Independent Studies7BM998 Resource 2

Designing Methodology and EthicsDr Jill HansonN509J.Hanson@derby.ac.uk

Devising An Appropriate Methodology 1

Broadly speaking there are TWO main research approaches: Positivistic Phenomenological

How do you know which is the right approach?!!

What is a positivistic approach? Saunders et al :

Deductive (theory tested by observation) Seeks to explain causal relationships between

variables Normally uses quantitative data (numbers or

categories) Employs controls to permit the testing of

hypotheses Uses a highly structured methodology to facilitate

replication Attempts to permit generalisation (uses many

subjects)

What is a phenomenological approach? Concerned with the meanings that research

subjects attach to social phenomena Permits a more in depth analysis of people’s

experiences and perceptions Findings not generalisable (uses small

number of participants) Quite useful for theory building

Research Strategy Is roughly how you will go about answering

the objectives you have set Saunders et al: 3 different research strategies

Experiment Survey Case study

Also need to consider dimension of time – will your research be cross-sectional or longitudinal?

And, will your study be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory?

Experiment

A favourite in the social science of psychology

Involves devising specific hypotheses and testing them

Select samples from known populations Manipulate independent variables to see if

that affects the dependent variable whilst controlling other important variables

Survey

Most popular method in more ‘applied’ social sciences

Usually involves questionnaire as a data collection technique

But limits to what can be assessed through a questionnaire

Difficult to determine causality using survey method

Case Study

Detailed, in depth study of a particular case such as a person or organisation to provide a rich understanding of that specific subject.

Can include a variety of data collection techniques

Results not generalisable – only applicable to case in hand.

Research purpose

Descriptive research – to literally describe a phenomena e.g. census

Exploratory research – useful for finding out what is happening, seeing whether a large set of variables are related to each other, or clarifying your understanding of a problem

Explanatory research – establishing whether one or more variables cause changes in other variable(s).

Cross-sectional v Longitudinal Cross-sectional research – snapshot of

phenomena at a particular point in time excellent for descriptive or exploratory research less useful for explanatory research

Longitudinal research – measuring things at several points in time Good for researching processes, change and

development But time consuming and problem of participant

drop out

Data Requirements TableObjective Variables How

measured?How analysed?

e.g. investigate whether job demands are related to stress

Job demands

stress

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Statistics (correlations and regression analysis using SPSS)

e.g. explore emloyees experiences of appraisals

Experiences of appraisals

Semi-structured interview

Qualitative analysis:

Thematic analysis

e.g. establish whether productivity is related to satisfaction

Productivity

satisfaction

Sales/performance/units produced

Questionnaire - job Satisfaction survey (Spector, 1985)

Statistics (correlations and regression analysis)

Access Be realistic. The most likely sources of data

will come from organisations Where you work/used to work Where you friends/family work

Other access routes could be through the mentoring scheme

Professional bodies such as CIPD. Become a member if you are not already and get networking ASAP

GANTT Chart

ETHICS You MUST consider Ethics in your

design This year you will have to complete an

ethics approval form and have your research design approved by the subject area research ethics committee

Research Ethics – University Code of Ethics Researchers must not compromise the overriding principles of non-

malfeasance and beneficence, legal obligations and any pre-existing rights in the conduct of research.

Researchers must weigh up the potentially conflicting risks and benefits of a particular piece of research, for instance the potential conflict between human and animal welfare.

Researchers should consider the principle of justice and the fair treatment of participants in research. Thus the researcher, supervisor or IS tutor may be required to make judgements about the essential fairness of the activity and to ensure that the interests of all participants, whether directly or indirectly involved, are taken into account.

Researchers should consider the ethical implications of the research and the physiological, psychological, social, political, religious, environmental, cultural and economic consequences of the work for the participants. Researchers should be sensitive to the possibility of blasphemy or giving offence to followers of faiths or beliefs arising from a piece of work.

Ethics Procedures Informed Consent

Participants must be fully informed re the nature of the research and of their right to privacy

Must also be informed of right to not answer any questions they do not want to or to withdraw at any time

Consider participant age (parental consent may be required)

Confidentiality, Anonymity and Data Protection Animal Rights Research undertaken in a public place Academic Integrity Contractual Responsibilities Signed form

Ethical Issues In Design and Access Your research should be designed in line with ethical principles

(think of participants and the factors on the previous slide) When seeking access you must not put pressure on intended

participants to grant access (particularly salient for those of you conducting research in the organisation in which you work) Right to privacy Secondary data and right to privacy

Deception – informed consent (the aims and nature of the research, who is undertaking it, who is funding it, its likely duration, why it is being undertaken, the possible consequences of the research and how the results will be disseminated)

In particular you must be careful when negotiating access – do not offer the organisation more than you ethically give.

Ethical Issues During Data Collection General Issues

Right to privacy, to refuse to answer questions, to withdraw at any time

Objectivity Confidentiality and anonymity

Qualitative Issues Greater scope to breach ethical code because of personal

contact, non-standardised questions, observation and incremental developments to your knowledge base

Must avoid ‘over-zealous’ behaviour/questioning and pressing people for answers

Must be very careful that the questions you ask are not demeaning and that interview does not intrude on other activities

Ethical Issues During Data Collection Observation - Boundaries of what is

permissible to observe must be very clear Cannot intrude on personal life (right to privacy) Do not want to constrain participants activities Reactivity v habituation

Covert observation? An ethical minefield and often just best avoided

Ethical Issues In Analysis and Reporting Must represent your data honestly and

remain objective Confidentiality and anonymity –

must maintain promises made regarding who sees data and report

Anonymity for organisation or individual participants to avoid embarrassment and harm

If you want to release the organisations name you will likely need their written permission which will probably involve people from that organisation reading the report.

Statement of Intent and Informed Consent Participant must be given information on:

Nature and purpose of research project Anonymity and confidentiality Right to withdraw or to refuse to answer

any questions Data protection (what happens to the data

after it has been collected? How long will you keep it? Where will you keep it? Who will have access to it?)

Informed consent (signature) Who will see the written results?

Other Issues and Procedures Deception Debriefing Protection of participants Observation research Giving advice Research undertaken in public places Data protection Environmental protection

Proposals This year proposal takes the shape of ethics

approval form Your proposal must convince your tutor that:1. The research topic is relevant to your degree2. The research topic is interesting and worthwhile

studying, there is a clear rationale3. The research objectives are pitched at the right

level4. Your methods are appropriate to your objectives

and will allow you to answer them5. That your design is ethically sound and you have a

comprehensive statement of intent and informed consent

How do you do that?1. Make sure your project is at the right level, feasible and

sufficiently detailed in terms of aims and objectives2. Provide a clear rationale for your project that is derived from

organisational demands AND a gap in the existing literature3. Make sure you have a detailed and clear explanation of how

EVERY objective will be met and analysed (draw up a data requirements table)

4. Have a brief justification for your choices5. Meet the ethics requirements with respect to access, design,

data collection, analysis and writing up

Proposal Structure Title Introduction, Review of Literature and study rationale Aim Objectives Method

Research Philosophy Research Strategy and Design Data Collection Methods Participants and Sampling Techniques Analyses to be conducted Ethical considerations

Data requirements table GANTT chart References

Summary - Key points Do your homework and know the subject area Don’t choose a topic that is unrealistic (e.g. CSR in Shell),

instead choose a topic based on WHERE you can actually get access

Choose an appropriate theoretical framework Write clear, feasible objectives A literature review is not an essay, it is a critical review of

research done on the same topic(s) that you are looking at Devise a sensible methodology and make sure you JUSTIFY

your decisions (i.e. WHY are you doing it that way?) Make sure you attend to ethical considerations and have worked

out these issues before the ethics committee sits.

The Ethics Approval Form – Guidance Notes 1 Section 7 – State clearly your overall aim and

then list your objectives Section 8 – Introduce topic

area/organisation(s) under investigation and briefly discuss literature directly relevant to YOUR objectives. Include the rationale for your research (i.e. why is it important?) Refer to organisational demands Indicate a gap in the literature

The Ethics Approval Form – Guidance Notes 2 Section 9 – Use subheadings to describe

AND justify: Research approach Research strategy and design Data collection methods

Structure this part by objective and refer to your data requirements table

You should demonstrate an awareness of alternatives when you justify your selections

The Ethics Approval Form – Guidance Notes 3 Section 10 – Likely answer is Yes. In majority of

cases your ethical considerations will relate to: Access Confidentiality and anonymity Data protection act Informed consent/right to withdraw Who sees final report

You will need to discuss the extent to which these things will feature in your project and how you will deal with them – do this in section 11.

The Ethics Approval Form – Guidance Notes 4 Section 12 – Provide details on who is taking

part. Age – over 18? How selected? Inclusion/exclusion criteria

Section 13 – Payments and incentives are unlikely

Section 14 – For initial submission you should indicate what data collection methods you will use and the themes to be addressed

The Ethics Approval Form – Guidance Notes 5 Section 15 – note what you will need Section 16 – This may be particularly

relevant if you work in the health services.