stupa and unidentified bodhisattl;as have been found. The bodhisattva has
four hands; he wears an upavita of kiipa!a; holds rosary, a sword, varadti. In the Praci valley
Kuruma (11 km north west of Konark) emerged as an important Buddhist centre in 7'"
century and continued for a long time. In the Daya valley Aragarh and Kukrimunda
preserve remains of stupas.
However archaeological remains cannot be the only basis of hierarchisation of
sites as the importance of an establishment depended on many other variables - size,
catchment area of the pilgrims, cultural traditions and myths associated with the site and
the perception of the lay community.
3 II. 4. Ma1Jt}alas in Stupa and Sculpture
The concept of mm!cfa!a, as old as the Arthafastra, pervaded many realms in early medieval
Orissa. Concentric mqf!da!as made of powder constituted an integral part in the rituals of
Vajrayana and other religions. In sculpture the five Df?yiini Buddhas and Bodhisattvas are
represented in mandala form while in political sphere the epigraphic evidence of the ~ :)
period refer to many marzqa!a. Further this mat!qala theme permeated in the organisation
of sacred space as in case of Tambiah's cosmological topography or Slusser's Nepal56.
Shepard has characterised this extensive use of the ma'!1ala symbol as ma'!r/alisation and
S> "In a great mouDtain on the south-west fron6ers of the country is a sangharama called Puspagiri (Pu-sepo-ki'-lr): the stone stupa belonging to it exhibits very many spiritual wonders. On fast days it emits a bright light. For this cause believers from far and near flock together here and present an offerings beautifully embroidered canopies; they place these underneath the vase at the top of the cupola (Beal1958: 205}. 56 Tambiah has conceptualised TI1ai polity from the perspectives of ma~cjalas (Tambiah 1976). Zansen has studied the Nepalese town of Sankhu wlule 1fary Slusser conceptualises Nepal as a ma!l1ala on the basis of the Syqyambhu Purm!a (Slusser1982) See (Zansen 1986). In the context of Orissa, Puri and Jajpur can be conceptualised in the form of ma'!1ala .. Puri h~s been described a3 forming a conch field (sankha K{etra) while the Vira)O Mahatmya describes J ajpur as a sakafa ma~cjala on the centre of which stands Viraja (Padhee 2002).
102
analysed the ma'!1ala form into three basic and interrelated elements: boundedness,
hierarchy and importance of centre (Shepard 1985:121).
The organisation of political space into ma'11alas was one of the important
features of polity of early medieval Orissa, particularly during the Bhaumakaras and the
Somavamsis. Jajpur was the capital and numerous secondary rulers refer to their domain
as mandalas. Some of the mandalas which found reference in the inscriptions of this ~~ ~~
period are as follows: Svetaka ma'11ala around Dhenkanal district, Khinjali Ma'!tfala
around Sonepur, Baud and Anugul region, Khijjinga ma'!~ala around Khiching m
Mayurbhanj district, Kodalaka ma'!,qala middle Brahmani valley, Airavata mm;cfala m
southern part of Dhenkanal district, western part of Cuttack district and northern part of
Nayagarh district, Yamagarta nw!~ala comprising of Dhenkanal Keonjhar and
Sundargarh district, Banai mm;cfala in Panposh and Bonai subdivision of Sundargarh
district, Cakrakota ma~1ala around Bastar, Koraput and Kalahandi district, Kongoda
ma'!dala in south Puri and Ganjam district (around Bankadagarh) and Khindarisranga
manda/a in Aska region of south-western Ganjam (Ganguly 1997:193). '.
Like the organisation of political space into mm;1ala form, the representation of
Buddhist divinities in ma'jqalas came to be extensively used in the sculptures, stttpas and
other art objects from 7'h century onwards. The Vajrayana sa\\. human body as a ma!!cfala
at an extreme level of symbolisation. A mandala is anarrangement of deities conceived of .. , in sets laid out along the axes of cardinal points around a centre (Gellner 1996:190). A
ma'!rfala is divided into five sections, while on the four sides of a central image or symbols
are disposed, at each of the cardinal points, four other images or symbols are placed
(Tucci 1970).
The Buddhist ma'!rfa!a consists of a series of concentric magical circles, containing
figures of Buddhist divinities. Unlike Tibet and Nepal no Buddhist painting is found in
Orissa. On the other hand, stupa and sculpturalma'Jd,alas are the modalma'!.cfala forms in
the Buddhist sites of Orissa. These Buddhist ma'!~alas may consist of stupa images of
single slab sculpture with Tathagata Buddha or a form of ManJusri, usually Dharmadhatu
or Dharmasankha variety of Manjusri surrounded by four or eight companion deities or
of large free standing bodhisattvas, as in case of Lalitgiri, which are aligned to form a
ma'!cjala. These ma'!cfalas can be d~ted to 8'h-9rh century AD. The N~spannqyogaval(
Kr!JclSamuccqya and V qjra?Ja!/namohma'11aL opqyika give elaborate descriptions of these
ma!lifa!as. There is abundant indirect evidence in the form of biographies, legends from
Tibet and China associating Orissa with early texts on mandalas. The Chinese records # •
refer to one ruler of Odra, Subhakaradeva (660-758) introducmg Tantrayana Buddhism
103
in China at the beginning of the 8'h century. He arrived at the Chinese capital at the
invitation of Tang Hsuan-tsung. Subhahakara, who was originally a prince of Central
India, obtained Saddharmapm!cjarika-samadhi most probably at Ratnagiri and after long
pilgrimage reached China and introduced the Mahavcirocanasmnbodhi (Yamamoto 1990). He
also made an iconographic copybook in his own hand of the ma'!fiala deities of the
S arvatathagata-tattvasamgraha ( S arvatathagata-tattva-satngraha 1 9 81). This text survives in
Japan and known as Gobushinkan. Both Sarvatathagata-tattvasmi1graha and the Gobushinkan
emphasises the importance of Mahavairocana and the interrelated
Mahakarunagarbhodbhava- and V cyradhatu-JJlar;,1ala. These two ma'!cfalas form the basis of . .
Japanese Shingon Buddhism and, according to Japanese legends, were transmitted by
Mahavairocana to Vajrasattva who kept them for several hundred years within an iron
stupa in South India until they were recovered by N agarjuna (Snodgrass 1988 I: 111-19).
That Orissa was indeed the cradle of ma~qalas and Tantrqyana is further known
from the Tibetan texts, Pag Sam Zang and the Blue Annals, which refer to Sarah, also
known as Rahulabhdra as introducing Gu!ya.ram(ya-tantra to Nagarjuna (Roerich 1949 I:
359-360). The Avalokitesvara Padmapani image Inscription at Khadipada records that
the image was a pious dedication of the mahama'!tjalacarya pm~maguru Rahulacari during
the reign of Subhakaradeva (Ghosh 1942:247 -8). The title suggests that Rahulacari was
well-versed in mandala . . . In the formation of mmzqala in the Guh]asa»ity. Tantra (6'h century AD), each
Tathagata was given a direction, a mantra, a colour, a prqfna and a guardian of the gate
(Bhattacharyya 1968: 45). Vairocana plunged into the concentration called the Diamond
of the Great Passion of the Tathagatas: All the Tathagatas enter the three diamonds of
body, word and spirit (Tucci 1970: 99). Vairocana is placed in the centre. Shifting from
the role of to Aksobhya, he blessed " the four-cornered dustless mat;rjalas of Great
Pledge in the bhagas of the diamond ladies and then seated, in the centre, he began the
emanation of the mmpjala."ry!ayman 1980: 125). The modal representation of deities in
mandala form is the following alignment of the Buddhas: ..
104
Fi.3.10 Diagrammatic Representation of Vajradhatu Maf!t;fala (four Xfour=16
bodhisattvas) 1
A: MahavaU:ocana B. AksobhyaC. Ratnasambhava D. Arnitabha E. Amoghasiddhi
4
3
6 Vajramala
sw
\' ajrakctu N
Vajrahasa C Vajraratna \XI E
2 Va1ratcja
s
5 Vajralasi
SE
2
4 Vajrabhasa
\XI 3
Vajratiksna D Vajrahctu S N
Vajrac.lharma E
c.l Dharmaparamita
\Y,I
b c R.1tn:lp<1r::lllli[J A Knrmaporzunit;:~
s a
V:1jraparamita E
\' aJrasattva E
3 2
N
Vajraraga B VaJfara1a N S
4 Vajrasac.lhu
\XI
7 \' ajragita
NW
2 \' a)faraba
s 4
\"a1rakarma E Vap·asandhi E \\'
3 \' ajrayaksa
N
8 VaJratutya
NE
Included among the Orissan examples displaying this alignment are several monolithic stupas at Ratnagiri (Jtupa no. 30 from the group in front of the Monastery II and Jtupa no. 227 from the group near J!UjJa no. 1. In some, Vairocana replaces one of the Tathagata.>, as on the exterior of the Udayagiri .rtupa \vhere he replaces Amoghasiddhi. Else where, as on a bronze .rtupa of Achutarajpur he replaces Ratnasambha7a. Slightly mor~ complex is the ma!1qala on Jtupa 37 at Ratnagiri from the monolithic j·tupa near Monastery 2 where the PrqjnaJ of each Tathagata is inserted into the caitya medallion above (Mitra 1981 I: pl. CCLI). Rather than facing intermediate direction as enjoined in the Ni!}Jannqyogrmal/ (Nispannqyogcwa!i:'34-3S, 37, 58, 61), the Praj!"faJ face the same direction as the Tat!Jagatas.
1 [\doptcd from Vajrad/Ja/!1 Mandala from (Snodgrass 1988 II: fig. 306).
105
for whom they serve as consorts). This positioning of Prf!}nas has possibly more to do
with spatial constraints of the monolithic stupa than a deviation from the text.
From the Buddhist sites of Orissa five types of ma'}tja!as are found- 1.the stupa
mandala with four Dhyani Buddhas flanked by two Bodhisattva each; 2. Sculptural ... ma'!rfalas of eight BodhisatttJa.r around a Buddha on a single stone slab; 3. Four X four
Bodhisattvas surrounding four Dhyani Buddhas with the fifth one at the centre; 4. free
standing Bodhisattvas forming a ma'!rfala and the last type being the mandala diagram on the
back of image. The last category- JJJa'!.,qa!a diagram- is incised on the back of Jambhala
image at Ratnagiri which consists of two concentric circles along with the Buddhist
creed, a ma11tra and letters and numerous inscriptions representing Jambhala, Vasudhara,
dance deities, deified paraphernalia and musical instruments (Mitra 1981 I: 230-232).
3 II. 4.1. Stupa mandala with four Tathiigatas and eight Bodhisattvas .. As referred above there are numerous stupa ma!JrJ.alas, the most elaborate being the stupa
maf!rfa!a of Madhavapura mahavihara (Udayagiri stupa). The Udayagiri stupa, dated to 9th
century AD, exhibits affinities with Mahakat7l!lagarbhodbhava-mm!rja!a of the
Mahavaimcanabhzsambodhi, including the base which is square (Donaldson 2001:149). On
this ma'!,qala the four Tathiig,ata.r are included with Vairocana on the eight-petalled central
lotus of the triadic world conception of the Mahakarugagarbhodbhava ma1Jtja!a, while in
the third rank are the BodhzsatttJaJ- Manjusri (E), Sarvanivaranaviskhambin \'YI),
Ksitigarbha (N) and Akasagarbha CW), in the "Guidance in the Secret Man,1ald'(Ch.
A.rvi). The centre lotus has the four Tathagatas facing the four directions while four
Bodhisattvas face the intermediate direction i.e. Samantabhadra (SE), Avalokitesvara (NE),
Manjusri (SW) and Maitreya in NW (Snodgrass. 1988: 354, Mmitzsch 1991: 88-91;
Lokesh Chandra 1971).
On Udayagiri Madhavapura Mahavihara1
Aksobhya on the east is flanked by
Maitreya and Sarvanivaranaviskhambin, Amitabha on the west is flanked by Lokesvara
and Vajrapani, Ratnasambhava on the south is flanked by Samantabhadra and
Akasagarbha, while Vairocana in the south is flanked by Manjusri and Ksitigarbha.
Fig.J.ll Mahakaru'!agarbhodbhava Maf!tfala stupa at Madhavapura Mahavihiira
Arnitabha flanked by Lokesvara and Vajrapani
Ratnasambhava flanked Stupa
Vairocana flanked
Flanked by Manjusri and Ksitigarbha
by Samantabhadra and 1\kasagarbha
Aksobhya flanked by i:vfaitreya and Sarvanivaranaviskakambhi.n
106
Similar large stupa ma1Jrfalas are not found elsewhere but sculptural evidence suggests that
there might have existed other stupa mandalas elsewhere in Orissa. One Arnitabha in1age . , from Udayagiri, now in the Patna Museum, has two Bodhzsattvas, Lokesvara and Manjusri
flanking him. Similarly at Lalitgiri an Aksobhya image is flanked by Manjusri and
Lokesvara Similar ma;ujalas existed in Udayagiri as known from Amitabha image now in
Patna Museum, Aksobhya (Banerjee 1931 }
J II. 4.2.Sculptural lvia11tJalas u'ith Eight
Bodhisattvas
Mandalas consisting of a central deity either of a .• .•
Tathagata or a variety of Manjusri, being surrounded
by eight Bodhisattl;as was quite popular in Orissa and
else\'vhere. The flrst archaeological evidence of such
mandala is a terracotta plaque from UP, now in
Metropolitan Museum, New York (Donaldson
2001:127). One of the oldest reference to the cult of
eight Bod!Jzj·at!IJas is the BNJJetsu-hachi-klcbijo)i11-
kyo, f1rst translated to Chinese in 3'J century
AD (Granoff 1968-69: 90). However the
name of the eight Budhlsat!tJaJ differ in later
texts. Though the Guh)'mamqja-tantra refers to
eight Bodhisatlvas, the f1rst references to the
Fig 3.12 Vairocana nUUJtfala, sun-ounded by eight bodhi'sattvas (six 011 the back slab and two on pedestal). The bodhisattvas on the right of Vairocana are Samantabhadm, Maitreya and Lokesvam; Akasagarbfza, Vajmpani and Manjusn'(L); on the pedestal
is Ksitigarbha holding the jewel-on-lotus(r) and Saroanivamnaviskhambin (8'" centw:y)
name of these bodhlsa!tt;as in a ma'jrjala are found in the MahalJairocanabhisambodhi and the
Astamandaldka.wtra (ibid. 95). The Nispannayogavalienumerates in detail the name of these "-... 't/1 #
Bodhi.rattt;as.
In Orissa the eight Bodbisattt;a_r surrounding a central deity are found in many
places. One of the most beautiful linage is the Vairocana mm;f!ala of Udayagiri in which
Vairocana is surrounded by eight Bodbisattt;as on the back slab (six on the back slab and
two on pedestal). The Donaldson deals them elaborately (Donaldson 2001: 130-131). To
his list be added another eight-bodhisattva mandala found in the storeroom of the ' .
Khiching Muse'-lm. I could not examine the image in detail but Maitreya and Manjusri
and other bodblsatlvas surround Aksobhya.
J II. 4.3. Vajradhatu Maty'!ala -JourX four Bodhisattvas
Slightly different was the Vajradbalu-ma'l1ala on the basis of which great s!upa of
Borobodur was built \Lundquist 1997: 283-306). Vajradh'atu-tJJa!;ama'!rfala as described in
1C!7
•
the N~spannqyogiivali/19 and Saroatathagata-tattvasamgraha has four Bodhisattvas surrounding a
Dhyani Buddhas on the third circle. Thus a set of four Bodhisattvas is linked to a particular
Dhyani Buddha, and the ma;;1ala has four Dhyani Buddhas and sixteen BodhisatttJas, apart
from Vairocana who is at the centre. There are other textual ma!Jcfalas like
Dha17JJadhatuvagisvara mat;qala, Manjuvajra ma'!qala where such schemes are also described.
The alignment of Buddhas and Bodhisaii?Ja.r in the Vqjradhatu mahamm;rjala is as
follows: Vairocana at the centre, Aksobhya (E) surrounded by Vajrasattva, Vajraraja,
Vajraraga and Vajrasadhu; Ratnasambhava (S) surrounded by Vajraratna, Vajratejas,
Vajraketu and Vajrabhasa; Amitabha in the west is surrounded by V ajradharma,
Vajratiksna, Vajrahetu and Vajrabhasa and Amoghasiddhi in the north is surrounded by
Vajrakarma, Vajraraksa, Vajrayaksa and Vajrasandhi.
In Ratnagiri, sculptural evidence indicates the existence of such a mandala. The
SDO compound of Jajpur (now in the sculpture shed in the compound) contain two
images from Ratnagiri- one of Aksobhya and the other of Amitabha - each surrounded
by four Bodhisattt;a.r. Aksobhya is surrounded by Vajrasattva, as known front the l!ajra and
possibly bell, Vajraraja on the upper right, who hold his cognisance ankusa (goad),
Vajraraga on the lower left dispensing arrow from the bow, while on the top left is
Vajrasadhu, who holds a tJajra (Shashibala 1989:130-150). In the Amitabha image, the
Bodhisattvas on the lower left is holding a sword and can be identified as Vajratiksna on
the basis of S an;atathagata-tattt;a.ranzgraha (S an,atathiigata-tatttJa.ranJgraha, 1981: 19). The
Bodhisattva on upper left corresponds to Vajrahetu, whose two hands are clenched in
front of his chest, where he holds a circular object (SamatathCigata-tattlJa-smhgraha: 22). The
Bodhisatt?Ja on lower right is not recognisable while on the upper right is possibly
Vajradharma. Another Amitabha image surrounded by four Bodhi.ratt?Ja.r are found from
Ratnagiri. Huntington identifies the presence of a similar V ajradh:itu tJlalfqala at Cave 6 at
Aurangabad (Huntington 1981: fig. 5).
There are other textual mandalas with four Buddhas and sixteen Bodhi.ra//iJaJ, chief •• of them being the Dharmadh?l!ut;agi.bara mauqala (Nz:spannayoga/)ali,., 21), the Manjt{/)ajra
ma'!1ala (Nzjpannayogcwa!/20), Durgoti-pari.rodhana ma~qala (Nzjpannayogcwai/ 22) and Maria
mandala . . . J II. 4.4. Mandalas with Eight Freestanding Bodhisattvas ..
108
~~-----------------------------
According to Donaldson, the fmal stage in the evolution of ma~rjala concept was the
introduction of eight freestanding Bodhisattvas forming a maiJrfala around a central deity.
He identifies four sets of such
Bodhisatl!;as at Lalitgiri. One possible
central deity around which free
standing Bodhisattvas could have
surrounded lS an unage of
Abhisambodhi V airocana, now in the
sculpture shed whom Chanda wrongly
identified as Rsabha (Chanda 1930: 9).
Abhisambodhi V airocana, who seats
in vqjraparyaka.rana a t!i.rvapadma and
wears the robe of a monk. The mantra
inscribed on the back of the image
appears m chapter stx of the
Mahavairocanabhi.rambodhi: The Fig 3.13 Mahavairocana with his mantra on back slab (as
part of possible Vairocana mandala at Lalitgiri (8'h mantra reads "nama!; century) '·
.ramantabuddhcmam a t;ira t!tfnJ khm!J" and in the text appears in a context where the .ramadhi
means the "diamond play ,·ictorious over the five mara.r, the non-apprehension of the six
destinies, and omniscience'', while the term Vira refers to the Enlightenment body
(Wayman & Tajima 1992: 13).
Out of the four set of Bod!Ji.ralttJaJ identified by Donaldson, Set 3 is the without
ornamentation and forms the earliest.
Mm!qalas of different traditions are also found in Orissa. Noteworthy among
them being the Vairocana surrounded by four Pujapokarana in Udayagiri, Heruka
surrounded by eight dakinis at Kasba and Vajratara ma'!qala at Ajodhya and Dhanada Tara
Mm;fla!a of Solampur.
The Vqjratara ma!tcfa!a as enumerated in the Nzfpannqyogrivali/ and other texts
describe the deity being surrounded by ten ptf_japokarmta.r- but in the Vajra Tint Image at
the Uttaresvara temple at Ajodhya in which she is surrounded by four deified
P19apokara'!a who are placed in the fo~ cardinal directions in the text. On the sculpture
Pu~pa Tara, at the lower right, holds a flower rather than a garland of flower as described
in the text, Dhupa-tara holds an incense burner rather than torch, while Gandha Tara holds unguents in her both hands (Ghosh 1980:74-78.).
109
3 II. 5 Conclusion
The chapter sho\ved the diversity and expanston of Buddhism in a poly-religious
environment in which all cults expanded in this period. In many sites all cults coexisted.
In other, one cult had major presence but other religions continued to exist. Buddhism
tried to adapt itself in such an environment by innovating new deities and introducing
new . rituals for the new deities. Brahmanical religions were building large temples,
appropriating autochthonous cults, emphasized pilgrimage, numerous sthalapura'!.as were
written highlighting the Mahatnrya of sacred places. On the other hand, as this chapter
shows Buddhism had innovated ne\v deities, introduced new rituals and extended the
theme of mandalas to .rtupas and sculptures. The period between 7'h to 12'h centuries is .. characterised by this vibrancy. The question is how does one conceptualise the
relationship between two expanding religions i.e. brahmanical religions and Buddhism;J
Where did they get resources to expand their base and build huge establishments? While
the next chapter discusses the complex issues of religious equations between brahmanical
religions and Buddhism, Chapter 5 makes an attempt to depart from epigraphic records
of 'who gave what to whom' to broader aspect of 'markers' of support, particularly seals,
plaques and amulets.
110
Appendix 1 Buddhist sites in Coastal Orissa
Cuttack District
Name of the site Findings
Adasl_)ur Cintamani Tara Akulesvara temple Maitreya,
Manjusri
Ali Tara
Alia bad Avalokitesvara
Amarava ti-Kataka Manjusri
near Chatia Asia pat Brick stupa and monastic complex
Asia pat* Brick stupa and monastery remains
Bagalpur Crowned Buddha
Bandaresvara Votive stupas with images of Dlwani Buddhas m theniches
Baneswarnasi Buddha and Khasarpana Lokesvara (OSlvi),Prajnaparamita (Padmesvara Siva temple niche), Simhanada Tara(Patna i'vfuseum), Simhan ada Avalokitesvara, Khadiravani Tara in Patna lvfuseum
Barudi Manjusri in Maharajalilci
Baujang Buddha in V1tkhy:a'na muddi
Benipur Headless Bodhisattva
Bhattarika Bhattarika is a Tara itnage Chandia* Stupa remains and other sculrtures now stolen. Choudwar Stupa rruns, Buddha (Indian :\Iuseum), Buddha mask 1!1 bronze,
A. valokitesvara, Heruka I now in Sambalpur, Khasarpana Lokesvara (I;\I)Tara (Calcutta) Vajravarahi (N.K. Sahu), broken inuges at Se,casadan compound, K.hadiravani Tara
Cuttack town Cunda at Bania Sahi, J atamukuta Lokesvara, Sugatisandarsana-Lokesvara, Amitabha at Solapua Ma Temple at Pilgnm road Brought from Udayagiri
Dharmasala Buddha, Lokesvara, Dakini, Tara, six-armed Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara (OSI\·1)
Diha ahi(Kahnduala Krsna-Yamari, i\1arici I temple at Kaduapada Dondua matl1a (Kalyanpur) ·
Buddha descending from heaYen, i\Ianjughosa, Six-armed female deity
Duburi hill Stu_pa railings, door jamb
Durgapur Arapacana Manjusri ( Donaldson) Erada Buddha head and /ambhala
Fakirpatna Buddha
Jajpur town and Buddha, Aksobhya, i\rnitabha, huge /walokitesvara in SDO Compound Its precinct Museum ( from
Ratnag1ri), l\Ianjusri image it1 1-iraja temple Complex, Buddha 1m age 111 the J agannath temple complex
/araka Chhak Two Tara images, Sugatisandarsana Lokesvara
Kaima/ Puri-Kusana C0111S, small Images of Dhyani Radhanagar Buddha, caves, Elephant of early historical
Period, fortified town at Radhanagar, stupa railings
Kalanpur58 Monastery, stupa, Buddha, Hariti, i\IanJUSri, :\ valokitcsyara, i\farici, (Brahmavana) Vajrasattva
Kapila Mahakala temple, Buddha, :\ valokiteS\'ara. Dakini
Kesariapur and Jambhala and Buddha in vakbyana mudr;" Baujang
111
Kendra para Avalokitesvara, Buddha, Aksobhya mandala .. (from Udayagiri), broken (Mausi Ma temple) Vajrapani image
(Lalitgiri), J atamukuta Lokesvara. Kendupatna Ma.itreya Kha.ira Buddha (OSJ\1), Avalokitesvara, Manjusri, Tara,
Khandara Chak A. bodhisattva holding the stalk oflotus in his left hand Kolanag1ri* Ruins of a Buddhist monastic establishment, a
headless Bodhisattva image
Kuas Mangala J ambhala and mow1d of a stupa
Kundesvara Tara image
Kusupur :\ valokitesvara Lalitgiri* ilfonasteries, stupa, votive stupas and other objects
Langucli* Laterite stupa, rock-cut stu pas, rock-cut images of Pra jna-param.i ta, Tara, and d Buddhas 111 different postures, Monastery I mages of Buddha
in Vakl:iina and bhumisp_arlamudra=mudrci Madhuvana near Tara, Avalokitesvara Oddiso Mahang_a Headless Buddha with dharma-cakra symbol, two-armed.\ valokitesvara, Maricipur Eight armed l\farici Nagaspur "\rya Sarasvati, Khasarpana Lokesvara, 1\.fanJUVara, Prajnaparamita,
Cintamani Tara Naraja Four-armed Jatamukuta, a Bodhisattva image Nasikkot::ian Vajrasattva Natara Four-armed )atamukuta, Tara Nathuabara J ambhala, Buddha (OSJ\11) Odisoandeigoda Votive stupa, Dakini, Uddiyana-J\1arici, Tara Oratapurgarh Stupa remains (Donaldson) Paraclipgarh "-\psidal caitya, Jatamukuta Lokesvara, Tara,
fort (Mohapatra, Donaldson)
Ratnesvara'' Stupa remains, punch-marked coin
Sakuntalapur on Votive stupa, Buddha NHS Salepur Buddha, Vairocana Siddhesvara temple Visnu Lokesvara, Jatamukuta Lokesvara and a Bodhisattva image with
makara as his tJaiJanas Singhpura near Votive stu pas with Buddha images in the niches, ,-\ valokitesvara image Oddiso Taranga .-\ Dhyani Buddha flanked by two Bodhisattva,
nuns of a possible Buddhist establishment (personal communication, Ekadasi Padhee)
Tara pur Ruins of Brick structure. Buddha, J atamukuta Lokesvara, Prajnaparamita, ilfanjughosa, ilfarici, Tara
Vajragiri Ruins of monastery and stupa, ,\ nloki tesvara (OSJ\1), Khasarpana Lokesvara (OS:\1), Manju sri(OSI\1), Vajrapani (OSJ\f),votive stupa and a four-armed Bodhisattva image
Varahapur Buddha, and other Buddhist images
112
Name of the site Findings Balasore District Avana Buddhist seals, votive stu pas during the digging of a pond, Buddhas, Avalokitesvara
and Candi temple Ayodhya86° Marici, Vajrapani, Varahamukhi and Buddha, Manjusn, Tara, Rsabha in the i'vfarici 45'10.7" E; temple, Vajra Tara in Uttaresvara temple now in the local museum. Ganesa, Buddha 21 33 29.7 cakra, ruins of a temple and many other archaeological materials
J ayarampur* Stupa ruins, copper-plate grant of the Bhaumakaras, Buddha (bronze) Dhupasila Mahattari Tara Budhar Candi Image of Marici as per the description of the priest (16'h century temple) Sheragarh Simhanada Tara(Bhuinpara) Outer wall of_-\. Senapati's house contains a 86° 49'41.5" E; 21 Astamahabhaya Tara image in VaJraparyakasana attitude, Mucalinda Buddha along 26 11.8 with a small Visnu image in a small village shrine
Badagaon Vajravarahi
Badia Three-headed Devi
Gandhibedha S tupa remains, coins, J ambhala I
Khaira Buddha, Avalokitesvara, coins, Vajraparu (all in OSM)
Kupari * Caves, three-headed Devi, !vfayadevi (Donaldson), Simhanada Tara worshipped as ' Parvati in the Siva Temple
Kasba Buddha, ,-\valokitesvara, Heruka surrounded by eight Dakinir, Tara Bardhanpur Tara
--l\fangalpur86° Prajnaparamita now in OSM Tarae) as Gramadet>at/ Ora Sahi/ K.hasatpana Lokesvara
I Dakesvari pitha _J Khangara/ Ruins of stupa and monastery, K.hadipada .-\ valokites\·ara image of Rahulacari in I Khadipada OSM, two Huge Buddha image now in OS:\f and another Vajrapani image in OS:\ I. J
Solampur *86° ,-\t Santhesvari Thakurani and Jagannath temple _-\moghapasa Lokesvara, 20'38.2" E; 20 51 ,-\valokitesvara, Hariti, Prajnap-aramita/Tara in small black chlorite, broken 59.4.N. Lokesvara, bust of bust of Hayagriva in !Jandancwinayi mudr{i, half -buried image of
Lokesvara,Jambhala, headless Vajrapan.i, :\faitreya, In Jagannath temple Complex Votive stupa, J atamukuta Lokesvara, Tara, Locana, Manjusri, Tara with inscription on back slab, Buddha in Dhyana mudra, Buddha with eight great scenes, monastery Vajrasattva now in Indian Museum Calcutta
Soro Broken images lingas with dbaranis Sajjangarh Si..x i\farici image from Koisiangarh Balasore town Balasore museum, Avalokitesvara, K.hasarpana Lokesvara,
stupa remains, Maitreva Kaupar Ekajata Gohiritika* Stupa remains Basta .-\ valok.itesvara
Puri District
Sites Findings i ,-\chutarajpur .-\ bronze hoard of ninety-five sculpture consisting of 75 Ruddhist sculptures,
ten J aina and five brahmanical sculpture belongtng to 9<h_12<h century ,-\0
Amarprasadg:uh Guhya i\fanJuvara ,-\maresYaragarh .-\ valok.itesvara now in OS.\f .Aragarh Stupa, km:Jle, a rare form of A valok.itesv:-.ra, \' ajradharma,
Dharmadhatuvagisvara ;\Ianjusri :\rkarata )ambhala
~ Astaranga i\'Jarici --------'
Bada Tara Jambhala, l(urukulla, .Jat:unukuta Lokes\·ara I
I
91 Bairo Marici Ban_I>ur Khadiravani Tara (rikiria temple) and Daksaprajapati temple
Batetesvara temple A valokitesvara
Benupada Clay votive stupa Buddhanath temple, Samksipta Marici Gardeipancana Pingalaksi temple, Buddha, stupa remains, Vajravarahi in Praci valley Museum, Prajnaparamita Gardeipancana Kuruma Monastery, Buddha, J atamukuta .1\ valokitesvara, Yam an taka Latah a ran Tara Bhubaneswar Stupa railings, stupa at Dhauli, Cintamani Lokesvara, Maharajalila ivfanjusri
and others
Denua Buddha
Other than these the following Buddhist sites are mentioned in Donaldson's book. They
are; Denua (Buddha), Duburi Basta ( three-headed Devi), Ghorodia ( Avalokitesvara),
Gopalpur ( 1vfarici), Juinti (Tara), Kapila Prasad (stupa and Dhanada Tara), Kukrimunda
Stupa ruins), and Sundarapada (Tara).
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Appendix 2: Epigraphic Reference of donation to the
brahnnanical tennples
Name of rremple Identified Villages
the What is ocation Inscriptions Donor donated Nature of temple
5-71h Century AD
South Orissa six halas of Rohanki in Ronaki in Clucacole
Narasingapal land along with Chicacole area
li plates Hastivarman four niveSanas Naravana temple
Santa Bomalli Haribhata
Plates Indravarman l~rama Bhagavat Ramesvara
North and central Orissa
.\san pat Construction \san pat, Inscrip!ion Satrubhanja of temple Siva temple (eonjhar (eonjhar Orisssa
Kanas plate of
I Lokavighrah Officials of a Udita Yisaya Village ivfatha of i\faninagesvara (Nor known not known
Maninagesvara I Not known but in Northern I
!Northern Gan1am I
Kanas grant Bhanudatta k/Ji/tJa Ganjam !
\Vestern and south-western Orissa i Nala Grant I Podagarh J Stone Construction of Padamula Inscription SkandaYarman Pura, a holding of Visnu temple 'Podagah
Rajim stone Construction of temple for Rajivalocana temple, inscription \'ilasatu11ga Hari Rajim
The Panduvamsi Grant
Vidyapadraka ' Lodhia plate Mahsivagupta village Isanes~'ara Bhattaraka{Sival_ INot known
Sirpur stone !Lakshmana temple,
I Inscription j\Iahasi\·agupta Six villges Visnu ~irpur Senakapat Durgaraksitta,a Madanarati(Siva)
I inscription subordinate of Sivagupta I I Balarjuna
GandhesYar J ojjaraka, of i
temple i\fahas1ngupta' Pronsion of Inscription s time flowers GandharesYara(Siva Gandheswar temple
Nagadeva and I
Kesava,
J Sirpur Stone subJects of Inscn2_tion Sivagupta Funds Siva ::.iva temple
Periods from 7th-10'11 centuries
South Orissa, Srikakulam and Vishakhapatnam
Grants of the Gangas of Svetaka
Indian Indr:Jvarman Village Temple for Bhattaraka ------------
I i\.fuseum Bhetisrnga Svayamhukesara and Sri Plate Madhava
115
Bangalore Devendavarma Sidha ta village Paramesvara( Siva) plate n Chaco de Vrintamntika B h a ttfi rOO:( -------Plates Devendavarma village
n
Chicacole Satyavarman Taru gillima Village god; but the ------------
Plates place is known as a Saiva sthanakam
Galavalli Manujendravar village Gundesvara ----------plates n1an
Sudava plates Haduvaka Yagesvara Bhattaraka( ---------
Devendravarm gram a Siva) an
Pattali Plates Yuvaraja Pattali gr:ilna Srimat Kancipotti ---------
Rajendravarma Bhattarika n
Coastal and Central Orissa
Bhaumakaras grants (736-923 AD)
Terundia Subhakara II Lavaganda For mat/;as ---- '\nugul region, plate of ~nzma Orissa Subhakara Hindol plate Subhakaradeva Noddilo grama Baidyantha INot given (\n ugul in central
Bhatliiraka,enshrined Orissa Pulindesvara (Siva)
Baud Tribhuvanama Two villages Uma l\-fahesvara temple Not given Contai and tamluk plates(two hadevi ·egion of iviedinipur sets) and Tamluk districts
Camunda Vatsadevi Installation of A temple Not given In J ajpur town inscription an image of
Camunda
Hamsesvara :t'vfadhavidevi Temple A Saiva temple named Hamsesvara Oajpur town tem_p]e construction Madhavesvara temple Dhauli A private A ma{ha A ma1;a for Aghyaka- ------ Dhauli near Inscription person of varati Bhubaneswar
Santikara II's time
Tenth to the mid-12<h century
Bhanjas of Khinjali-mandala (9-lQ<h centuries)
North and North eastern Orissa
Patna Sri Vijaya A grama Siva in L"nga form Temple not Not identified Museum named Known plates Vabahiravada,
on the bank of Mahanadi
OSl\-f plates Netabhanja Gundapataka To the deity Temple not Not known of village Purusottama known Netabhanja
Baripada Dhruvaraja Three villages Most likely Bhimasri Not given Not identified but Stone temple of Pedagadi most likely in Inscriptions Kaptipada block of
Mayurbhanj district Baripada Kumaravarrr.ar Two villages Most likely Bhima INot given Not identified I Stone a1a
"ot ldentifi,d bu~ Inscriptions of Dhruvaraja
Baripada Indistinct Three localities Goddess Lilesabhadra Not given
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Stone Durga( Most likely ~tnost likely the region Inscriptions Bhimesvari) [around Paedagadhi
The Somavamsi grants (Entire Orissa except deep South)S•h-Uth centuries
Udyotakesari Erection of a Brahmesvara(Siva) Brahmesvara, ...............
Brahmesvara temple BHUBANESW
temple lf\R
Lingaraja Viravarakesarin Sixty-five unit Kritt:ivasa ~mgaraJa Not identified
temple of land in Citra
Inscription and Gajisya ./
vrsaya
Sonepur Maha bh avagup Gottaikela Sri Aditya( Visnu) Gotarkela village !plates of ta ,Luputara J!,rCima near Sonepur
Imperial Ganga Grants (Ganjam, Srikakulam district)(lO•h-Uth cenuries)
Madras Vajrahasta Tamaraceru Kotisvaradeva 59(Siva) ~ottisvara Chicacule in }.fuseum ~ram a temple f:>rikakulam district Plates
Chodagangade Cakivadagriima Rajarajesvara Not known INot identified Visakhapatna va (Siva)residing in m plates of Remgujed grama Codaganga }.furupaka Chodagangade Murupaka, N arendresvara(?) Not known Gulumuru village in plates of va Gumuruvasaka Srikakulam district Codaganga Sellada plates Chodagangade Sellada grama Bhagavat:i, a goddess of INot known Village Sailada in
va the village Paralakh eim udi district of Orissa
Lingaraja Chodagangade Devadharmmas K.irttivasa fLingaraja temple Not identified temple va n
inscription
IT agannatha Chodag:111gade i\fa!ada village Purushottama Jagannatha i\faluda in Chillika temple va temple region in Puri district inscription
Boddapadu Erayama J\fadaramana T alesvara Not identified ~oluvarttani in Plates varttibi f)rikakulam taluka of Vajrahasta the same district
Bhubaneswar Pramadi, the Perpetual lamp Kedaresvara (Siva) (edaresvara ------inscription younger temple
brother of Codaganga
i\fukresvara Pracari Perpemallamp Muktesvara temple l\1ahadevi, inscription queen of
Coda ganga
There are many small endowments, both of the kings' kith and kin and private donations
made to various religious establishments. Most of them are bilingual and outside the
scope of my time.
'''! Tamaraceru village was also given as a grant to 300 hundreds brahmanas in the Chicacole plates of Devendravadnan, as well as to certain brahmanas in the Ch.icacolc plates of Indravarman suggesting renewal of grants again and again. i\ccording to Sten Konow, Kottisvara was evidently the name of the temple of Siva a Tamaraceru (Konow 1907-1908: 170-173).
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