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527

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Index

Acuff, Roy versus Ludwig van Beethoven 265

Adel, Arthur 86, 98Adgie, Ronald 173Admiralty Signal Establishment (UK)

115, 156, 264, 288Agassiz, Louis 91Air Defence Research and Development

Establishment (UK) 156Alexander, F. Elizabeth S. 85, 128–9, 319Alfvén, Hannes 309, 374, 386

synchrotron radiation for radio stars 379–80

Allen, Clabon W. “Cla” 130, 132, 137,288, 297, 425, 426, 430

Allen, E. W., Jr. 257All-India Radio 256Almond, Mary 245, 248–50Altar, Wilhelm 91Alvin 455Amalgamated Wireless Australasia, Ltd.

119, 120, 125, 127, 129Amazing Stories 453Ambartsumian, Viktor A. 229American Astronomical Society 70, 208,

253, 413, 441Andromeda nebula 316, 321, 375, 382,

396, 432, 458158 MHz detection by Hanbury Brown

and Hazard (1950) 188–91, 339,373

claimed detection (Reber) 63, 396animals of early radio astronomy

bug 233, 346camel 208chick 270cobra 389cow 118, 189, 302, 306, 330, 358deer 101dog, bird 110

animals (cont.)eagle 277elephant 374fish 168flea 480giraffe 317gnat 374goose 258gorilla 39horse 168, 376, 446hydra 39mongoose 389monkey 279octopus 346rabbit 279serpent 39swan 142tadpole 256trout 32turkey 32

antenna temperature (term) 203, 480aperture synthesis 176, 312aperture synthesis – earth rotation 294, 297Appleton, Edward V. 30, 51, 83, 87, 91,

119, 121, 131, 146, 155, 222, 224,231, 237, 241, 258, 264, 277, 424,433

controversial claimstaking 90–1, 110,111–12, 148, 237

Appleton, Rosalind 91Arago, François 314Arakawa, Daitaro 89Archimedes 356, 442, 502Arecibo (Puerto Rico) 1000 ft spherical

reflector 264Arizona Meteor Expedition (1930) 246,

251Armstrong, Edwin 265, 268Army Operational Research Group (UK)

80–3, 100–17

Aron, Raymond 13Ashkhabad, Turkmenistan 238Aspinall, Arnold 243–5Astapovich, I. S. 238astronomers

amateur 41, 74–5, 182–3, 241, 247, 265relations with radio researchers 47–9,

75–6, 138, 152, 175, 182, 195–6,224, 253, 313, 404, 416, 425, 435,439–41, 452,

astronomical (term) 425–6astronomies, beginnings of various

wavelength bands 451, 462–7astronomy

extreme ultraviolet 464gamma ray 391, 464high energy 384, 389–91infrared 428, 463optical 384, 424, 427–9

comparison with radio astronomy 439–41, 455–6, 457–9

electronics for photometry 428why so dominant? 465

ultraviolet 463X-ray 391, 464–7, 469

comparison with radio astronomy 465–7

astronomy and art 12Astrophysical Journal 63, 152, 395Atanasijevic, Ivan 320Atkinson, Robert d’E. 329Atkinson, Sally xxxi, 503atmosphere, Earth’s 26, 473

“microwave sky noise” 2121.0–1.5 cm absorption (Dicke) 95,

203–4primer 473refraction 218

atomic bomb project (Manhattan District) 200, 418

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org

Cambridge University Press978-0-521-76524-4 - Cosmic Noise: A History of Early Radio AstronomyWoodruff T. SullivanIndexMore information

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528 Index

Atomic Energy Commission (US) 443Atomic Energy Research Establishment

(Harwell, UK) 446Attu, Alaska (US), 1950 solar eclipse 207aurora borealis

possible radio bursts 212radar echoes from 191

Austin–Cohen formula 25Australia and New Zealand Association

for the Advancement of Science (ANZAAS) 138, 152

Australian Journal of Scientific Research140, 145

Avro Anson 187

Baade, Walter 76, 221, 320, 335, 383, 385,387, 426, 429, 433, 457

biography 344–5optical identifications of radio sources

(1950–3) 340–9radio stars as Population II objects 375–7

Baade–Minkowski wager regarding Cyg A346

Babcock, Harold D. 288Babcock, Horace W. 374, 392Bacon, Francis 442Badgery’s Creek (Radiophysics Lab field

station) 330, 360Bailey, Victor A. 119Bakker, Cornelius J. 395, 404, 405Baldwin, John E. 173, 176, 351, 359, 385Bannier, J. H. 405Banwell, C. John 180, 183–4, 191, 264Barbara xxxiBarnett, Miles A. 30Barrow, W. L. 57Barth, K.-H. 455baseball xxx, 39, 398Bateman, Ross 237Battle of Britain (1940) 80, 132Baum, William A. 260, 460Bay, Zoltán 271–4beans, Reber experiments 74Beck, Alfred C. 40, 52, 78Beethoven, Ludwig van versus Roy Acuff

265Bell Telephone Laboratories 30–1, 52,

264Jansky (star static) 29–53Skellett (meteors) 232, 238Southworth (solar noise) 91–8

Bell, S. Jocelyn 376, 414Beringer, E. Robert 204–5, 291Bethe, Hans 457Bhar, J. N. 256Biermann, Ludwig F. 254Blaauw, Adriaan 415black hole 382, 465

Blackett, Patrick M. S. 178, 252, 440Blackwell, Donald E. 175blind astronomy/blind astronomers 1–2, 425Bloch, Felix 398Blum, Emile-Jacques 221–3, 291boffin 188, 195Bok, Bart J. 46, 210, 412–3, 415–6, 429,

437, 441Bolton, John G. 68, 73, 75, 112, 125–6,

130, 133, 138–43, 148–9, 152–3,166, 174, 317–24, 361–3, 386,390, 417, 430, 431, 436, 446, 451

100 MHz survey of galactic noise (1950, with Westfold) 367, 370–2,382, 391

early Cyg A observations 139–42optical identifications (Tau A, Vir A,

Cen A) (1949, with Stanley & Slee) 143, 320–4

New Zealand Cosmic Noise Expedition (1948) 143, 317–19

observations with McGee of galactic center source 334–6

radio source scintillations 324–6six new radio stars 142–3two surveys of discrete sources (1950,

1954) with Stanley & Slee 332–4Bondi Beach (Sydney) 139Bondi, Hermann 389Booker, Henry G. 210, 327books

1610, Sidereus Nuncius (Galileo) 4681947–53, Principles of Radar (ed.

Ridenour) 225, 4191951,Van de Hulst, A Course in Radio

Astronomy 407, 430, 4571952, Lovell and Clegg, Radio

Astronomy 195, 424, 430, 4371953, Shklovsky, Radio Astronomy: A

Popular Sketch 216, 4591954, Lovell, Meteor Astronomy 195,

251, 2551954, Waldmeier, Radiowellen aus dem

Weltraum 3111955, Pawsey & Bracewell, Radio

Astronomy 152, 313, 386, 425, 436,437, 451

1976, Edge & Mulkay, AstronomyTransformed 10–11, 159, 315,334, 340, 349, 389, 421, 433, 435,438–9, 440, 450, 451, 457, 461,467, 493, 495, 499

too long 334Bowen, Edward G. “Taffy” 91, 121–3,

124, 125–6, 128–9, 131, 136,137–8, 144–6, 153, 179, 258, 317,398, 409, 438

leadership style 148–9

Bowen, Ira 441Bown, Ralph 31, 42, 51Bowyer, Stuart 464Bracewell, Ronald N. 117, 145–6, 151,

152, 171, 312, 360Bragg, William Henry 146Bragg, William Lawrence 155, 172, 178Brazil, 1947 solar eclipse 205, 207, 217,

219, 222breakfast, practicing hard before 341Brecht, Bertolt 157Breit, Gregory 30, 55British Association for the Advancement

of Science, 1914 meeting in Australia 146

British Astronomical Association 182Bromberg, J. L. 455Broten, Norman 297Bruce, Edwin H. 32, 302Bruneval raid, France (1942) 81, 222Brunsviga calculating machine 289brussels sprouts 179Buckley, Oliver 42Budden, Kenneth G. 175bug 233, 346Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the

Netherlands 372Burbidge, Geoffrey R. 175, 376Burgess, Ronald E. 90, 114Burke, Bernard F. 125Burkhardt, Gerd 289Burnet, F. MacFarlane 151Burnight, T. R. 465Burrell, B. 282Burrows, Charles R. 210, 425Byurakan Astrophysical Observatory

(Armenia) 229, 384

California Institute of TechnologyPotapenko & Folland observations of

galactic noise (1936) 44–47start of radio astronomy (1955) 75, 153,

429, 437, 446Cambridge Observatories (UK) 340camel 208camera obscura 187Cannon, Annie J. 48Carnegie Foundation (US) 153Carpenter, Martha S. 211, 503Carslaw, Horatio S. 279Cassiopeia A 73, 77, 116, 316, 323, 330,

362, 365, 377, 385, 451, 458, 466angular size by Jennison & Das Gupta

353–6angular size by Smith 359–60discovery by Ryle & Smith (1948) 165identified with filaments by Baade and

Minkowski 343–4






Index 529

Cassiopeia A (cont.)identified with remnant of AD 369

supernova (Shklovsky) 383position by Smith (1951) leading to

optical identification 339–47scintillations 324–6

Cassiopeia B 347, 383Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge

Universitypostwar transition 156–9prewar background 155Rutherford research style 150, 155,

447Ryle’s group

camaraderie 173–4, 177early history 155–77, 375relations with Radiophysics Lab

144–6, 362Rifle Range, Grange Road (field site)

161–2, 294, 339, 359secrecy, aloofness 174–5, 326, 362

X-ray crystallography 172cavity magnetron 43, 154, 200, 309Centaurus A 65, 143, 316, 321–2, 330,

333, 341, 347, 359, 360, 362, 373,377, 458

Central Radio Propagation Lab, National Bureau of Standards (US) 71

CERN Laboratory, Geneva 415Chain Home radar network (UK) 79, 80,

132, 166, 258Chalmers Institute of Technology,

Göteborg, Sweden 228Chalonge, Daniel 224Chamanlal, C. 234, 239, 256Chamonix, Mt. Blanc 23Chandrasekhar, S. 46Chapman, Sidney 120, 231Checkik, P. O. 238chick, baby 270Chikhachev, Boris M. 217, 218, 291Christiansen, Wilbur N. “Chris” 122,

125, 146, 149–50, 222, 29132-dish array and solar mapping

296–7, 312early 21 cm hydrogen observations 409,

411, 413–16Churchill, Winston 12, 379cigarettes 222, 253Clark, Barry G. 133Clarke, Arthur C. 264Cleeton, Claude E. 86Clegg, John A. 179–81, 186, 194–7, 236,

250, 252daytime meteor showers 242–4method to determine meteor shower

radiants (1948) 242–3

Clerk Maxwell, James 18, 155Closs, R. L. “Tim” 252Coblentz, S. A. 453cobra 389coherer 20–1, 23–4Cold War and World War II (theme) 14,

112–13, 122, 151, 221–2, 418–20,442–9, 470

Collaroy (Radiophysics Lab field station) 129

Collins Radio Co. 208–209, 281, 445Collins, Harry M. 362Coma Berenices A (early name for Vir A)

142, 319Comet Giacobini–Zinner 236, 237comets as possible radio sources 329Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial

Research Organization (CSIRO), Australia, founding 123

computers (machines) 124, 462computers (persons) 101Condon, Edward U. 71Conferences

Dynamics of Ionized Media (London, 1951) 375

IAU (see International Astronomical Union)

Meteor Astronomy (Jodrell Bank, 1948) 196, 248

URSI (see URSI [International Union of Radio Science])

Conway, Robin 173Cook, James 153Copernican view verified by lunar radar

274Copisarow, A. C. 111Cormack, Allan 313Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y. 210–11,

440, 441, 444, 447coronium in sun 311Corry, Nelly 88cosmic microwave background radiation

128, 204, 206, 414, 461cosmic noise 1cosmic noise (term), abandoning 436,

471cosmic radio pyrometer 160, 164cosmic rays 37, 257, 464

associated with galactic background noise 369–70

discovery of new particles by Blackett’s group 178, 195

is there an electron component? 386overview of connection to radio sky

389–91pre-1950 history 378producing synchrotron radiation and

galactic noise 378–89

cosmic rays (cont.)search for radar echoes from air

showers (Lovell) 178–81cosmology, radio 169, 176, 334, 389, 396Cottony, Herman V. 72coulometer (for lunar radar, Bay) 272Council for Scientific and Industrial

Research (CSIR), Australia 118Coupling, J. J. (nom de plume of John R.

Pierce) 234Covington, Arthur E. 71, 211–13, 222,

291, 297correlation of 10.7 cm intensity

with sunspots; slowly varying component 310–1

first 10.7 cm solar observations (1946) & start of monitoring (1947) 212–13

cows 118, 189, 302, 306, 330, 358Crab nebula 464–5, 466

(as Tau A) 142–3, 320, 339, 340, 347,360, 375, 382, 383–5

measurement of optical polarization 384–5, 387

optical emission explained as synchrotron radiation (Shklovsky 1953) 383–5

Cranshaw, T. E. 370crew racing 239Crick, F. H. C. 172cricket (game) xxx, 139, 178Crimea (USSR), radio field stations of

FIAN 218Crimean Astrophysical Observatory

(USSR) 218, 382Cummings, D. H. 115Cygnus A 68, 73, 77, 137, 152, 176, 190,

211, 316, 330, 333, 362, 364, 365,370, 373, 377, 381, 383, 385, 393,433, 451, 458, 465

angular sizes by Smith and by Mills 359–60

Bolton & Stanley attempt at optical identification (1948); estimate of distance 141

Bolton & Stanley observations of size (< 8′) and position 138–43,317–23

discovery by Hey et al. (1946) 103double nature discovery by Jennison &

Das Gupta (1953) 353–8, 502measured positions (1947–52) 318,

337optical identification by Baade and

Minkowski 335–41positions by Mills & Thomas and

by Smith leading to optical identification 335–44






530 Index

Cygnus A (cont.)Ryle’s “genuine” (intrinsic)

fluctuations 325–6Ryle & Smith observations & position

(1948–50) 163–6, 317–21scintillations 103, 319, 324–7Smith position leading to an optical

identification (1951) 169, 339–41variable position measured by Ryle &

Smith (1948–9), 317–21Cygnus X 68, 77, 163, 316, 347Cygnus X-1 (X-ray source) 465

da Vinci, Leonardo 442Dapto (Radiophysics Lab field station)

306Das Gupta, Mrinal K. “Das” 192, 349,

353–8, 414David Dunlop Observatory (Toronto)

211, 241Davies, John G. 186, 198, 245, 247,

255Davies, L. W. 126Davisson, C. J. 30Dawes, William 153D-Day invasion of Normandy 157Décombe, Louis P. 24Dee, P. I. 156deer 101Dellinger, J. Howard 89Denisse, Jean-François 221–3, 289, 291,

308, 392, 422slowly varying component 222, 310–1

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (DSIR) (UK) 112, 171,176, 446

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (Washington, DC) 229, 448

Deppermann, Charles 52Deslandres, Henri 23–4, 27deVaucouleurs, Gerard 430DeVoogt, Anthonet H. 284, 405DeVorkin, David H. 428, 429, 439,

445–6, 492Dewhirst, David W. 175, 342, 430, 432,

463DeWitt, John H. – galactic noise

observations (1935, 1940) 44,113, 265

Project Diana lunar radar (1945–6) 237, 264–71, 274

Dicke, Robert H. 52, 200–6, 291, 369,441, 444

Dicke radiometer/switch 97, 203, 211,212, 220, 277–8, 334, 355, 397,401, 419, 484

Dieter, Nannielou Hepburn 210

discriminationagainst a woman (Payne-Scott) 127–8against an African-American (McAfee)

266against Jews 220, 288, 344, 384, 394

DNA 172Doel, Ronald E. 439, 455, 492,dog, bird 110Dombrovsky, V. A. 384, 387Dominion Observatory (Ottawa) 212,

241, 429Dover Heights (Radiophysics Lab field

station) 129, 130, 139, 317–19,333, 334, 364

Dröge, Franz 228DuBridge, Lee 153, 200, 419, 443Dulles Airport, Sterling, Va., USA 72Duyvendak, J. J. L. 321Dwingeloo (The Netherlands) 25 m dish

404, 425

“eagle’s nest” 277Eastwood, Eric 110, 258Ebert, Hermann 22Eccles, J. C. 151Eckersley, Thomas L. 160, 180, 257Ecole Normale Supérieure (Paris) 221Eddington, Arthur S. 63, 127, 397, 427, 440Edge, David O. xxx, 10–11Edison, Thomas. A. 19–20Edlén, Bengt 311Edwards, C. F. 43, 258Ekers, Ronald D. 456electromagnetic radiation

Hertzian waves, electric waves 18influence of Planck theory on early

solar searches 26primer 472

elephant 374Elliot, H. 390Ellis, George R. 74Ellyett, Clifton D. 186, 247, 252Elsmore, Bruce 167–9, 175, 425Elwert, G. 392Encke’s comet 245engineering and science, relation 415,

449–53Englund, Carl R. 31Eriksen, Gunnar 229Eshleman, Von R. 240, 252Espenschied, Lloyd 50, 95Evans Signal Laboratory (US Army) 265Evans. John V. 282Evans, William E., Jr. 239Ewen, Harold I. “Doc” 150, 211, 441, 442

discovery of 21 cm hydrogen line (1951) 398–403, 409–10, 412–15, 416, 430

Ewen–Knight Corporation 412Exercise “Post Mortem” (RAF) 159extraterrestrial intelligence 260, 378extreme ultraviolet astronomy 464eye damage from gunners looking at sun

279

Faraday, Michael 362Faraday rotation 282Federal Communications Commission

(US) 257Federal Telecommunications Laboratory

(New York) 280Feinberg, E. 387Fermi, Enrico 386–7, 403Ferrell, Oliver P. 257Fessenden, Reginald A. 453Festival of Britain (1951), 30 ft dish 282FIAN (Moscow) see P. N. Lebedev

Physics InstituteFindlay, John W. 171Fink, D. G. 269fish 168Flamsteed, John 142flea, hop of 480Folland, Donald F. 44–46Forbush, Scott E. 81Forman, Paul 443

“distortionist” idea 454–5Fornax A 341, 362Forsyth, Douglas R. H. 191Fourier synthesis principles

background Fourier theory by Ratcliffe 171–2

developed by Bracewell 312developed by Christiansen 296–7,

312McCready, Pawsey & Payne-Scott

(1947) 133–4primer 489Ryle (1946) 176used in solar interferometry by Ryle’s

group (1950–4) 159–63, 176,292–6, 312

Fradkin, M. I. 380Franklin Adams Survey 348Franklin, Kenneth L. 125Fränz, Kurt 84, 113–14, 227Fraunhofer Institute, Freiburg University

(Germany) 228free–free radiation

primer 476to explain galactic noise 62–3, 215, 227,

367–8, 395to explain radio emission from ionized

hydrogen (H II) regions 209Freeman, Joan 127






Index 531

frequency-switching technique 400, 407,411

Friedman, Herbert 207, 464Friend, Albert W. 64Friis, Harald T. , 31–2, 36, 49–51, 92, 95,

97, 98, 400

galactic coordinate system 334–5, 478galactic noise radiation

64 MHz survey by Hey et al. 101–5, 366100 MHz survey by Bolton & Westfold

(1950) 367, 370–2, 382, 391111 MHz observations by DeWitt

(1940) 113200 MHz data of Payne-Scott, Pawsey

& McCready (1945) 130–1205 MHz observations to determine

galactic pole and plane (Seeger & Williamson 1951) 211

comparison with emission from Andromeda nebula 190

drawn in polar coordinates (Reber) 76associated with cosmic rays 369–70as combined effect of radio stars

369–74as free–free emission (postwar

research) 215, 367–8, 458as free–free emission by Reber (1940)

59, 62–3as free–free emission by Unsöld (1946)

227as free–free emission by Van de Hulst

(1944) 395as hot dust by Whipple & Greenstein

(1937) 46–7as mixture of interstellar gas and stellar

emission (Piddington 1951)391

“radio corona” of Shklovsky (1952) 381–2

as synchrotron radiation (1950–4) 378–9, 459

as synchrotron radiation by Kiepenheuer (1950) 228

isotropic component in models 371–4,382, 389

Jansky observations (“star static”) 33–42, 43, 366

Potapenko & Folland observations 44–6

“radio eyes” map of northern sky 1–3Reber observations (“cosmic static”)

60–69, 366search by Covington at 10.7 cm (1946)

212search by Dicke & Beringer at

1.0–1.5 cm (1945) 203–4

galactic noise radiation (cont.)search by Pawsey & Payne-Scott at 3 cm

(1944) 127–8search by Southworth at 3 cm 95sundry British investigations (1946–8)

114–16galaxies, colliding 341, 347galaxies, normal (as radio emitters) 347,

373Galileo 428, 442, 467Galison, Peter 351, 361, 364, 452gamma ray astronomy 391, 464gamma ray bursters 458Gamow, George 414Gardner, Francis F. 151Gatenby, Ian A. 191, 281geese 258gegenschein 274Germer, L. H. 30Gernsback, Hugo 39, 261Getmantsev, German G. 308, 314, 380,

382Ghose, B. N. 256Giacconi, Riccardo 465Giacobini, Michel 236Giacobinid meteor shower of 1946 236–9,

241Giant Radio Telescope (Radiophysics Lab

project); also see Parkes dish 153Gilbert, G. N. 253–5Gillmor, C. Stewart 443Gingerich, Owen 412, 467Ginzburg, Vitaly L. 217, 220–1, 263, 287,

307, 308, 314, 384, 386, 390, 397,423, 432, 462

biography – 214, 216, 221synchrotron radiation theory for

galactic noise 380–5theory of radio emission from solar

corona (1946) 214, 312giraffe 317gnat 374Gold, Thomas 175, 264, 375–6, 389, 392Goldsmith, Alfred N. 69, 453Goodall, William M. 233Gordon, Isaak M. 384Gordon, William E. 210Gorelik, Gabriel S. 220gorilla 39Gorky State University 214, 220, 281, 380Goss, W. Miller xxx, 127, 133Grand Ole Opry 265Grange Road, “Rifle Range” (Cavendish

group field site) 162, 294, 339,359

Greaves, William M. H. 192Greenhow, J. S. 197, 245, 252

Greenstein, Jesse L. 46–7, 68, 69–71, 75,314, 377, 383, 387, 397, 425, 429,432, 436, 441, 448, 495

Grieg, D. D. 280Griffiths, H. V. 256Grotian, Walter 311Gum, Colin S. 425

Hacking, Ian 467Haddock, Fred T. 206–9, 263, 310Haeff, Andrew V. 309, 452Hagen, John P. 205–11, 289, 291, 310, 440Hagihara, Yusuke 225, 256, 430Haldane, J. B. S. 1, 426Hale, George Ellery 22, 48, 77, 287Haleakala, Hawaii 73Halley’s comet 257Hanbury Brown, Robert 63, 121, 174,

196, 326, 339, 347, 360, 361, 390,426, 427, 432, 434, 452, 458

invention (with Twiss) of intensity interferometer 192, 351–3, 365

model of galactic noise (1953, with Hazard) 372–4

observation (with Hazard) of Andromeda nebula at 158 MHz (1950) 189–91

observations with intensity interferometer of sun, Cas A, Cyg A 353–8

survey with Hazard of 23 sources 331Hanbury Brown–Twiss effect (quantum

optics) 365Hargreaves, John K. 191, 281Harper, Alan F. A. 279Harvard College Observatory (US) 241,

246, 247, 250, 412–15, 429, 437Harwit, Martin 452Hatanaka, Takeo 226Hawaii, Reber observations 73Hawkins, Gerald S. 182, 191, 193, 198,

244–5, 250, 252Hazard, Cyril 339, 347, 426, 432

model of galactic noise (1953, with Hanbury Brown) 372–4

observation (with Hanbury Brown) of Andromeda nebula at 158 MHz (1950) 189–91

survey with Hanbury Brown of 23sources 331

Hazzaa, Ismail W. B. 194Heaviside, Oliver 30Heightman, Denis W. 25, 86–9, 90–1Heising, Raymond A. 232helium in sun 311helix antenna, invention by Kraus 229Helliwell, Robert A. 239






532 Index

Henyey, Louis G. 63, 368, 395Herbstreit, Jack W. 367Herlofson, Nicolai 183, 236, 252, 379Herschel, John 322Herschel, William 413, 463, 468

comparison to Reber 77Hertz, Heinrich 18, 20, 454Hertzian waves/electric waves 18Hertzsprung, Ejnar 395Hevly, Bruce 445Hewish, Antony 169, 172, 173, 176, 312,

327, 365, 376, 414Hey, J. Stanley 13, 25, 179, 192, 235, 241,

414, 433, 451, 494anomalous radar echoes due to meteors

105–8antenna beam and intensities 53, 116AORG research team 101controversy with Appleton 90–1discovery of first discrete source (Cyg

A) and its scintillations 103, 324discovery of radio sun (bursts) (1942)

65, 80–3end of radio research at AORG (1947)

112–13galactic noise survey (1945–6) 101–5,

366observations of 1946 Giacobinid

meteor shower 237solar bursts research (postwar) 111(unpublished) evidence for daytime

meteor showers (1945) 185Heyden, Francis J. 207Higgins, Charles S. 73, 275Higgs, Arthur J. 137, 149High Altitude Observatory (Colorado)

445Hill, E. R. 126Hindman, James V. 152, 291, 409–13,

416, 422Hirsh, Richard F. 464–7historical contingencies 13–14historiographic style of this study 11–13Hodgkin, Alan L. 170Hoffleit, E. Dorrit 247Hoffmeister, Cuno 242–4, 245Holden, Edward S. 19–20Hollerith punched card machine 293Homo radio 1–3, 370Hoo, H. 405, 414Hooke, Robert 1horn antenna, Ewen’s 399Hornsby Valley (Radiophysics Lab field

station) 274–7, 299horse 168, 446horse, hobby 376Hoskin, Michael 468

Hounsfield, Godfrey 313Houtgast, Jakob 224, 405Hoyle, Fred 175, 289, 308, 309, 327, 369,

375–7, 385, 389, 392, 393, 427,468

Hubble Space Telescope 462Hubble, Edwin 54, 457Hudson Bay’s Best Procurable whiskey

346Hughes, Victor A. 112, 187Hulburt, Edward O. 207Hunter, Alan viHuruhata, Masaki 226, 256Husband, H. C. 192Hutchinson, George W. 392Huygens, Christiaan 442Hvatum, Hein 228hydra 39Hydra A 73, 341hydrogen 21 cm line 211, 303

Australian detection and first observations (1951–2) 409,411–12, 413

discovery by Ewen & Purcell (1951) , 398–403, 410

Dutch search and initial observations (1951–2) 404–9, 410–1, 413–14

institutional styles of three major early groups 415–17

prediction by Van de Hulst (1944) 394–6, 399

primer 477Radiophysics Lab decision not to

pursue (1948–9) 125–6, 397–8Reber’s interest 68, 396–7theory by Shklovsky (1949) 397

hydrogen bomb, Ginzburg role 214hydrogen recombination lines, prediction

by Van de Hulst (1944) 396

IC 443 314infrared astronomy 428, 463Ingram, L. J. 258Institut d’Astrophysique, Paris 223Institute of Physical and Chemical

Research, Tokyo 232Institute of Radio Engineers, banquet 269intensity interferometer see

interferometer – intensityinterferometer

analogy with optical transit telescope 336, 339

intensityat optical wavelengths; controversy

over theory 353Hanbury Brown-Twiss effect

(quantum optics) 365

Interferometer (cont.)invention by Hanbury Brown and

Twiss 192, 351–3, 365principles 365, 452, 489theory and data on sun, Cas A,

Cyg A by Jennison & Das Gupta 351–8

Michelson 72, 404, 450first use by Ryle (on sun) (1945) 160first use by Ryle on radio stars

(1948) 163–6invention of phase switch by Ryle

(1947) 168–9, 448primer 488Ryle’s “Long Michelson” (for 1C

survey) 166–9, 320, 327, 328, 361solar studies by Ryle’s group

(1950–4) 292–6tutorial paper by Ryle (1952) 169tutorial paper by Smith (1952) on

measuring positions 339radio-linked 354–5, 360sea-cliff 129–34, 139–43, 218, 269, 320,

332–3, 362, 364, 375primer 488Radiophysics Lab (1945-) 132–4Reber (Hawaii) 73

swept-lobe, Little & Payne-Scott (1949) 299–302

using lunar reflection 352very long baseline 354

intergalactic medium, radio emission from (Unsöld 1946) 227

International Astronomical Union 44,432–4

1946, Copenhagen 4331948, Zürich 314, 324, 4331952, Rome 346, 350–2, 433Commission 22 on Meteors (1948) 253Commission 40 on Radio Astronomy

(1948-) 138, 346, 424, 433international Dutch school of 21 cm

research 416International Polar Year (1932–3) 258International Telecommunications Co.

(Japan) 89interviews 11, 12, 492–502ionosphere

abnormal/sporadic E ionization, short scatter echoes 105–8, 231, 257–8

as cause of fading of lunar echoes 274–6, 282

D layer/region 43, 89E layer/region 105F layer/region 329

scintillations and “spread-F” 73,116, 213, 276, 320, 324–7






Index 533

ionosphere (cont.)influence of solar activity 213M (meteor) region 242meteors as a cause of ionization (pre-

1945 evidence) 231–6, 255–8physics of meteor trails 252postwar meteor radar research 251–2primer 474–5shortwave fade-outs (sudden

ionospheric disturbances) 30, 88,89, 299, 302

winds 251–2, 327Istvanfy, Edvin 272Ito, Yogi 255

Jaeger, John C. 133, 279, 300jansky (unit) 16, 44Jansky, C. Moreau 29, 50Jansky, Karl G. 25, 29–53, 54–5, 63, 77,

180, 210, 255, 258, 265, 302, 334,366, 368, 380, 395, 414, 439, 451,472

1931–32 observations 33–5, 36and Southworth 94, 97, 98biography 29–30, 32, 43–4Bruce array antenna 32–3discovery article (1933) 36–7discovery of sidereal connection 35–6interpretation of radio waves as the

entire Milky Way 41–2, 49interpretation of radio waves as the

Milky Way center 36–7interpretation of radio waves as the

sun 34–5modern contour map of data 49, 53reactions from astronomers 47–9reasons for success 51–2receiver 31–2research on “star static” 31–43research stopped by Friis? 49–51

Jarrell, Richard 437Jelley, J. V. 181Jennison, Roger C. 192, 199, 353–8, 377,

386, 414, 502Jerry cable 386Jewett, Frank B. 30, 70Jodrell Bank, Manchester University 355,

421, 444, 447, 448218 ft fixed dish (1948) 180, 186–91, 334founding by Lovell (1945) 179–81lunar radar (1949- ) 191, 281overview of Lovell’s group during first

5 years 193–8plans for 250 ft steerable dish 181,

192–3relation with (optical) astronomy

195–6, 440, 452

Johler, Joseph R. 72, 367Johnson, Harold 464Johnson, John B. 26, 30Julius, George A. 118Jungfraujoch 228Jupiter, low-frequency radio bursts 125

Kahn, Franz 196, 440Kaiser, D. 454Kaiser, Thomas R. 197, 252Kalachev, Pavel D. 218Kapitza Club 350Kapteyn, Jacobus 371, 395, 413–16Kauffman, Herbert 269Kaydanovsky, Naum L. 218Keenan, Philip C. 60, 75, 368, 395, 485Kelly, Mervin J. 64Kelvin, Lord (William Thomson) 443Kennelly, Arthur E. 19–20, 30Kennelly–Heaviside Layer (ionosphere)

30, 232, 255, 261Kepler, Johannes 468Kepler’s supernova 321, 347Kerr, Frank J. 4, 122, 128, 145, 150,

274–7, 282, 409, 413–17Kevles, D. J. 455Khartoum, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1952

solar eclipse 208–9, 291Khaykin, Semen E. 217–18, 291, 320Kiel University 227Kiepenheuer, Karl-Otto 228, 297, 308,

314synchrotron radiation as cause of

galactic background noise (1950) 379, 380

Kimpara, Atsushi 226King Kong (film) 39King, Archie P. 92knobs, functionless 148Kobrin, M. M. 281Koelbloed, D. 395Kootwijk, the Netherlands 405, 413Kopal, Zdenek 196, 430, 440Korchak, A. A. 382Kraus, John D. 2, 86, 229, 263Kröbel, W. 228Kubler, George 12Kuhn, Thomas S. 467Kuiper, Gerard P., 60, 62, 70, 76Kusch, P. 401Kwal, Bernard 380, 392Kyhl, Robert 204

Labrum, Norman R. 291, 311Laffineur, Marius 86, 223–5, 291, 320,

405, 430Lalande, Jérôme 77

Lamb, Willis E. 398lamington 147Landau, Lev 397Langer, Rudolph M. 44Langley, Samuel P. 469Lankford, John 74Lasswitz, Kurd 23Latin, abstract of lunar radar paper

(Lombardini 1944) 264Latour, Bruno 450Lavoisier, Antoine L. 349Lehany, Fred 199, 311Leiden Observatory 211, 394–6, 429,

452, 471Leigh, New Zealand 317Leighton, Robert 463Lejay, P. 228Leningrad University 229Lesch, J. E. 363Leslie, S. W. 454Levin, B. Yu. 238Lindblad, Bertil-Anders 228Lipson–Beevers strips 292, 297Little, Alec G. 300–2, 336Little, C. Gordon 192, 324–7Llewellyn, Frederick B. 26, 232Lloyd’s mirror 132lock-in amplifier 203, 402Lodge, Oliver J. 20–1, 454Lombardini, Pietro 263“Long Michelson” interferometer,

Cambridge 166–9, 320, 327, 328,361

love play 227Lovell, A. C. Bernard 109, 178–98, 252,

255, 264, 353, 423, 424, 443, 447,448, 451, 468

biography 178daytime meteor showers 242–5founding of Jodrell Bank; searching

for radar echoes from cosmic ray showers (1945–8) 178–81

leadership style 193–8observations of 1946 Giacobinid

meteor shower 236plans for 250 ft steerable dish (1949-)

192–3research on speeds and origins of

meteors 245–51start of meteor radar research (1946)

181–6Lovell Telescope (new name for Jodrell

Bank 250 ft dish) 193Luke, St. 123Lutz, Samuel G. 57Lyman Laboratory, Harvard 399Lyman, Theodore 400






534 Index

Lyot, Bernard 224, 296Lyttleton, Raymond A. 327

Machin, Kenneth E. 163, 170, 171, 173,175, 176, 219, 294, 312, 356, 430,440, 450, 466

MacRae, Donald A. 211, 342Madsen, John P. V. 119, 120, 441Magellanic Clouds 142, 321, 413, 458major themes of book

material culture and technoscience 14–15, 449–53, 470

twentieth century’s New Astronomy 16, 462, 467–70

visual culture 15, 351, 426, 435–6, 470World War II and Cold War 14,

112–13, 122, 151, 220–1, 418–20,442–9, 470

Mandel’shtam, Leonid I. 214, 262Manning, Laurence A. 237, 239, 252Marconi Co. 25, 257Marconi, Guglielmo 25, 30, 55, 260Marcoussis, France 222Mars – radio communication with

Martians 260Martyn, David F. 86, 148, 309

biography 119first head of Radiophysics Lab

120first head of URSI Commission V

(1948) 145–6, 433priority dispute with Pawsey over

106 K solar corona 136–7proposal for lunar radar (1930) 261rivalry with Radiophysics Lab

137–8theory of 106 K solar corona and solar

emission 135–7, 287–8, 312Marx, Groucho 39Maxwell, Alan 192, 327Mayall, Nicholas 445Mayer, Cornell H. 208, 388, 431McAfee, Walter S. 266McClain, Edward F. 263McCoy, D. O. 208McCrea, William H. 341, 430, 431McCready, Lindsay L. 129–34, 199, 298,

302McCullough, Timothy P. 388McDonald Observatory 62, 70McEwan, R. J. 209McGee, Richard X. 334, 363McKinley, Donald R. W. 241–2, 250,

259, 429McNicol, Robert W. E. 168McNish, Alvin G. 237McVittie, George C. 376

Menzel, Donald H. 25, 70, 97, 199, 260,263, 312, 314, 399, 429, 445

Mercer, K. A. 110, 258mermaid hunter 168Messier 87 (as Vir A) 316, 321–2, 339,

340, 347, 360, 458, 465Messier, Charles 320meteor radar astronomy

rise and fall (1945–55) 253–5sociological analysis by Gilbert

254–5Table of early groups 241

meteors 252possible cause of abnormal ionization

in ionosphere (prewar work) 231–6

cause of anomalous radar echoes (1945, Hey & Stewart) 105–8

conference at Manchester University and Jodrell Bank (1948) 248

contributions of their study by radar to ionosphere physics 251–2

determined to be not from interstellar space 245–51, 253, 259

for radio communications 240, 254, 444Fresnel diffraction technique to

measure speeds (Davies & Ellyett 1949) 186, 240, 258–9

physics of trail formation and radar reflection 252

pre-1945 connections to the ionosphere 255–8

radar Doppler method to measure speeds (Manning 1948) 240,258–9

radar method to determine radiants (Clegg 1948) 242–3

radar apex and antapex experiments at Jodrell Bank 248–50

used to measure ionospheric winds 251–2

meteor showersArietid 243, 244β Taurid 243, 244δ Aquarid 108, 233η Aquarid 184ζ Perseid 244daytime 108, 184, 185, 242–5Geminid 256, 258Giacobinid (1946) 184, 236–9Leonid 233–4, 238, 255–6, 257Lyrid 109Perseid 108, 182–3, 233, 238, 240,

241–2, 256, 257Piscid 184, 243primer 107Quadrantid 109

Metzger, S. 280Meudon Observatory 23–4, 223, 430, 469Meudon Observatory, cafeteria 224Michelangelo 361Michelson interferometer see

interferometer – MichelsonMichelson, Albert A. 160, 352Michigan, University of 86microwaves 91Mikhailov, A. A. 427military influences on research groups 14,

101, 122, 218, 226, 240, 254, 399,412, 415, 442–9, 454–5, 466

Millikan, Robert A. 45Millman, Peter M. 241–2, 247, 252, 253,

429Mills Cross, 147, 153Mills, Bernard Y. 145, 148, 150, 154, 168,

174, 291, 302, 327, 374, 385, 390,431, 436, 440, 448, 458, 471

angular sizes for 4 discrete sources 360decision not to search for 21 cm

hydrogen line 125–6, 398positions for Cyg A (1949–52) 335–9“radio pictures” 350, 360survey of 77 discrete sources 330–1,

365Minkowski, Rudolph 142, 221, 320–2,

325, 356, 383–4, 426, 429, 433biography 344–5optical identifications of radio sources

(1949–53) 337–49radio stars as Population II objects

375–7Minnaert, Marcel G. J. 394, 405, 425, 429Minnett, Harry C. 127, 148, 277–80, 291,

311, 334, 347, 398, 448Minohara, Tsutomu 255Mitra, S. K. 256, 353Miya, Kenichi 89Mofenson, Jacob 266Molchanov, Andrei P. 229molecules, radio lines 397, 462mongoose 389monkey 279Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical

Society 440moon

librations 271, 275“military object” 445occultations of radio sources 314radar

detection by German military radar (Stepp & Thiel, 1943–44) 262

detection in Hungary by Bay (1946) 271–4, 282–3

Jodrell Bank (1949-) 191






Index 535

moon radar (cont.)librations 271, 275–6, 280press reaction to Project Diana

269–71prewar proposals 260–1Project Diana detection (DeWitt

et al., 1946) 264–71Radio Australia echoes (Kerr &

Shain, 1947) 274–7wartime calculations and

observations 261–4reflection of light from atomic bomb

explosion 262thermal emission 207

detection by Dicke & Beringer at 1.25 cm (1945) 205

model of lunar soil by Piddington & Minnett 278

study by Piddington & Minnett at 1.25 cm (1948) 277–80

used as communications relay 280used by US to intercept Soviet radio

transmissions 280Moran, Frank 191Moriyama, Fumio 226Morrison, Phillip 390, 462Moscow State University 214Moxon, L. A. 115Mt. Haleakala, Hawaii 73Mt. Stromlo Commonwealth Observatory

130, 137–8, 152, 430Mt. Wilson Observatory, Pasadena 48,

142, 277, 287, 320, 337, 344, 429,441

Mueller, George E. 95–7Mulkay, Michael 10–11Muller, C. Alexander 394, 406–9, 413–14,

416Muller, H. 289Mumford, Willis W. 401Munns, David 153, 413, 437Murray, John D. 302Murray, William A. S. “Sandy” 191,

199, 281Mustel, E. R. 382Mutch, W. W. 31

Nagaoka, Hantaro 232, 257Nagoya University, Research Institute of

Atmospherics 226Naismith, Robert A. 110, 182, 237,

258Nakagami, Minoru 89Nançay, France 223NASA (National Aeronautics and Space

Administration) 97, 254, 280, 449,462, 466

National Bureau of Standards (US) – 71–2, 78, 89, 222, 237, 254, 281,367, 441, 444

National Radio Astronomy Observatory (US) 75, 78, 206, 400, 425, 437,446, 449, 495, 505

National Research Council (Canada) 211–13, 241–2

National Science Foundation (US) 449Naval Research Lab – see US Naval

Research LabNeedell, Alan 344Neugebauer, Gerald 463New Astronomies

astrophysics (spectroscopy, photography) 469

digital computers and numerical simulation 462

Galileo 467Herschel 468radio astronomy; opening of

electromagnetic spectrum 16, 462,467–70

New Zealand Cosmic Noise Expedition (1948) 143, 317–19

Newton, H. W. 430Ney, Edward P. 386NGC 1275 (as Per A) 316, 341, 347NGC 5128 (as Cen A) 316, 321, 341, 347Nicholson, Seth B. 142, 277Noah 56Nobel Prize in Physics

Appleton (1947) 83Blackett (1948) 178, 192Bragg and Bragg (1915) 172Ginzburg (2003) 214Purcell & Bloch (1952) 398Ryle & Hewish (1974) 176, 312

Nobel Prize in Physiology or MedicineHounsfield & Cormack (1979)

313Hodgkin (1963) 170

noise, primer 479Nordmann, Charles 23–4, 469Norfolk Island effect 85, 128–9Norton’s Star Atlas 139, 324Nuclear Laboratory, Harvard 398Nuffield Foundation 193nuit de l’amour 77Nyquist, Harry 26, 30

O’Brien, Patrick A. 174, 176, 294–6octopus 346Oda, Minoru 226Office of Naval Research (US) – 70–1,

210, 240, 443–9Ohio State University 229

Olbers’s paradox 389, 396Oliphant, Mark L. 138Onsala, Sweden 228Oort, Jan H. 56, 103, 254, 321–3, 335,

349, 376, 385, 387, 410, 427, 429,433, 444, 452, 459

biography 371, 394–5detection and observations of 21 cm

hydrogen line 404–9, 410–1,413–17

model of galactic noise (1951, with Westerhout) 370–2, 382, 391, 430

Öpik, Ernst J. 246–51, 252, 253Oppenheimer, J. Robert 122optical astronomy (and related terms) 15,

424–5, 467optical astronomy (field) see astronomy,

opticaloptical identification (term) 322, 349optical identification of radio stars

(sources) 143, 169, 317–24,335–51

oral histories 492–502Oreskes, N. 454Orion nebula 142, 208, 316, 383, 458ornithology, radar 258Osaka City University 226Osaka University 226Oslo, University of 211, 228Ovenden, Michael W. 175, 182, 254, 312,

313, 428, 468Owren, Leif 211, 417

P. N. Lebedev Physics Institute (FIAN), Moscow 214, 218

Palomar Mountain 200 inch telescope 45,211, 340–8, 364, 440

Palomar Sky Survey 348Pang, Alex S.-K. 429Pan-Pacific Science Congress, 1923

meeting in Australia 146Papaleksi, Nikolai D. 214, 217, 220, 262–3Papp, György 272–4Parker, J. C. 182Parkes dish 152, 153Parsons, S. John 101–5, 112, 179, 237,

450Pascal, Blaise 1Pawsey, Joseph L. 73, 77, 85, 128–9, 138,

142, 144–6, 146–8, 152–3, 164,174, 191, 280, 298, 302, 317–20,323, 324, 335, 363, 370, 397, 409,410, 413, 414, 417, 420, 424, 425,432, 433, 434, 437, 438, 451

biography 124–6first Sydney solar observations

(1945–6) 129–34






536 Index

Pawsey, Joseph L. (cont.)Fourier synthesis principle 133–4leadership style 148–51microwave sky experiments (1944) 127–8observation of solar base level of

106 K 135–7, 312priority dispute with Martyn over

106 K solar corona 136–7spectrum of quiet sun 285–6

Payne-Scott, Ruby V. 97, 139, 336biography 127–8first Sydney report on solar and

galactic noise (1945) 130–1first Sydney solar observations

(1945–6) 129–34Fourier synthesis principle 133–4microwave sky experiments (1944)

127–8solar bursts research 298–302, 305

Pease, Francis 160Peenemünde, Germany 262Penrith (Radiophysics Lab field station)

302, 305Penzias, Arno A. 52, 414Perseus A 316, 341, 346, 347, 377, 458Peterson, Allen M. 240, 252Pettit, Edison 277Pfeiffer, John 49–50, 430Ph.D. degrees, early

Clegg (1948a), Manchester (meteor radar) 193

Denisse (1949b), Ecole Normale Supérieure (first on a radio astronomy topic) 222

Ellyett (1948), Manchester (first in radar astronomy) 193

Ewen (1951), Harvard (discovery of hydrogen line) 398–403

Hagen (1949), Georgetown (microwave sun) 207

Nordmann (1903), Paris (Hertzian waves and astronomy) 23–4

Ryle decides not to finish his Ph. D. 172–3

Skellett (1933), Princeton (radio and meteors) 232–4, 429

Smith (1951c), Cambridge (positions of radio stars) 339–44

Stanier (1950b), Cambridge (solar interferometry) 292–4

Troitsky (1949), Gorky (solar techniques) 220

Villard (1948), Stanford (meteor radar) 240

phase switch, invention by Ryle (1947) and later use 168–9, 330, 355,360, 489

Philips Research Laboratories 395Phillips, James W. 21, 101–5, 112, 116photomultiplier tube 428Pickard, Greenleaf W. 257Piddington, Jack H. 86, 148–9, 152, 190,

261, 277, 288, 291, 308, 311,334, 347, 372, 376, 409, 417,430, 448

Pierce, George W. 46Pierce, John A. 106, 234–5, 236, 237, 239,

252, 257Pierce, John R. 98, 234, 309, 452Piha, New Zealand 319Pikel’ner, Solomon B. 382Pineo, Victor C. 237Pippard, A. Brian 172planets, radar 282plant growth and solar radio bursts

314Poisson’s spot 314Popper, Daniel M. 426, 430Porter, J. G. 245, 247Porter, Russell W. 45Potapenko, Gennady W. 44–5Potsdam Observatory 22–3, 469Potter, Ralph K. 52Potts Hill (Radiophysics Lab field station)

146, 291, 296, 300, 336, 409Pound, Robert V. 400Powell, John Wesley 446precession of coordinates 142, 432, 478Prentice, J. P. Manning 182–4, 236, 239,

430, 468Priester, Wolfgang 228Primakoff, Henry 387Princeton University 35, 205, 232, 429Procrustes 149Prodell, A. G. 401Project Diana (US lunar radar, 1946) 237,

264–71, 274Project Janet 254Project PAMOR (US Naval Research

Laboratory) 280Project Vanguard 210Pulkovo Observatory, Leningrad 75, 220,

387Pulley, Owen O. 119pulsars 365, 376, 414, 462Puppis A, 316, 330, 347, 359Purcell, Edward M. 203–204, 398–403,

409–10, 412, 415, 419, 444Pyenson, L. 429

Quäck, E. 257Quarterly Bulletin on Solar Activity (IAU)

284, 313, 433quasars 461

rabbit 279radar

British secret given to Australia (1939) 120

development before and during World War II 79–80, 120–1, 505

military typesChain Home network (UK) 79, 80,

132, 166, 258Freya (Germany) 84GL Mark II (UK) 81–2, 101–2,

179H2S (UK) 178high quality of German manufacture

159Knickebein (Germany) 113LORAN radio navigation system

(US) 200LW/AW Mark IA (Australia) 121SCR-268 (US) 211–2SCR-270 (US) 237, 257, 266SCR-271 (US) 266–9SLC “Elsie” (searchlight control)

(UK) 183, 236, 242, 248Würzburg (Germany) 72, 78, 80, 81,

84, 159, 169, 218, 222, 224, 228,229, 262, 293, 329, 339, 359

Würzmann, Wassermann (Germany) 262

origin of name 79ornithology 258postwar influence on science and

technology 418–20radar equation 266Radar Research and Development

Establishment (UK) 114radiant aerials, Jodrell Bank 243Radiation Laboratory, Massachusetts

Institute of Technology (US) 121,200–5, 239, 269, 277, 398, 442

radio amateurs 30, 54, 86–9, 210, 239radio astronomers – relations with

(optical) astronomers 75–6, 138,152, 175, 224, 313, 416, 425,429–32, 435, 439–41

radio astronomers as New Astronomers 453

Radio Astronomical Journal, lack of 437radio astronomy (and related terms) 234,

423–4, 453, 471radio astronomy

1953 as a watershed year 422–3a new discipline? 15, 435–8, 471a scientific revolution? 467applied uses 124, 208as technoscience 449–53bibliographies 503






Index 537

radio astronomy (cont.)comparison with electron microscopy

454comparison with optical astronomy

1–3, 455, 457–9comparison with other New

Astronomies 467–70comparison with postwar US space

science 445comparison with start of X-ray

astronomy 465–7definition 3–4entering Big Science era 422–3first academic chair (1951, Lovell) 195,

423, 430first academic course (1950, Van de

Hulst) 407, 416, 430growth over 1945–53 420–2harbinger of opening of other

wavelength bands 462–3, 469–70

IAU versus URSI 432–4lack of US leadership despite Jansky

and Reber 439military patronage in US 442–9, 455national influences 438–9overview of history 5–10, 457–62primer 472–84shorter versus longer wavelength

research (US versus elsewhere) 209, 447–8

size relative to (optical) astronomy 313,420, 457, 465

style of research 427–9, 442Table of early groups 201the twentieth century’s New

Astronomy 469–70Radio Australia 274radio communications research before

1928 30Radio Development Laboratory,

Wellington, N. Z. 85radio galaxy (term) 383radio images 349–50, 360, 436radio magnitudes 347, 436radio observatory (term) 425“radio pictures” (Mills) 350, 360Radio Radiation Laboratory, Harvard

University (US) 239Radio Research Board, Australia 119, 261radio sextant 208, 412, 445, 447Radio Society of Great Britain 87“radio sourcerers” 363radio stars (sources)

1′-2′-accuracy positions by Smith (1951a) 169, 339–44

A, B… nomenclature 142

radio stars (sources) (cont.)claimed bursts and interstellar

dispersion (Shklovsky 1950) 364first spectra (Bolton’s group) 333New Zealand Cosmic Noise

Expedition (Bolton & Stanley, 1948) 317–19

occultations by the moon 314optical data epistemically superior to

radio data 351positions measured by Bolton’s group

(1948–9) 317–24reality of 348–51, 434, 436role of terminology in disputes 363search for proper motions and

parallaxes (Smith) 329search for intensity variations (Ryle &

Elsmore) 330status of the field in 1953 363–4interpretations

Class I (galactic) and Class II (isotropic) by Mills (1952) 330–2,373–4

collapsed dense stars (Gold) 376colliding galaxies 341comets 329, 374dark, nearby stars (Ryle) 169, 329

374–8extragalactic objects 341, 374–8, 383integrated effect produces galactic

background noise 369–74intelligent transmissions (Ryle) 378nearby or distant? 374–8Population II objects (Baade &

Minkowski) 335, 375radio galaxies (Shklovsky) 383radio stars or radio nebulae? 360–3,

382Seyfert galaxies 376synchrotron-radiation-emitting stars

(Alfvén & Herlofson 1950) 379supernova remnants (Shklovsky) 383Wolf-Rayet stars (Shklovsky) 381

notableAndromeda nebula (see separate

entry)Cassiopeia A (see separate entry)Cassiopeia B 347, 383Centaurus A 65, 143, 316, 321–2,

330, 333, 341, 347, 359, 360, 362,373, 377, 458

Coma Berenices A (early name for Vir A) 142, 319

Cygnus A (see separate entry)Cygnus X 68, 77, 163, 316, 347Fornax A 341, 362Hydra A 73, 341

notable radio stars (cont.)Perseus A 316, 341, 346, 347, 377,

458Puppis A 316, 330, 347, 359Sagittarius A (galactic center source)

77, 316, 334–5Table 316Taurus A (see separate entry)Ursa Major (spurious) 166, 324, 393

optical identificationsBaade & Minkowski (1954) 344–8first ones suggested (Bolton, Stanley

& Slee 1949) 320–4general discussion 348–51normal galaxies 347positions by Mills and by Smith for

Cas A and Cyg A 335–44scintillations 103, 116, 319, 324–7, 353

Jodrell Bank/Cambridge simultaneous observations (1949) 326

primer 116Sydney/New Zealand simultaneous

observations (1948) 325surveys

1C (Ryle, Smith & Elsmore 1950)328–9, 364, 365, 395

2C (Cambridge) and its antenna 175,193, 334, 389

9 cm (Haddock et al. 1954) 208discrepancy between Mills’s MSH

and Ryle’s 2C (mid-1950s) 153,334

Hanbury Brown & Hazard (1953) 191, 331

log N – log S plots 330, 332, 334,365, 370, 389

Mills (1952) survey of 77 sources 330, 365

Ryle’s group’s initial list of 23objects (1949) 166–8, 364

six new sources, including Tau A, Vir A, Cen A (Bolton 1948) 142–3

Stanley & Slee (1950, 77 sources) and Bolton et al. (1954, 104sources) 332–4

the five early primary surveys 328radio telescope: is it a telescope? 426–427radio telescope (term) 424, 426–427, 453,

471Radiophysics Laboratory, Sydney 86,

118–53, 261, 274–7, 297, 421,441, 446, 503

field stationsBadgery’s Creek 330, 360Collaroy 129Dapto 306






538 Index

Radiophysics Laboratory, Sydney, field stations (cont.)

Dover Heights 129, 130, 139,317–19, 333, 334, 364

general 129, 146–8Hornsby Valley 274–7Penrith 302, 305Potts Hill 147, 291, 296, 300, 336,

409and (optical) astronomy 152founding (1939) & wartime radar work

120–1isolation factor in Australia 143–6, 362leadership styles of Bowen and Pawsey

148–51overseas trips by researchers 144–6relations with Ryle’s group 144–6, 326research trends over 1946–53 123–5,

154success and changes in the 1950s 151–3transition to peacetime (1945) 121–3rain and cloud physics 123

Ramsey, Norman F. 412Rasmussen, N. 454Ratcliffe, John A. “Jack” 80, 119, 124,

155, 156–9, 171–2, 177, 313,317–19, 324, 327, 360, 363, 494

Fourier transform teaching 171–2,313, 440

Reagan National Airport 208Reber, Grote 26, 43, 48, 54–77, 96, 116,

162, 180, 208, 211, 211, 222, 263,281, 334, 395, 396, 425, 428, 429,439, 442, 444–5, 451, 495, 505

160 MHz survey of galactic noise (1943–4) 65–8, 366, 369

480 MHz survey of galactic noise (1946–7) 68–9

biography 54–5, 74–7comparison to William Herschel 77detection of sun (1943) 65errors in quoted antenna specifications

77–8first publications (1940) 60–63first receivers and “cosmic static”

(1938–9) 57–60hydrogen 21 cm line receiver 68, 396–7Milky Way radiation as free-free

emission 62–3, 367proposed observatory & 200-ft dish in

Texas 69–71reflector antenna in Wheaton, Ill.

(1937) 55–7, 78research after Wheaton (1947-) 71–4,

281, 396–7, 404seeking funding 63–5, 69–71

recombination lines of hydrogen 396, 412

Redman, Roderick O. 175, 340, 344Research Corporation 73review paper

Ginzburg (1947, 1948) 216Lovell (1948) 231Reber and Greenstein (1947) 68, 397Ryle (1950) 175Unsöld (1946) 227Williamson (1948) 211

rhombic antenna 302Richardson, Robert S. 88, 89Richmond Park, London 101Rifle Range, Grange Road (Cavendish

group field site) 161–2, 294, 339,359

Riihimaa, Jorma J. 25, 27Rivett, A. C. David 118, 122, 125, 149Roberts, James A. 174, 386, 459Rocard, Yves 221, 228Rossi, Bruno 386, 465Rowe, A. P. 156Rowe, William C. 302Royal Aircraft Establishment (UK) 159,

163, 169, 186Royal Astronomical Society (UK) 75,

104, 168, 190, 192, 195, 239,254, 308, 311, 342, 360–3, 424,430

Royal Australian Air Force 153, 446Royal Greenwich Observatory 81, 105,

245, 339, 341Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm

379Royal Radar Establishment (UK) 113,

446Royal Society (UK) 177, 423, 431Rudwick, Martin 12, 436rugby 162Rügen, Germany 262Rumford Fund, American Academy of

Arts and Sciences 399Russell, Henry Norris 47, 206Ruth, Babe 39Rutherford, Ernest 150, 155, 447Rydbeck, Olof E. H. 64, 211, 228, 417Ryle, Gilbert 381Ryle, John A. 381Ryle, Martin 155–77, 179, 191, 192,

218, 297, 314, 327, 328–30, 346,352–3, 360–3, 364, 365, 366, 379,385, 389, 391, 392, 404, 419, 422,424, 431, 434, 435, 439, 440, 442,447, 451, 458, 466, 467

2C (Cambridge) and its antenna 175,193, 334, 389

biography, wartime work, postwar transition 156–9

Ryle, Martin (cont.)Cas A discovery (Ryle and Smith 1948)

165Cavendish Lab group see Cavendish

Laboratorydebates about nature of radio stars

374–8development of Fourier synthesis

technique 176, 292–6, 312discrepancy between Mills’s MSH and

Ryle’s 2C (mid-1950s) 153, 334leadership style 172–5measurements of Cyg A position

(1948–9) 317–21reality of radio stars 348–51, 434, 436radio star scintillations 324–7radio stars interpreted as dark, nearby

stars 169, 329, 370radio stars interpreted as extragalactic

objects 346, 374–8, 389solar observations 159–63, 292–6, 312solar theory 308success of his group 169–77survey (initial) by Ryle, Smith &

Elsmore of 23 objects (1949) 166–8, 364

survey (published) by Ryle, Smith & Elsmore of 50 objects (1C) (1950) 328–9, 364, 395

Ryle–Vonberg receiver 160, 163, 189, 484

Sacramento Peak (New Mexico) 211, 445Sagittarius A (galactic center source) 77,

316, 334–5Saha, M. N. 397Salisbury, Winfield W. 199, 208, 263, 314Salomonovich, Alexander E. 218Sanamyan, Vagarshak A. 229Sandage, Allan 430Sander, Kenneth F. 114, 158Schafer, J. Peter 233Scharnhorst and Gneisenau (battle

cruisers) 81Scheiner, Julius 21–3, 469Schermerhorn, Willem 405Scheuer, Peter A. G. 170, 173, 363, 373,

386, 390, 391, 414, 426, 450, 468Schiaparelli, Giovanni V. 250Schluter, Arnulf 289Schott, E. 83–4Schwinger radiation 379Schwinger, Julian 452science and engineering, relation 415,

449–53scintillations of radio stars, see radio stars

– scintillationsScorpius X-1 (X-ray source) 465, 466






Index 539

Scott, John M. C. 100, 115sea-cliff interferometer see interferometer,

sea-cliffSeeger, Alan, poet 210Seeger, Charles L., Jr. (radio astronomer)

190, 210–11, 297, 342, 427, 429,435

Seeger, Charles L., Sr. (musicologist) 210Seeger, Pete (singer) 210seeing (concept) 426serendipity 51, 253, 414, 451, 466serpent 39Serviss, G. P. 19SETI (Search for Extraterrestrial

Intelligence) 462Shaffer, Simon 77Shain, C. Alexander 73, 125, 274–7Shain, G. A. 384Shakeshaft, John R. 173, 389Shapley, Alan 97Shapley, Harlow 47, 48, 60, 64, 69–71,

246, 321, 399, 412–15, 424, 425,437, 445, 458

Shapley-Ames Catalogue of Galaxies 348Sharp, Charles 173Shin, Douglas H. 327Shklovsky, Iosif S. 217, 220–21, 230, 308,

320, 346, 349, 368, 387,389, 390,412, 427, 436, 459

biography 216–7, 221galactic corona of radio stars for

galactic noise 368, 381–2interstellar dispersion in bursts of

radio sources (1950) 364–5synchrotron radiation theory for galactic

noise and radio stars 382–4synchrotron radiation theory for

optical emission of Crab nebula 383–5

theory of solar emission (1946) 215–16,230, 287, 309

theory of 21 cm hydrogen line 397,399, 412, 414, 417

Shortt clock 339shortwave fade-outs (sudden ionospheric

disturbances) 30, 88, 89, 299, 302Siedentopf, Heinrich 392Simonyi, Karoly 272Skagen, Denmark 84Skellett, A. Melvin 35, 48, 51, 110, 238,

253, 258correlation of meteors and radio

phenomena (1931–3) 232–4, 429Slee, O. Bruce 139, 319, 324, 325, 347,

349, 359, 361two surveys of discrete sources (1950,

1954) with Bolton & Stanley 332–4

Sloanaker, Russell M. 208, 388Smart, W. M. 254Smerd, Stefan F. 151, 284, 288–9, 306Smith, Elizabeth 164Smith, F. Graham xxvii, 17, 164, 167,

173, 174, 219, 317, 319, 324,328–30, 340, 364, 386, 390, 435,448, 451, 471

1′-2′-accuracy positions for Tau A,Vir A, Cyg A, Cas A (1951a) 339–44

angular sizes of Cas A and Cyg A 359–60

Cas A discovery (Ryle and Smith 1948)164–6

galactic background noise as summation of radio stars 370–1

radio star scintillations 324–6survey (initial) by Ryle, Smith &

Elsmore of 23 objects (1949), 166–8, 364

survey (published) by Ryle, Smith & Elsmore of 50 objects (1C) (1950) 328–9, 364, 365, 395

Smyth, Henry 447solar cycle (11-year) effects 73, 298

minimum during World War II 68,83, 100

on Jansky 52on Nordmann 24on prewar solar burst detections 25, 86–9postwar maximum 297

solar eclipse observations and expeditions1932 Aug. (effect on galactic noise) 351940 Nov. (ionosphere) 2571945 July 103, 115, 205, 2581946 Nov. 2121947 May 112, 205, 207, 217, 219,

222, 2911948 Nov. 2911949 Apr. 2221949 Oct. 2911950 Sept. 2071951 Sept. 222–3, 2911952 Feb. 209, 229, 290, 4291954 June 229overview 290–2, 429

solar noise (radiation)comparison to optical solar emission

313–14, 459patent by Southworth on microwave

radiation (1943) 96possible German detections during

World War II 91bursts

angular sizes < 10′ (Ryle &Vonberg1946) 162–3

solar noise, bursts (cont.)angular sizes < 8–13′ (McCready

et al., 1945–6) 131–3claim for discovery by Appleton

(1945) 90–1early detections

Schott (1940) 83–4Alexander (1945) 84–5American military during World

War II 85Slee in Darwin 139Hey (1942) 80–3effects on plant growth 314explained as plasma oscillations by

Shklovsky (1946) 216near discoveries

Dellinger (1937) 89Heightman & Corry (1935–9)

86–9Nakagami & Miya (1939) 89

notable burstsFeb. 1942 (Hey) 65, 80–3Feb. 1946 111, 131–3Jul. 1946 111, 137, 162Nov. 1946 (Reber, Southworth) 71Mar. 1947 (Payne-Scott, Yabsley &

Bolton) 139, 288–9overview of all research 297–311Payne-Scott’s research 298–302Reber (1946) 71search for audio-frequency radio waves

(1948) 199swept-frequency spectrographs of Wild’s

group 302–7theory of emission mechanisms

307–10variable intensity due to ionosphere?

326Wild’s research; Types I, II and III

302–7monitoring

Allen (1946) 284, 297Cornell (1948- ) 211Covington (1947- ) 213, 284, 310–1Hey et al. (1946–7) 112, 284overview 285Payne-Scott & Little (1948–50)

299–302Piddington & Minnett (1949b)

277Reber (1946–7) 68, 310Ryle & Vonberg (1946–8) 163, 284three Japanese groups (1949-)

225–6US Naval Research Lab (1947–9)

206–7Wild et al. (1949) 303–5






540 Index

solar noise (cont.)quiescent

acceptance by astronomers and radio researchers of 106 K corona311–12

angular distribution measured by Stanier, Machin, O’Brien at Cambridge (1950–4) 292–6, 356

Covington measures 60,000 K temperature at 10.7 cm (1946) 212–213

deduction of 106 K base level byPawsey, Martyn (1946) 135–7

detection by Southworth (1942–3) 91–9

detection by Reber (1943) 65Dicke & Beringer measure 10,000 K

temperature at 1.25 cm (1945) 205Ginzburg theory of emission (1946)

214, 312limb darkening and brightening 288,

291, 294Martyn theory of emission (1946)

135–7, 287–8, 312overview of all research 285–97priority dispute over 106 K solar

corona (Pawsey, Martyn) 136–7Shklovsky theory of emission (1946)

215–16, 229–30, 287, 309spectrum (Pawsey & Yabsley 1949)

285–6theory of emission 286–90

searchesAdel & Kraus (1933) 86DeWitt (1940) 113Edison & Kennelly (1890) , 19–20lack of success before World War II

24–7, 63Lodge (1894) 20–1,Nordmann (1901) 23–4, 27Piddington & Martyn (1939) 86Wilsing & Scheiner (1896) 21–3

slowly varying component observations and theory 310–1recognized by Denisse (1949) 222

Sorochenko, R. L. 220Southworth, George C. 35, 44, 57, 91–9,

260, 4421945 paper: the sun as a far-far-

infrared source 97–8attempts to publish during World

War II 96detection of solar microwave radiation

(1942) 70, 91–5error in radiation theory 97–9

Spencer Jones, Harold 110, 437spin temperature (term) 410

Spitzer, Lyman, Jr. 345“spread-F” see ionosphere, F-layerSputnik 1 210, 221, 449, 462Stagner, Gordon H. 52Stahr, Martha E. see Carpenter,

Martha S.Stalin, Iosif

“Jewish doctor’s plot” (1953) 384Stanford University (US) 239–41, 253,

282, 313, 441, 444Stanier, Harold M. 163, 173, 176, 292–4Stanley, Gordon J. 68, 75, 139–43, 151,

317–24, 325, 347, 349, 359, 361New Zealand Cosmic Noise

Expedition (1948) 317–19two surveys of discrete sources (1950,

1954) with Bolton & Slee 332–4steady state theory (cosmology) 389Stebbins, Joel C. 47, 68Steinberg, Jean-Louis 221–223, 224, 291Stepp, Wilhelm 262Sternberg Astronomical Institute,

Moscow State University 215Stetson, Harlan T. 47Stewart, Gordon S. 101, 105–9, 112,

235Stewart, John Q. 206, 237Stichting voor Radiostraling van Zon en

Melkweg (SRZM) 405Stodola, E. King 266Stokowski, Leopold 148Størmer, Carl 261Strang, C. B. 207Stratton, Frank J. M. 111, 175Strömgren, B. 58Struve, Otto 62, 64–5, 69–71, 75–6, 227,

397, 424, 426, 428, 429, 437, 448Stump Neck, Maryland, USA 280Stumpers, F. L. 405Sturgeon, William 362Sugar Grove (WestVirginia, USA) 600 ft

dish 209, 446sun

general magnetic field 288“military object” 445radar 214, 277, 282

sunspots 81, 111, 130–2“supercorona” 219supernova of AD 369 (as Cas A) 383,

346–7supernovae as sources of cosmic rays 383supernova remnants as radio sources 347,

383 also see Taurus A, Cassiopeia ASutherland, Joan 120Suzuki, Shigemasa 226swan 142Syam, P. 256

Sydney University 120synchrotron (accelerator) 379synchrotron radiation (term) 378synchrotron radiation

as mechanism for galactic background noise 378–89

as mechanism for radio stars 379at optical wavelengths in Crab nebula

(Shklovsky 1953) 383–5from protons 380, 382polarization 384–5, 387–8primer 476–7, 479why an unpopular idea in the West?

385–9

Tables10.1: Radio astronomy groups before

1952 201–0211.1: Principal early groups in meteor

radar 24114.1: Radio sources important in the

early history of radio astronomy 316

18.1: The opening of new astronomicalwindows 460–1

B.1: 115 persons interviewed for this study 496–9

B.2: 141 persons interviewed, mostlyon post-1954 radio astronomy, and not used in this study 500

B.3: Interviewee statistics 501C.1: Archives cited in this study 504

tadpole 256Takakura, Tatsuo 226Tanaka, Haruo 226Tartu Observatory (Estonia) 247Tasmania 73–4, 291Taurus A 77, 314, 316, 329, 333, 377,

383–5, 388, 458, 466discovery by Bolton and Stanley (1947)

140–3occultation by solar corona 218position and identification with Crab

nebula 320–4, 339, 340, 347, 360,382

Taurus X-1 (Crab nebula X-ray source) 465, 466

technoscience (theme) 14–15, 449–53,470

Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE), UK 139,156–7, 163, 164, 169, 170, 178,180, 187, 353

Telefunken 113television, development of 124, 257Teller, Edward 387Terletsky, Yakov P. 382






Index 541

Terman, Frederick E. 239, 240terminology in early radio astronomy

423–7terms

antenna temperature 203, 480artificial revelation 468astronomical 425–426cosmic noise, galactic noise, solar noise

1, 423–4optical astronomy, optical astronomer,

optical telescope 3, 424, 467optical identification 349radar 79radio astronomy, radio astronomer 234,

423–4, 453radio galaxy 383radio observatory 425radio telescope 424, 426–427, 453, 471technoscience 450

Terra Australis Incognita 153Tesla, Nikola 260Thiel, Willi 262Thiessen, G. 288Thomas, Adin B. 327, 331, 336–9Thomas, H. A. 114Thompson, Paul 492Thomson, John 173Thoreau, Henry David 56Tizard mission (1940) 121, 200, 211Todd, David 260Tokyo Astronomical Observatory, Mitaka

225, 430Toscanini, Arturo 265Tousey, Richard 207, 464Townes, Charles H. 97, 135, 368–9,

441, 444Toyokawa, Japan 226Trexler, James H. 209, 280Troitsky, Vsevolod S. 220Tromsö, Norway 258trout 32Tungsram Company 271–2turkey 32Turner, Michael 173Tuve, Merle A. 30, 229Twain, Mark 492Twiss, Richard Q. 353, 365, 392, 431, 452Tycho’s supernova (as Cas B) 321, 347, 383

Uhuru survey of X-ray sources 465ultraviolet astronomy 463University of London Observatory

341Unsöld, Albrecht 227–8, 230, 289, 368,

369–70, 375, 379, 386Ursa Major source (spurious), 166, 324,

393

URSI (International Union of Radio Science) 432–4

1934, London 441946, Sub-commission on Radio

Noise of Extra-terrestrial Origin (Commission III) 433

1946, Paris 4331948, CommissionV on Extra-

terrestrial Radio Noise 146, 4331948, Stockholm 145, 4331950, CommissionV on Radio

Astronomy 284, 4371950, Zürich 406, 4331952, Sub-commissionVb on

Terminology and Units 3501952, Sydney 146, 152, 222, 307, 349,

360, 422URSI Special Reports (1950–4) 433US Air Force 211, 240, 445, 465US Army Signal Corps 240, 260,

265–71US Naval Research Lab 206–10, 260–1,

309, 441, 445–447, 464, 4641947 eclipse observations at 3.2 cm

from Navy ship 20750 ft dish construction, shakedown

and first observations (1949- ) 208–9, 448

comparison with Gorky State University group 220

lunar radar (Trexler) 280overview of early years 209

USSRisolation of science from West 385overview of early radio astronomy

220–1USSR Academy of Sciences, 1947 eclipse

expedition 217

V-1 “buzz bomb” 100V-2 rocket 100, 105, 157, 179, 207, 266,

445, 464Van de Hulst, Hendrik C. 23, 63, 312,

335, 368, 372, 374, 385, 389, 396,430, 457

Dutch detection and observations of 21 cm hydrogen line (1951–2) 404–9, 410, 414–17, 427, 429

prediction of 21 cm hydrogen line (1944) 68, 394–6, 399

Van der Pol, B. 261Van Deusen, George 269Van Rhijn, P. J. 395, 416Vane, A. B. 204Vashakidze, Mikhail A. 385Vela X 77Vening Meinesz, F. A. 405

Venkataraman, K. 234, 239, 256Villard, Oswald G. (Mike), Jr. 239,

252Virgo A 143, 316, 319, 333, 362, 465

position and identification with Messier 87 321–2, 339, 340, 347,360, 458

visual culture (theme) 15, 351, 426,435–6, 470–1

Vitkevich, Viktor V. 218, 220, 397Von Klüber, Harald 175Vonberg, Derek D. 156–8, 170, 173, 297,

428

Waer, R. 280Waldmeier, Max 289, 310, 312, 314,

429Walpole, Horace 51Walraven, Theodore 387Ward, James E. 93, 97Watson Watt, Robert 17, 79, 91, 121, 148,

156, 188, 258, 428Watson, J. D. 172Webb, Harold D. 266Weisskopf, Viktor F. 412Westerhout, Gart 371–2, 382, 385, 391,

413Westfold, Kevin C. 145, 151, 288, 300,

333, 359, 367, 371–2, 382, 391,417, 430

Whipple, Fred L. 46–7, 59–60, 195, 239,240, 245, 247–51, 253, 254, 429,445

whiskey (Hudson Bay’s Best Procurable) 346

whistlers, ionospheric 233whistles, ionospheric 234White, Frederick G. W. 121, 138Whitfield, George 173Whitford, Albert E. 48, 68Wild, J. Paul 68, 147, 150, 302–7, 398,

416Wilkins, A. F. 258Wille, Horst 84, 228Williams, Eric J. 88Williams, Neil H. 86Williams, Ted 398Williamson, Ralph E. 211, 342, 369, 427,

429, 431Wilsing, Johannes 21–3, 469Wilson, C. T. R. 351Wilson, Robert W. 52, 414Wilson, William 31Wolf-Rayet stars 381Wood, Harley 138Woolley, Richard v.d.R. 137–8,

141, 226, 288, 312, 368, 431, 433






542 Index

World War II and Cold War (theme) 14, 112–13, 122, 151, 221–2,418–420, 442–9, 470

Wouthuysen, S. A. 412Würzburg reflector 72, 78, 80, 81, 84,

159, 169, 218, 222, 224, 228, 229,262, 293, 329, 339, 359,405, 417, 471

X-ray astronomer (term) 466

X-ray astronomy 391, 464–7, 469comparison with radio astronomy

465–7X-ray computed tomography 313X-ray crystallography 172, 292xylophone 233

Yabsley, Donald E. 139, 149, 286, 291,311

Yaplee, Benjamin S. 281

Yerkes Observatory 60–2,69–71, 379, 429

Yokoyama, Eitaro 232Young, Charles A. 89Young, Leo C. 261Zimenki, USSR 220Zinner, Ernst 236Zisler, Siegfried 222Zürich Observatory 310, 429Zwicky, Fritz 45






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