Indigeneity,scienceanddifference:notesonthepoliticsofhow1

SolveigJoksaandJohnLawbaSámiAllaskuvla,SámiUniversityofAppliedScience,Hánnoluohkká45,NO-9520Guovdageaidnu,Norwaysolveig.joks@samiskhs.nobDepartmentofSociology,TheOpenUniversity,WaltonHall,MiltonKeynesMK76AA,UK,John.law@open.ac.ukandCentreforScienceStudies,DepartmentofSociology,LancasterUniversity,Bailrigg,LancasterLA14YN11thOctober2017;ThePoliticsOfHow20171011.docx

1WearegratefultoNilsHenrikMåsø,SonjaMåsø,EvaMåsøandOleJohanGaupfortheirhospitalityandtheirwillingnesstosharetheirknowledgeofDeatnusalmon.Solveigwouldalsoliketothankthemanyfisherpeoplewhosowillinglysharedtheirknowledgewithherinthecourseofherfieldwork,theSámiAllaskuvlaforfinancialsupportforthePhD-researchonwhichthispaperisbasedandhersupervisorBrittKramvigforhersupportduringthefieldworkandthewritingofherdissertation.JohnwouldliketothanktheCentreforAdvancedStudyinOslo,Norwaywhichfundedandhostedtheresearchproject‘ArcticDomesticationintheEraoftheAnthropocene’duringtheacademicyearof2015/2016andtheworkofwritingofthispaper.

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AbstractThispaperexploresacolonialcontroversy:theimpositionofstaterulestolimitsalmonfishinginaScandinaviansubarcticriver.Theserulesreflectbiologicalfishpopulationmodelsintendedtopreservesalmonpopulations,butthisriverhasalsobeenfishedforcenturiesbyindigenousSámipeoplewhohavetheirowndifferentpracticesandknowledgesoftheriverandsalmon.IntheorytheNorwegianstaterecognisestraditionalecologicalknowledge(TEK)andincludesthisinitsbiologicalassessments,butinpracticethisdoesnothappen,soSámifishingpracticesandtherealitiesthattheyenactaredisappearing.Thepaperexploreshowtoconceptualisecolonialdifferencesinknowing.Drawingonrecentanthropology,itaskshow(scientific)‘settler’and(Sámi)‘nomadic’enactworldsandtheirrealities,suggestingthatunlikethelatter,theformercreateasinglerealityintolerantofalternatives.Thefocusisthusona‘politicsofhow’,andthewaysinwhichcolonialrealitiesandknowledgesmightintersectlessdestructively.

KeywordsNature,environmentalcontroversy,indigenousknowledges,biologicalmodelling,TEK,Sámi

OntologyOntology,onceabranchofphilosophy,isnowcentraltoSTSwhereittypicallycomesintheformofthreeclaims:one,thatrealitiesareenactedinpractices;two,thatsincetherearedifferentpracticestherearealsodifferentenactedrealities;andthree,thatthesepracticesandrealitiesoverlapandweavetogethertogenerateontologicalmultiplicity.2Severalpoliticalcorrelatesfollow.First,sincerealsareembeddedandenactedinwebsofpractices,realitiescannotbeeasilyshiftedorwilledintobeing:thereisnocomfortherefor‘alternativefacts’(Law2009).Second,sincerealitiesarenotgivenandtherearedifferentreals,itbecomesimportanttoattendtoa‘politicsofwhat’aswellasa‘politicsofwho’(Mol2012).Andthird,asapartofthis,italsobecomesimportanttoattendtothewayinwhichpracticesengageorfailtoengagewithdifference,ortowhatwemightthinkofasa‘politicsofhow’.3

Inthispaperweexplorethepoliticalandanalyticalwhos,whats,andhowsofacolonialcontroversy:theimpositionofstaterulestolimitsalmonfishinginaScandinaviansubarcticriver.Theserules,whichreflectbiologicalsalmonstatisticsandtheprojectionsoffishpopulationmodels,areintendedtopreservesalmonpopulations.ButthisisariverthathasalsobeenfishedforcenturiesbyindigenousSámipeoplewhohavetheirowndifferentpractices,andunderstandingsoftheriverandsalmon.IntheorytheNorwegianstaterecognisestraditionalecologicalknowledge(TEK)andthisisincludedintheassessmentsmadebybiologists,butinpracticethisdoesnothappen.Asaresult,arangeofSámifishingpracticesincludingdriftnetfishing(onwhichwefocus)arebeingextinguished,andtherealitiesthatgowiththosepracticesarealsodisappearing.

Wearenotneutralobservers,andtakeitthatthereareseveralreasonswhySámifishingpracticesandtherealitiesthatgowiththeseshouldbesustained.Mostobviously,thisisamatterofcolonial

2Therearemanyaccounts.See,forinstance,Mol(1999,2002),ViveirosdeCastro(2004),Latour(2004b,a),Law(2004),Henareetal.(2007),Thompson(2007),Escobar(2008),Green(2013),WoolgarandLezaun(2013),andPickering(2017).3Asensibilitytothe‘politicsofhow’underpinsmuchcontemporaryworkinSTS.See,forinstance,Callonetal,(2009),Latour(2013),WatertonandTsouvalis(2015)andVerran(2002).

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politics:awrongisbeinginflictedonSámifishersandlong-standingpracticesarebeingstifled.Again,sinceSámifishingpracticeshavebeensustainableforcenturies,itseemslikelythattherearelessonshereforoutsidersthatitmightbesensibletoexplore(Berkes2012).Butunderpinningouraccountisanotherconcernthatisbothpoliticalandpractical.Aswehavejustnoted,weareinterestedinhowtowork,andworkwell,acrossdifference(Verran2002).Thus,ifthepracticesofSámifishersontheonehand,andfisheriesbiologists(andpolicymakers)enactdifferentworlds,thentheissueis:howmighttheseintersectinwaysthatarelessdestructive?Ourcorefocus,then,isondifferenceandonhowthisisdone.

DriftnetfishingAnethnographicmoment.WeareintheheartofSápmi,theSámiareainnorthernScandinavia.Wehavedrivenmorethan200milesacrossthetundraandalongthebanksoftheDeatnuRiverinFinnmark,thenorthernmostcountyinNorway,toSolveig'schildhoodvillage.4WehavebeenwarmlyreceivedbyherfriendsNils-HenrikandSonja,andtheirdaughterEva.Eva,wholivedandworkedforfifteenyearsinOslo,isnowbackinSápmiwithherreindeer-herdingpartnerandtheirchild.WearesittingintheirkitchenfiftymetresfromDeatnulookingacrosstoFinland,forthoughitwasnotalwaysso,Deatnunowformsthe(colonial)borderbetweenNorwayandFinland.Nils-Henrikhasfishedsincechildhood,andJohnisaskinghimaboutthenamesfordifferentsizesofsalmon.Yesterdaytheycaughtalargemalefish,agoadjin,whichisnotsogoodtoeat,thoughokaytosmoke.Better,saysNils-Henrik,aresmallluossa,uptotenkilos,thoughtherearemanynamesfordifferentkindsofsalmon.Ashetalksaboutwheretheyswim,thevariouskindsofsalmon,andhowyoucatchthemEvalistensattentively.Atonepointshesays:‘WhenIwasyoungIdidn’tlearnaboutdriftnetfishing.Mybrotherlearned,butIdidn’t.’Now,however,shewantstolearn.Infact,sheisjuststarting.Yesterdayshewentoutintheboatwithherfatherforthefirsttime.Thereasonsheisnotoutwithhimnowisthatitiswindyanddifficulttocontroltheboat.

Indriftnetfishingtwopeoplegooutinanarrowboataroundfivemetreslong.Whentheygettotherightplaceintherivertheycuttheoutboard,andthepersonsittingonthebowscullsverygentlydownstreamwiththecurrent.Thesecondpersonstandstowardsthesternandpaysoutanet.Thenet,thirtyorfortymetreslong,spreadsoutacrossthecurrenttowardsthemiddleoftheriver.Heldupbysmallfloats,italsotrailsalongthebottomoftheriver,makingagentleupstreamcurveasitdragsbetweentheboatatoneendandabigfloatattheother.Apartoftheskillistoholdthiscurvedshapeasyoudriftslowlydownstream,butyoualsoneedtoknowwheretherearerocksontheriver-bedsothatmightcatchthenet.Soonepersonrows,andtheotherholdstheendofthenetinonehand.S/hesensesifithassnagged,orwhetherasalmoniscaughtinthenet.Intheotherhands/heholdsalongpolefeelingtheriverbed,punting,andoccasionallybangingthesideoftheboattofrightenfishintothenet.

RulesDeatnu,whichisoneofthegreatsalmonriversoftheworld,hasbeenattractingtouristssincethe1850s(Solbakk2011).Thosewholivetheremayfishwitharodfromthebankorfromaboat(manytouristsdothistoo),useadriftnet,oraweirtodrivethesalmonintoav-shapednet.Therearestrictrulesaboutwhocanandcannotfishwithwhichtechniquesinwhichperiodsandatwhattimeofday(JoksandLaw2017).Roughlyspeaking,onlyaparticulargroupoflocalpeoplecannet.Variouspointsarise.

4DeatnuisknowninNorwegianastheTana,andinFinnishastheTeno.

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1. Theserulesarecomplex.Indeed,thoughthereisco-ordination,theregulationsarerelevantlydifferentontheNorwegianandtheFinnishsidesoftheriver.

2. Theyaredeeplyrestrictive.Everyoneisconstrained,butformanylocal–oftenSámi-–peopletheconsequencesareprofound.Driftnetfishingislimitedtoasmallishnumberofpeoplewholivealongtheriver,andthetimeswhentheycanfishhavebeencut,andcutagain.SámihistorianAageSolbakk(2016)reckonsthatfixednetandweirfishinghavefallen70%sincethemiddlenineteeneightiesbutthecutscontinue:in2017driftnetfishingwasrestrictedtofourdaysayear.

3. TheserulesareseriouslyenforcedbytheDeanučázádagaGuolástanhálddahus/TanavassdragetsFiskeforvaltning(TheTanaWatercourseFishManagementAuthority).

4. Therestrictionsreflecttheauthorities’concernsaboutoverfishingtogetherbasedonsalmonpopulationdataandtheprojectionsoffishstockmodels.ADeatnu‘WorkingGroup’ofFinnishandNorwegianexpertscollectsstatistics,modelsfishstocks,andrunspopulationprojections(Erkinaroetal.2012).Theirconcern(andconclusion)isthatmanyDeatnusalmonsubpopulationsareunderthreatfromoverfishing.Samipeopletendtoagreethattherearefewersalmon,butworryaboutoverfishinginquitedifferentways.

SothisisapolicycontroversythatisalsoadisagreementbetweenthepracticesofbiologyandthoseofTEK,wherethereisanalmostcompletepowerasymmetrybetweentheprotagonists,andthepolicybeingimposedwillpushSámidriftnetandweirfishingtoextinction.Perhaps,then,Evaisonlyjustintimetolearnthecraftoffishingfromherfather.Orperhapsitisalreadytoolate.

History,politics,anddifferenceTounderstandthisbetterweneedsomecontext.Briefly,overfivecenturiesSápmi,thearealivedinbySámipeople,wascolonisedbyfivenationstates:Denmark,Norway,Finland,SwedenandRussia.Unequaltradingrelationswereimposed.Borderswerecreatedwhichcutlong-distanceannualpathsofreindeermigrationandkinshiprelations.Settlerscamefromthesouth.Extractionindustriesbecameimportant(mostrecentlyoilandgas).Farmingwaspatchilyattemptedthoughoftenabandoned.Christianitybecameobligatory(thoughnineteenthcenturyLaestadianLutheranismalsobecameatoolofSámiresistance).InmanyplacesitbecameshamingtotalkSámi,andthelanguagewasforbiddeninschool.Indeed,itbecameshamingformanytobeknownasSámi.Andthen,asthestatestightenedtheirgriptheydidallthethingsthatstatesdo:theytaxed,theymapped,theycountedandtheyregulated.5Land,people,fishing,thenumbersofreindeer,andmostrecently,biodiversity,allweretallied,knownthroughthosetallies,andwere–are–subjecttostateregulation.Sámiwaysofbeingwereandarebeingsqueezed(Sara2009,Benjaminsenetal.2015,Johnsen,Benjaminsen,andEira2015).

Otherfactorshavealsobeenatwork.Economicprosperityandtechnicalchangemeanthatmostofthetimereindeerherdersliveinhouses,notlávvu(tents),andusesnowmobilesandquadbikes.Andthoughsomewouldargueabouttheallocationofresources,since1945Scandinaviansocialdemocracy,viciouslynormalisingthoughithasalsobeen,hasbroughtthebenefitsofawelfarestate.Butthelastthirtyyears–andlargescaleprotests–haveseenotherkindsofchangestoo.Norwaynowformallyrecognisestherightsofitsindigenouspeople(NorwaysignedILOConvention169in1990.)EducationintheSámilanguageisavailableinsomeschoolsinSámispeakingareas,andintheSámiAllaskuvlaspecificsubjects–journalism,teacherandkindergartentraining,duoji(handicrafts),andreindeerherding–aretaughtatuniversitylevelinSámi.ThereisaNorwegian

5TheexemplaryaccountisMitchell(2002)

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Sámiparliament,theSámediggi.6Around95%ofthelandinFinnmarkhasbeenreturnedtothejointadministrationoftheSámediggiandthecounty.Landrightclaimsbytraditionalownersareonlypatchilyrecognisedandtheprocessworksbadly,butthedoctrineoflegalterranulliusinabsenceofsettlementhasdisappeared.

So,hereisthebottomline.Ontheonehand,insomewaysthingshavechangedforthebetterintherelativelyrecentpast.Butontheother,Sámiwaysofbeingarestillunderpressure,andSápmiisinmanyrespectscolonial.Sofishingrestrictionsarematchedbydraconianrulesaboutreindeerherdingandnatureconservationwhilethereisalsoconstantpressureonlandandlanduse.Butwhattomakeofthis?AndwhattomakeofthelimitstofishingbypeoplesuchasNils-Henrik?

DwellinganddifferenceTothinkaboutthis,weneedastrategyforthinkingaboutthesignificanceofdifference.Twocontrastingpointscatchwhygettingthisrightissodifficult.

First,differenceisubiquitous.Albeitoftenunrecognised,itisalsowithin.AsAnnemarieMol(2002)notes,itishardatworkevenwithinthepracticesinasinglehospital.Butifitiseverywhere,thenwhendoesitcountassignificantandwhendoesitnot?Howandwhenshoulditbebroughtout?Howcanweavoidthedangerthatnoparticulardivideistakentobesignificant?Suchisthefirstissue.

Thesecondtugsintheotherdirection.Thisisbecauseunlesswearecareful,significantdifferencebecomesessentialisedand/orbinary:thereis‘Sámi’thisversus‘Norwegian’that.Thoughsomeindeedproposethatdivision,boththeoryandthecolonialhistorythatwehavejustsketchedsuggestthathoweversignificanttheymaybe,differencesaremultiple,allravelledupandfractal(Mol2002,Law1999,Strathern1991).SoinnorthNorwayanythingthatis‘Sámi’includes‘Norwegian’,andvice-versa.Andthisreasoningappliesjustasmuchtothequestion:whoisSámi?Ifidentitiesaremobile,complex,oftenblurred,andtheeffectofhistoriesofpower,thentheanswercannotbestraightforward.Inpractice,forinstance,theSámediggitreatsthisasamatterofbothself-perceptionandlanguage.Ifyou,yourparents,grandparentsorgreatgrandparentshadSámiasahomelanguage,andyoualsoperceiveofyourselfasSámi,thenyoucanregistertovote(Sámediggin.d.).Overall,however,thelessonisclear.Thereisnoonegoodwayofmakingsuchcuts.Theyarefractalandeachincludestheotherateverylevelofscale.Thelessonisthatwhatisbestintermsofmakingdivisionsdependsonwhatyouaretryingtoachieve.

Sohowtothinkaboutwhatishappeningforfishingpeople?Tothinkaboutthisinthecontextofapoliticsofhow,wewanttomakeananalyticalcutbetweentwomodesoflivingandtheirsocial,spatialandtemporallogics.TodothisweborrowfromMazzulloandIngoldwhodistinguishbetweennomadicandsettledformsofdwelling.Theywritethatforpeoplewhoaresettled:

‘Toleaveone’splaceofabodeis…totakeastepupwards,fromasmaller,moreexclusiveplacetoalarger,moreinclusiveone’.(MazzulloandIngold2008,30).

Heretheworldisexperiencedasasetofnestedboxes.InSTSlanguage,wemightsaythatsettlersenactregionalformsofspatiality(MolandLaw1994)inwhichtheworldisexperiencedandperformedasanisometricspace-timebox,asingle‘one-worldworld’(Law2015).Thisbox-worldispartitionedintospatialandtemporalsectionscontainingpeople,animalsandothersomewhatstableobjectswithparticularattributesthatrelatetogetherinmoreorlesspredictableways.Andatleastinprincipleitispossibletoidentifythoseattributesandrelationsinwaysthatarerelatively

6TherearealsoSámiparliamentsinFinlandandSweden.

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general.Such,forinstance,istheassumptionthatunderpinsthebiologyofsalmonpopulationsdiscussedbelow.

However,MazzulloandIngoldaremuchmoreinterestedinthealternativewayofbeing,thatofnomadism.Forherders,atleastinthepast,theworldwasnotlikethis:

‘Forwhatiscalledtheforest,meahcci…,isunderstoodnotsomuchasatree-coveredexpanseasatexturedenselyinterwovenfromthepathsalongwhichpeoplecarryontheiractivitiesofherding,fishing,berry-gathering.’

Ingoldvisualisesthedistinctionso:

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Themessageisthatforherderstheworldisasetofrelationsarisingfromembodiedmovements.Peopledonot‘existinplaces’,but‘placesoccuralongthelife-pathsofpeople.’(MazzulloandIngold2008,32).Noticethereversal.Movementcomesbeforespaceandplace.Tasksarisewhentheyariseandclocktimehaslittleornorelevanceinthisworld.Indeed,theweatheris‘[t]heonlymasterofdeadlines’(MazzulloandIngold2008,34).Nothingcanbeanticipated–excepttheunexpected.

‘[W]hatcountsisnotpunctualitybutreadiness,nottheprecisetargetingofapointintimebutacontinualmonitoringofthewaythingsaregoing,inaworldinwhicheveryoneandeverythingisinmovement,eachattheirownpace,alongalternatelyconverginganddivergingpaths.’(MazzulloandIngold2008,34)

PutinSTSlanguage,thespatiallogicofherdinganditstaskscapesisnotregional,butvariablyrelationalorfluid,enactingrealitiesthatarecontingentanduncertain(MolandLaw1994,deLaetandMol2000).Theyarefarremovedfromthesingleworldwithitsspace-timeisometrybeingenacted(butsimultaneouslypresupposed)bythepracticesofregionalism.Thisalsomeansthattheaspirationstogeneralexplanationthatbelongtosettlementdonotarise.Thereisnosinglehiddenorderbehindexperiencewaitingtoberevealed.Thisisnotaone-worldworld.Butthereissomethingelsetoo.MazzulloandIngolddonotexplorethis,butcentraltothisworldofencounterswithpowerfulactorsistheimportanceofrespect.Livelyandpowerfulentitiessuchastheweather,orforestsandlakesaretobetreatedwithcaution–indeedwithdeference.Lifeisuncertain.Asitunfoldsitdependsonsuchactors.Failuretoshowrespectmayleadtodisaster.Inpractice,then,

7MazzulloandIngold(2008,31).

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Sámipeopleoftenthankthoseactors,orblessthem(LawandØstmo2017),andtheyalsosetlimitstowhattheyaskandexpectofthem.

ThelogicoffishingNilsHenrikisnotanomad.HehaslivedallhislifeinahouseonthebanksofDeatnu.Butthoughtheterminologyneedsadjusting,thisfocushelpsustounderstandhispracticesoffishing.8So,followingMazzulloandIngoldwewanttoarguethatthelogicoffishingisrelationallyfluid.Tousedriftnetsistoliveinanunfoldingworldthatisinastateofconstantchange.NilsHenrikknowsaboutwaterlevelsinhispartofDeatnu.Heknowsaboutthesignificanceofthetimeofday,themomentintheseasons,thewaytheyhaveunfolded,thepredispositionsofthemanykindsofsalmon,theactivitiesofothersontheriver,thetemperature,sunorcloud,wind,andtherainorsnow.Allareonthemove,andallhavetobehandledtogether.Momentbymoment,whenyouareoutintheboatwiththenetinyourhand.Butalsowhenyouarethinkingaboutwhetherornottogofishing,orwhere.‘[W]hatcountsisnotpunctualitybutreadiness,nottheprecisetargetingofapointintimebutacontinualmonitoringofthewaythingsaregoing’,Mazzullo’sandIngold’swordsexactlydescribetherealitiesofdriftnetfishingonDeatnu.Thisisnotaworldinwhichthereismuchpredictability.

AtthesametimefisherssuchasNilsHenrikworryaboutthesalmon.Theydon’tworkwithnumbers,buttheydoask:willthesalmoncome?Willtheykeeponcoming?And,importantly,iftherearefewerofthemcoming,thenwhy?Therearedebates(JoksandLaw2017),butcautionandrespectforriverandsalmonarecentraltodriftnetfishing.Thisexpressesitselfinarangeofways.First,younevertakemoresalmonthanyouneed.SoNilsHenrikusedaweirtocatchfishbutstopped,partlybecauseheneededtocheckiteachmorning,butpartlybecausehedidn’tneedthefish.Respect,then,ispartlyaboutsettinglimits:youtakewhatyouneedbutnomore.

Andthenthereisasenseofplace,ofmodesty.HereisanexcerptfromSolveig’sfieldnotes.SheisoutontheDeatnufishingwithPetterSomby:

‘Wetakeabreak.Petterrowstothebank,andwedrinkcoffee.Andthen,whilewearesittingonthebank,weseeaboat.Theyarefishing.Wewatchastheycatchasalmon.Solveigcallsout.‘Canyousee?Ifwe’dbeenontheriverthatfishcouldhavebeenours.’‘No,’saysPetter.‘That’snotright.Becausethatfishwasnotmeantforus’Headds:‘Wecan’tcatchthefishthatarealreadycaught.’9

Modesty,asenseoflimits,arelationalrespectforindividualfish,aboutwhatisproperandwhatisnot,aboutwhatispossibleandwhatisnot,alloftheseareatwork.Asenseofpropriety,ofwhatisfitting,respectforwhatisappropriate,thesearethreadsthatrunthroughSámifishingpractices.Afishgivesitself,oritdoesnot.Thisexpressesitself,too,inanaversiontonumbers:youdonotcountthefishyouhavecaught.Todosowouldbedisrespectful.Butneitherdoyoutakethewrongkindofsalmon.Soyoudonottakebreedingsalmon,čáhppesguolli(blackfish).Probablyyoudonotgofishingwhensalmonareabouttobreedanyway,butifyoucatchablackfishyoureturnit.Andthenagain,itisalsoimportanttofishinwaysthatleavethesalmoninpeace.PetterSomby:

‘Nowadaystherearesomanypeoplefishing.Andofcoursetheywillcatchfishiftheyfishdayandnight.Theproblemisthatthefishnevergetanypeace,notevenforanhour.’(JoksandLaw2017).

8DespitetheDeleuzianresonances,wehereconfineourcommentarytoMazulloandIngold.9ForthisquoteinanothercontextseeJoksandLaw(2017).

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Allthismeansthatyoudonotgototheriverasapastime.Youneverplaywithfish.Fishingisemphaticallynotarecreation,ahobby,oraformofsport.Theideaofcatchandreleaseismorallyrepugnant.Instead,fishingisaserioustask,apartofliving,awayofcopingwith,andlivingfromandinrelationtoadifficultenvironment.Itisanactivityconductedrespectfullywithappropriateandrespectfullimits.

CollisionThefollowingmorningwetalkedagainwithNilsHenrik.UsingthebigSámi-Norwegian/Englishdictionaryhecommentedthatmanyyoungpeopledon’tknowtherightwordsorusethemproperly.Theymay,forinstance,usethetermgoadjinforanymalesalmon,notjustthosethatareverylarge.AswetalkedhewaslookingfromtimetotimeattheDeatnuoutofthekitchenwindowhopingtofish–andwhenhefoundaneighbourtorowtheboathewasoff.AllofwhichisMazzullo’sandIngold’snomadisminpractice.Butittellsusonlyonehalfofthestory.Thefluidpart.Becausealongsidethistherearetherulesandregulations.Andnowwegettothecrunch.

In2016Nils-Henrikwaslimitedtoeleven24-hourfishingperiods.(Aswenotedabove,in2017thefigurewasfour).10SoaswedrankcoffeewithhimonaThursdaymorninghealsoknewthatunlesshegotoutontheriverbeforemiddayhewouldnotbefishingagainuntilMonday.Evenwithouttheruleshewouldhavebeenkeentogetoutontheriver.Thestateoftheweather,theriver,theactivitiesofotherfishers,andyesterday’sexcellentcatchalltoldhimthatthiswasagoodmomenttofish.ButherethedivisionsignalledbyMazzulloandIngoldalsocomespowerfullyintoplay.Becausewhatishappeninginthisfractalworldisthatafluidlogicwithitsresponsiveopportunity-seizingtemporalitiesiscollidingwiththeboundedclocktimeembeddedinthestateanditsregulations.Thelatterhasnoplaceinthefluiditiesoffishing,isignorantofthosefluidities,andknowsnothingofthecompetenceoflocalpeopleandtheirunfoldingpreparednessbecauseitforcesthemtofishatpredeterminedandpossiblyinappropriatetimes.

Solveighaswitnessedthiscollisionmanytimes.Therulesstopyoufishingwhentheconditionsareright.Ortheystopyoufishinginanothersectionoftherivereventhoughconditionsarerighttherebutnotinyourown.Ortherulesallowyoutofishbutthereisnopointindoingso,oryoucan’tbecausethereisnoonetofishwith,thewateristooloworhigh,ortherearetoomanytourists.Thusthoughtheyarebothpresent,theworldofrulesandtheworldoffishingareindeed,justthat,worldsapart.Aswehavejustsaid,theworldoftherulesisignorantofthefluiditiesoftheworldoffishingandtheirrelationalcontingencies.Itenactsanotherkindofreality,apartitionedspace-timecontainer,aone-worldworld.

Sowhydoesthismatter?TheanswerisencapsulatedinEva’spredicament.Shewantstolearnhowtofishsoshecanpasstheskilltoherson.Butthisisnotgoingtohappenunlessshecangooutintheboatwithherfatherandwatchandpractiseandtalkwithhim.Learnfromhimnotonlyhowtocontrolaboatandhandleanet,butalsohowtheriverworks,wherethedeepchannelsrun,wherethesalmonarelikelytobeswimming,andwheretherearerocksthatmightsnagthenet.Andallthiswilltaketimeandpatienceandpractice–togetherwiththeabilitytoseizethemoment.Butthisrelationaltimeisbeingtakenaway.ThismatterstoEvaandherfamily,butitmattersmorebroadlytoo.Andhereisthebottomline.Withfishinglimitedtofourdaysayearitwillbecomenearlyimpossibleforyoungpeopletolearntheartofdriftnetfishing.Indeed,perhapsitalreadyis.Afluidsetofreals,atradition,itsknowledges,andawholewayoflivingwillallhavedisappeared.Thesettledrealsofpowerwillhavechokedafluidalternative.Andthisiswhywechoosetoattendto10TheregulationsrestrictedfishingtobetweennoononMondayandThursdayfrom20thMayto15thJune.In2017fishinghasbeenfurtherrestrictedfrom1stto5thJunebetweennoononMondayandWednesday.

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thisparticulardifferenceandmakeouranalyticalcutinthisparticularway.Wewanttoprotestaboutthisprocessofontologicalsuffocation.Wewanttounderstanditasamalevolentexpressionofthepoliticsofhow.

TheWorkingGroupToseehowthisworksweneedtomovetotheworldoffishstockmodelling:

‘Thebasicprocedureofthisapproachis(1)thedefinitionofstock-specificspawningtargets(i.e.thenumberofspawningfemalesalmonneededtofilltheproductionpotentialofastock),(2)anestimationofthenumberofspawningfemalesinastockafterafishingseason,and(3)acomparisonofthetargetandthespawningstockestimate.’(Erkinaroetal.2012,5)

ThiscomesfromtheofficialTanaRiverWorkingGroupwhichaddsthatDeatnuproductionpotential11andstockingtargetsarenotbeingfulfilled(Erkinaroetal.2012,5),thatthenumberofreturningsalmonisfalling,andthatsomeofitsthirtygeneticallydistinctsalmonpopulationsareunderthreat.Thethrustofthereportisthatfishing(‘exploitation’)needstobeurgentlyreduced,andwehaveseenthatthisisreflectedinpolicy.

FormanySámithefindingsoftheWorkingGrouparecontentious.Forinstance,theyareconcernedaboutthepredatorsnowprotectedbyenvironmentallegislation.Againstthis,theWorkingGrouparguesthat:

‘Thereisverylittlebiologicalbasisforarguingthatnaturallyoccurringpredatorsareathreattosalmon,andpredationmustratherbeviewedasanintegralandnaturalpartoftheecosystem.’(Erkinaroetal.2012,5)

Sámicriticsworry,too,aboutthestatistics,notingthatinsomeyearstherearemoresalmonthanothers.TheWorkingGroupindeedwantstoimprovethosestatistics(thesemostlycomefromlessthanidealsamplecatchstatistics(Erkinaroetal.2012,45ff)),butarguesthatdespiteannualvariationsthelong-termtrendisclear,anditisdown.Thentherearedebatesabouttheroleoftouristfishing(Erkinaroetal.2012,26).Andfinally,thereisthestatusofTEKitself.ThoughtheWorkingGroupislegallyrequiredtoconsiderthis,localsfindthattheirknowledgebeingmarginalised,andtheWorkingGrouparguesthattheroleforTEKisnecessarilylimited:

‘LEKandTEKislargelyoralandvisual,intuitive,experiencebased,subjectiveandhighlyqualitative,whilescienceisbasedonsystematicdatawithinamodel-orhypothesis-basedframeworkwhich,throughtheuseofastrictsamplingdesign,are[sic]largelyobjectiveandquantitative.’(Erkinaroetal.2012,29-30).

Asisobvious,thisrepresentsaparticularandcontestableviewofthecharacterofscientificinquiry(LawandJoks2017).Thereisnospaceforthequalitativeinthisworldbut,andmoreimportantforourargument,themodelsarealsoenactingaregional,settler,logic.Howdotheywork?Theansweristhattheyassumethatthereisasingleone-worldworld.Thentheyassumethatbehindthatworldtherearediscoverablemechanismsand/orcorrelationswhichgeneratethecomplexitiesofeverydayexperience.Andthisleadsustothepoliticsofhow,becausethereislittlespaceforalternativestoriesaboutfishinthisworld,andthereiscertainlynospaceforalternativerealities.‘Thereisverylittlebiologicalbasisforarguingthatnaturallyoccurringpredatorsareathreattosalmon.’Extra-biologicalreality-differencesarenotbeingtoleratedhere.

11Productionpotentialisthemaximumnumberofsmoltthatcanbeproduced(Erkinaroetal.2012,61)

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Stock-replacementmodellingThehistoryoffishpopulationmodellingiscomplex(Holm1996)andliesbeyondthescopeofthispaper.However,itsgeneralapproachcanbeillustratedbythisfigurewhichistypicalofmanythatappearintheliterature.12

Thissetsthenumberofspawningfish(xaxis)againstthenumberofmature‘recruits’(yaxis).Theissueis:howmanyrecruitsjointhepopulationforeachspawningfish?Ifonespawnergeneratesonerecruittheresultisthediagonalhatchedlinerunningfromtheorigin.Abovethatlineandstocksizeincreases;belowanditfalls.Thehump-shapedcurveindexestheideathatiftherearefewbreedingsalmontheyarelikelytoproducemorethanonerecruit,whileiftherearemanythendensity-dependentcompetitionforscarceresourceswillreducethatnumber.Thebasicsuggestionisthatanygivenenvironmentcanonlysustainsomanysalmon.13Thereferencepointlinesshowthreedifferentpossibleequilibriabetweennewrecruitsarrivinginthepopulationandoldfishdeparting.Ifthereisnofishingthennumberoneapplies:lotsofspawnersarejustreproducingthemselvesbecausetherearenoresourcesforadditionalrecruits.Ifyoucutthenumberofspawners(forinstancebyfishing)thenthenumberofnewrecruitsismaximised.Thatisthemiddleline,numbertwo.Andifyoucutthenumberofspawnersyetagainthenyougetfewernewrecruitsintotalbutyougetmoreperspawningadult.Theadultsaremoreproductive.Thatisnumberthree.

Therearemanyuncertainbiologicallyrelevantissueshere.Determiningthemaximumcarryingcapacityisanartthatdepends,interalia,onknowledgeofriverconditionsandtheareacoveredbytheriver.Andagain,determiningwhatwillcountasapopulationisusuallylessthanobviousandhasoftenbeendebatedinfisheriesscience.Generally,however,withtheincreasingconcernwithgeneticandbehaviouralbiodiversity,whatcountsasapopulationhasbecomemorelocallyspecific.Aswesawearlier,theWorkingGroupseestheneedtoprotectuptothirtyseparatesalmonpopulationsintheDeatnuanditstributaries.

Sowhataretheimplicationsofstockmodelling?Wewanttomakethreeobservations.First,aswehavenoted,youcannotentertheworldoffishstockmodellingandthepoliciesthatfollowfromthisunlessyouarealsowillingtocount.Thereasoningwithinthosemodelscanoftenbenarrated,buttheirinputs,theirmechanics,andtheiroutputsarequantitative.Aswehaveseen,thisisoneofthe

12Wehavecomposedthisourselves,butforsimilarfiguressee,forinstance,Milneretal.(2003),Potteretal.(2003)andHindaretal.(2007)13Manyparametricstock-recruitmentmodelsassumeann-shapedrecruitmentcurveofthisform,thoughtheshapeofthatcurvevariesandthosedifferencesarenottrivial.SeeHindaretal.(2007).

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reasonswhyTEKismarginaltothethinkingoftheWorkingGroup.ItisalsooneofthereasonswhySámifishers,forwhomcountingisimmodestanddisrespectful,findthereasoningofthebiologistsalien.14

Second,fishstockmodellingisnotjustaboutfishpopulations.Itisalsoabouteconomics.Unsurprisingly,then,‘nature’and‘culture’arebeingdonetogether.15Whatcountsasfishingtoomuch?Howmanyfishshouldyoutakeifyouwanttominimiseeffort-to-catchratiosonalong-termbasis?Oristhisbesidethepointfortouristfishing?Andwhatisthemaximumsustainableyield?Thesearethekindsofquestionsthatthemodelsaddress–ofteninthecontextofcatastrophicover-fishing(WaltersandMaguire1996).Crucially,then,theyareaboutbothproductionandbiology.Anditisthisdoublefocus–fishandeconomics–towhichthethreereferenceequilibriumlinesinthefigureabovearepointing.Thisisthinkinginaproductivistmode(Reinert2014).InthecontextofDeatnuitisabouttheleveloffishingthatcanbesustainedtakingtouristsandlocalpeopletogether.Again,thisisfarremovedfromtheSámiworldofrestrainedandrespectfulfishing.

Third,whiledifferentrivershaveparticularattributes,fishstockmodellingbelongstothelogicofsettlement.Thereisnospaceforalternativerealities,becauseitassumesthatthesamekindsofpopulationdynamicsareatworkindifferentpopulations(Hindaretal.2007,12ff).Thisiswhyknowledgecanbegeneralised,andmodelscreatedforonerivercanbemovedtoanother.Putperformativelythismeansthatfisheriessciencemodellingenactsaworldinwhichgeneralcausalmechanismsareatworkbehindthespecificitiesofparticularrivers.Populationsarebeinganimatedbygeneralmechanismssuchasdensity-dependentcompetition,orratesofexploitation.AgainweseethatthisaworldquiteunlikethefluiditiesofSámifishingpractices.Thedifferencesbetweenthetwoaresimultaneouslypolitical,epistemological,ontologicalandstylistic.Theyareaboutthewaysinwhichrealitiesareassembled.Aboutrecognisingdifference,ornot.Abouttoleratingdifference,ornot.Inshort,theyarealsoaboutthepoliticsofhow.

ConsequencesWestartedbysayingthatwearepartisan.OurpositionisthatSámidriftnetfishingisbeingwronglysqueezedoutofexistencebyadominantsetoffisheriesmanagementpractices.OurviewthatthisisunacceptableisstiffenedbythefactthatanalogousformsofpressureareunfoldingacrossSápmi,incontextsthatincludereindeerherding(Benjaminsenetal.2015),duckhunting,andlakefishing(LawandØstmo2017).ThisisunacceptableinacountrythathassignedILOConvention169andclaimstorecognisetherightsofitsindigenouspeople.Wehavesuggestedthatitisalsounwiseevenintermsofstate-sponsoredconservationpolicy.WedonotneedtosubscribetoanEdenicvisionofSámifishingpracticestosuggestthatitisperversetoextinguishatraditionthathasmaintainedsustainablerelationsbetweenpeople,riverandfishforcenturies.Butwewanttoconcludebyreturningtothepoliticsofhow.

WehaveseenthattheTanaRiverWorkingGrouparguesthatTEKisunlikebiologybecauseitisoral,visual,intuitive,experience-based,subjectiveandqualitative.ThisargumentreproducesanasymmetricalversionofthedivideexploredbyMazulloandIngoldwhichmay,withtheSTS-inflectedadditionsdiscussedabove,besummarisedso:

SETTLER NOMADregion fluid

14Therearesimilardifferencesaboutquantificationinreindeerherding.SeeReinert(2014).15Therearelargeliteraturesonthis.ForaseminaltextseeCronon(1995).

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timeandspacewithinwhichthereismovement

movementbeforetimeandspace

clocktime encounterpartition pathways

scale fluidityunderlyingmechanisms contingency

prediction opportunisticpreparednessmastery modesty

asingleworld ?opennessnatureandcultureseparate ‘nature’and‘culture’

indistinguishable

Thistableislessthansatisfactory.Itsbinaryformenactsapartitioned‘settler’wayofbeing,ignoresthefractalcharacterofdifferencediscussedearlier,andthefactthatscienceinpracticeisfluid,heterogeneousandimpure(Latour1993).Thesecautionsnoted,itsbinarismisusefulinthinkingaboutapoliticsofhow.Torecap,the‘politicsofwho’isaboutpeople,individuallyandcollectively,theirrightsandduties,andabouthowtheyareorshouldbetreatedwithinthepolity.The‘politicsofwhat’reflectsthewidespreadSTS,feminist,andanthropologicalsensibilitytoperformativitytoarguethatrealitiesarenotgivenbutaregeneratedinpractices,andaskswhetheralternativeandbetterrealitiesmightbeenacted.Thenthe‘politicsofhow’attendstothewaysinwhichrealitiesareenactedinpractices,howthosepracticesrecogniseandhandledifference,andhowthelattermightbebetterhandled(Verran1998).

Nowconsidertheadministrative,science-based‘settler’practicesontheleftofthetable.Aswehaveseen,theseclassify,order,partitionandenactaone-worldworld.Theyusuallydistinguishculturefromnature,treatingcultureasmultiple,subjective,normative,andcontested,andnatureasasinglerealityshapedbygeneralmechanismsthatmaybediscernedbyspecialistswhotendtobeunforgivingofalternativeaccountsofnaturalrealityandintolerantofdifferencewithrespecttotheone-worldworldofnature.

MazulloandIngold’snomadismworksquitedifferently.Aswehaveseen,heretheworldisfluid,asetofnon-binarypathwaysandencounterswithpowerfulandlivelyactorsworthyanddemandingofrespect.Movementprecedestimeandspace,andactiongrowsoutofresponsiveandcontingentpreparedness.Theworldissomewhatpatterned,butitisalsomoreorlessunpredictableandtherearenounderlyinggeneralcauses.Hereknowingpracticesaremodest:whatisknownisknowninandaboutaplace.Andthismodestyextendstoreality.Whatthereis,isdonehereandnowinthisplaceandinthiscontext.Therearenogeneralmechanisms,knowledgeisnotreadilydisplaced,andthereisspaceforotherversionsofreality.Thismouldstheirpoliticsofhow:unlikebiology,thesearepracticesbroadlytolerantofdifference.

Thedisputethatwehavedescribedissimultaneouslyaboutapoliticsofwhoandapoliticsofwhat.Butitisalsoaboutapoliticsofhowbecauseitisaboutthedifferentproceduresbywhichrealities,humanandotherwise,arepractisedandintersectwithoneanother.Ourargumenthasbeenthatincolonialencountersitiscrucialtoattendtohowreality-enactingworks–andhowitworksacrossdifference.Doesitdenydifference?Doesitseektodomesticateit?Doesdifferenceleadtoconflict?Candifferentrealitiesbekeptapart?Orcantheybecaredforalongsideoneanother?Allofthesearepossibilities(Lawetal.2014).

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Sowhatistobedone?Inaworldofdifferencethisisaquestionthataffordsnogeneralanswer.Itbecomesamatteroftime,placeandcircumstance.Thus,inSápmiithasoftenbeenwisetopressapoliticsofwhotoarguethatindigenousrightsarebeingignored.Andindeed,in2017thisbecameahotpoliticaltopicinthecontextoffishingrestrictionswithdirectactionbyEllosDeatnu.16Alongsidethis,ithassometimesbeenpossibletoworkeffectivelywithapoliticsofwhat,forintancebyattendingtodifferenceswithinscience.WedonotatpresentseehowtodothiswithDeatnufishbiology,butreindeerherdingpoliciesarenowbeingprisedapartbecausedifferentecologicalmodelsofferquitedifferentwaysofthinkingaboutthesizeofsustainablereindeerpopulations(Benjaminsenetal.2015).Finally,itisalsopossible,STS-wise,toimagineapoliticsofhowthatcraftssmallpracticesthatopenbiologytomomentsofdifference.Thishassometimesbeenachievedinotherlocations(Verran2002,WatertonandTsouvalis2015),butnotthusfarinSápmi.However,thetacticsareclear.Theneedistocreatedown-to-earthmaterialpracticesthatjuxtaposethe‘settler’offices,laboratories,modelsandquantificationsofbiologywiththenomadicpracticesofSámiexperts.Theneedisto‘soften’therealismsofbiology.Andthisisworkinprogress.

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