• The Treaty of Greenville was signed between 12 Indian groups and United States. The outcome was Indian land claims disregarded by American settlers.

• The Treaty at Holston River was signed between the Cherokee and United States. The outcome was reduced Cherokee lands.

The Treaty of Greenville was signed between 12 Indian groups and United States. The outcome

was Indian land claims disregarded by American

settlers.

The Treaty at Holston River was signed between the Cherokee

and United States. The outcome was reduced Cherokee lands.

The Treaty at St. Louis was signed between the Sauk and Fox and United States. The

outcome was Indian’s claim that their leader acted without permission and conflicts arose

as settlers came over.

The Treaty at Fort Jackson was signed between the Creek and United States. The

outcome was conflicts between settlers and Creeks that led to removal of Creeks to

Indian Territory.

The Cherokee set up schools for their children to learn how to read and write in English. They developed their own

government, modeled after the United States Constitution.

A Cherokee named Sequoya used 86 characters to

represent Cherokee syllables and create their own complex

writing system.

The Cherokee began publishing a newspaper printed in both English and Cherokee (They hoped that adopting white culture would protect them from being discriminated).

As gold was discovered in Georgia, Georgia leaders ignored the Cherokee’s treaty rights and

began preparing for their removal.

Cherokee sued the state of Georgia because they are an independent nation and claimed that the government of Georgia had no legal

power over their land.

Under pressure from President Andrew Jackson, Congress passed the Indian Removal

Act. It ordered the removal of Native Americans who lived

east of the Mississippi River to lands in the West.

Congress established the Indian Territory (U.S. land in

present-day Oklahoma where Native Americans moved to).

Congress approved the creation of Bureau of Indian Affairs, a new government

agency that manages Indian removal to western lands.

The Choctaw became the first to move to Indian Territory. Choctaw leaders were forced to sign the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, which gave more

that 7.5 million acres of Choctaw’s land to the state.

Their journey was a disastrous winter trip that killed ¼ of the population

due the cold, starvation, and diseases.

In the case of Worcester vs. Georgia, the Supreme Court

ruled that the Cherokee nation was a distinct

community in which laws of Georgia had no force. Only the federal government,

not the state’s , had authority over Native

Americans.

Georgia ignores the ruling and President Jackson took no action to make Georgia

follow it.

Chief Black Hawk, leader of the Fox and Sauk Indians

decided to fight U.S. troops rather than leave Illinois.

Unfortunately, they quickly ran out of food and

supplies. They were forced to leave in 1850.

Osceola, the Seminole’s leader, convinced his

followers to resist signing a treaty of removal by using

force.

This began the Second Seminole War.

Unfortunately, Osceola was captured and soon died in

prison.

Creeks resisted their removal due to the news of hardship

experienced by the Choctaws. The federal troops captured about

14, 500 of them and forced them to move in

chains.

Chickasaws negotiated a

treaty with the government for better supplies

on their trip, but many lives were

still lost.

U.S. troops began removing Cherokee to Indian Territory. Their 800-mile

forced march became known as the Trail of Tears.

A Mexican priest named Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla led a rebellion of about 80,000 poor Indians and mestizos(people of Indian and

Spanish ancestry). They wanted Mexico to

become independent from Spanish monarchy.

Mexico became independent from Spain.

Mexico adopted a republican constitution that declared rights of all

Mexicans. Their government hired empresarios (agents) to bring settlers to

Texas.

Stephen F. Austin, a young agent started a colony on the lower Colorado River.

The first 300 families became known as the Old

Three Hundred. This success attracted more

American settlers to the region.

Mexico banned further settlement by Americans (who were starting to disobey

rules) because the government feared losing control to the growing population. Mexico’s ruler, General Antonio Lopez de

Santa Anna suspended Mexico’s republican constitution and turned his attention to

growing conflicts in Texas.

When the Mexican army tried to remove a cannon from Gonzales, Texas, Texas rebels stood next to the cannon and held a flag that read, “Come and

takes it.” Texas won this battle, marking the Texas War for Independence.

Texans declared their independence from Mexico and formed the new Republic of

Texas. They chose politician David Burnet as president and Lorenzo de Zavala as vice

president. Sam Houston was chosen as head of Texas army.

Texas army under Colonel Jim Travis took the town of San Antonio and occupied the Alamo

(abandoned mission near San Antonio that became and important battle site in the

revolution).

United States volunteers such as Davy Crockett and Colonel Jim Bowie joined the Alamo’s defense.

On March 6, Mexican army attacked the Alamo. All unprepared defenders of the Alamo were killed. This

became known as Battle of Alamo.

On later battle, Battle of Goliad, Santa Anna ordered execution of 350 Texas prisoners. These massacres

enraged the Texans.

Sam Houston’s army fled east because they were chased by Santa Anna’s forces. They reorganized at the San Jacinto River, near

Galveston Bay.

On April 21, Sam Houston’s forces swarmed the camp of the resting Mexican troops. This became known as the Battle of San Jacinto.

In the Battle of San Jacinto, Santa Anna’s army was destroyed. Texans captured Santa Anna and forced him to sign a treaty giving

Texas its independence.

Sam Houston became a hero of the new independent Texas. He was elected as president and Stephen F.

Austin became secretary of state.

American settlers began to settle in lands granted by Texas. Most Texans hoped that United States would

annex Texas.

President Andrew Jackson refused to annex Texas due to slavery issue and he did not want to upset Mexico.

President Jackson recognized Texas as

an independent nation.

Texas organized Texas Rangers to guard its long frontier from

Mexican and Native American attack.

France recognized Texas as an independent nation.

Britain recognized Texas as an independent nation

because it wanted to halt U.S.

Texas and Mexico signed a peace treaty.

Russia and Spain gave up their claims to Oregon Country, while Britain and United States agreed to

occupy the territory together. However, disagreements began to rise as they argued over how to draw the

United States- Canadian border. American expansionists cried, “Fifty-four forty or fight!”, referring

to the 54°40’ north latitude.

Due to the great distance between California and the center of Mexico’s government, California only had

about 3, 200 colonists by the 1820s. These Californiosfelt little connection to the government. Moreover, Anglos ( American settlers in California)’s calls for

California’s independence increased tension between U.S. and Mexico.

Writer John O’ Sullivan influenced Americans in supporting the expansion of United States by his

works. He noted “ We are the nation of human progress, and who will, what can, set limits to our

onward march?”

United States had a booming economy and population. The nation needed more room for farms, ranches, businesses, and ever-growing

families. Americans began to look for lands in the West.

The Whig Party passed up President John Tyler because he wanted to increase the power of southern slave states by annexing Texas. The Whigs disagreed and

chose Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky as their presidential candidate.

Democratic Party chose former Tennessee governor James K. Polk to oppose Clay.

Both of these candidates strongly favored annexing Texas and Oregon.

O’Sullivan coined the term manifest destiny (obvious fate to settle land all the way to the Pacific Ocean in

order to spread democracy). He wrote that it was America’s “manifest destiny to overspread and to

possess the whole continent which Providence [God] has given us for the development of the great

experiment of liberty…”

Manifest destiny was tied up with the issue of slavery (free/slave states).

In March, Congress approved the annexation of Texas and needed only the support of the Republic of Texas.

Texas politicians hoped that joining U.S. would solve the republic’s financial and military problems. So, they approved the annexation in June. This action angered

Mexico. Which considered Texas to be a “stolen province.”

As Mexico insisted that the United States northern border lay along the Nueces River, U.S. insisted that it

should be farther south, along the Rio Grande. In order to settle this dispute, President Polk ordered General

Zachary Taylor to lead an army into the disputed region in June.

Polk also sent diplomat John Slidell to Mexico City to settle the border dispute. He came with an offer of $30 million in exchange for California, but Mexican officials

refused to speak to him.

In March, a Mexican commander ordered Taylor’s troops who were camping across the Mexican forces stationed near the town of Matamoros to surrender.

Taylor refused and the two sides fought.

After several U.S. soldiers were killed, Congress declared war on Mexico.

Taylor’s soldiers won battles south of Nueces River. He crossed the Rio Grande and occupied Matamoros,

Mexico.

General Stephen Kearny attacked New Mexico and took Santa Fe on August without a fight.

The Bear Flag Revolt took place in June as Americans declared California to be an independent nation.

The Bear Flag Revolt was quick to end as U.S. naval forces came ashore and Kearny’s army arrived from the

East.

The town of San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco quickly fell.

Great Britain and United States signed a treaty that gave United States all Oregon land south of the forty-

ninth parallel. Oregon soon became an organized territory in February 1848.

Santa Anna who had been thrown out of office after loosing Texas returned to power in September.

California's finally surrendered early in the year.

Santa Anna’s army came after Taylor’s and the two clashed at Buena Vista in February.

Both sides suffered many casualties and Mexico finally surrendered.

As Taylor success made him a hero back home, President Polk was worried of loosing popularity of the people. So, he gave General Winfield Scott control over the army.

Scott sailed to the port of Veracruz and conquered the strongest fortress in Mexico.

On September, 14, Scott took down Mexico City and Santa Anna fled the country.

In February, United States and Mexico signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which officially ended the war and forced Mexico to turn over much of its northern territory to U.S. Those lands were called Mexican Cession and increased U.S. size by 25 percent.

In December, James Gadsden negotiated an important agreement with Mexico called Gadsden Purchase. The U.S. government paid Mexico $ 10 million, in exchange fro southern parts of what are now Arizona and New Mexico.

Despite discriminations faced by Mexicans, Mexican Americans, and Native Indians, cultural encounters were developed in the Southwest.

Water rights code was also created in the West.