increasing the impact of engineering in agricultural and rural development

8/9/2019 Increasing the Impact of Engineering in Agricultural and Rural Development

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IRRl DISCUSSION PAPER SE RIES NO. 30

Increasing the Impatof Engineering inAgricultural and RuralDevelopmentM.A. Bell, D. Dawe, M.B. Douthw aite, Edi tors

IRRIINTERNATIONALICERESEARCHNSTITUTE


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The International Rice Research Institute (IRR I) was established in 1960by the Ford and Rocke feller F oundatio nswith the help and appro val oftheGovern ment of the Philippines. Today IRRI is one of the 16 nonprofit in -ternational research centers supportedby the Consultative Group on nter-national Agricultural Research (CG IAR ). The CG IAR s sponsored by theFood and Agriculture Organizationof th e United Nations, the InternationalBank for Recon struction an d Dev elopm ent World Bank), and the UnitedNations Development Programme ( U N D P ) . Its membership comprisesdonor countries, nternational and regional organizations, and privatefoundations.As listed in its most recent Corporate Report, IRRI receives support,through the CGIAR. from a number of donors including UNDP, WorldBank, European Union, Asian Developm ent Bank, Rock efeller Founda-tion, and he nternationalaid agencies of the following governments:Australia, Belgiu m, Canada , P eoplesepublic ofChina, Denmark , France,Germany, India, Indonesia, Japan, Republic of Korea, The Netherlands,Norway,Philippines,Spain,Sweden,Switzerland,Thailand,UnitedKingdom, and United States.Th e responsibility for this publicationests with thenternational RiceResearch Institute.

IRRl Discussion Paper SeriesThe IRRI Discussion Paper Series was created asflexible means forRRIscientists to share information with specialized institutions and individu-als. Each paper is produced fro m camera-ready copy supplied by the au-thor and i s processed through IRRIs Comm unication and PublicationsServices. The papers re read for typographical accuracy only and are notsubjected to the normal IRRI editing or peer review processes.The series is intended to be a fast me ans of presenting preliminaryresults of research still in progress, butwhich could beof immediate use toothers. The seriesalso contains special project reports, consortia and net-work reports, short proceedin gs or reports of meetings and workshops,recomm endation s fro m a particular work shop, and similar materials.IRRI invites fee dback from readers, which will be useful to the au-thors when they are refining their materials for formal publication in jour-nals or as monographs.

Copy right International Rice Research Institute 1998P.O. Box 933 , M anila 1099, PhilippinesPhone: (63-2) 845-0563,8 12-7686Email: [email protected] Hom e page: http://www.cgiar.org/irriRiceweb: http://www.riceweb.orgRiceworld: http://www.riceworld.orgTelex: (ITT) 40890 RICE PM(CWI) 14519 IRILB PS(RCA) 22456 IRI PH(CWI) I486 I IRI PS

Fax: (63-2) 89 - 1 292, 845-0606

Suggested citation:Bell MA , Dawe D, Do uthwaite M B, editors.998. Increasing the impact of engineering in agricultural and ural developm ent. Delibera-tions of a think tank, 26-28 February 1998, IRRI, Lo s Bafios, Philippines. IRRI Discussion Paper Series No. 30. Manila (Philippines):International R ice Research Institute. 108 p.

ISBN 971-22-0116-3ISSN0117-8180
mailto:[email protected]://www.cgiar.org/irrihttp://www.riceweb.org/http://www.riceworld.org/http://www.riceworld.org/http://www.riceweb.org/http://www.cgiar.org/irrimailto:[email protected]


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IRRl DISCUSSION PAPER SERIE S NO. 30

Increasing the Impactof Engineering inAgricultural and RuralDevelopmentM.A. Bell, D. Daw e, an d M.B. Dou thwa i te , Editors

Deliberations of a think tankIRRI, 26-28 February 1998

1998ISTERNATIOSALICERESEARCHNSTITUTEP.O. Box 933, Mani la 1099, Phil ippines


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ContentsForewordAcknowledgmentsIncreasing the impact f engineering in agricultural and rural developmentDevelopments in the Asian rice economy: challenges for mechanizationM.A. Bell and D. Daweand useAgricultural mechanization: a historyf research at IRRI and changes inW. ChancellorAsiaIncreasing the impactof engineering in agricultural mechanization: someB. Douthwaite andM.A. Bellthoughts from the profession

Production and useof tractors in IndiaG.SinghIRRI-Spectra Precision collaborative developmentf a precision wet-L. Gusfafsson and J. McNamaraleveling systemThe Thai combine: a case studyf equipment development in ThailandS. Kfishnasreni andT. KiatwafThe SRR-1 dryer: a case study f equipment developmentin VietnamPhan Hieu HienA systems approach to agricultural engineeringn CambodiaJ.F. RickmanRoles of the private sector and government in formulating concepts and aL.J. Clarkemethodology for an agricultural mechanization strategyIntroducing change:What next?M.A.Bell

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ForewordRice is now the staple food for nearly two and a half billion people. Although the rice researchcommunity has been successful todate in helping provide this taple food to expandingpopulations, challenges lie ahead. More rice must be produced on lessand, and with less waterand labor and inputs that can harmhe environment. The use of rice is also changing withurbanization. Furthermore, rice farming must not be lefto the elderly and he women but shouldbe an attractive and profitable enterprise for the young farmers of tomorrow. The population thatdepends on rice will surpass four billion within our grandchildrensifetime. For IRRI, the task isespecially challenging: to spearhead a green-green revolution in ice-to continuously increasegrain supplies and enhance their quality, protect the natural resource base, androvide aworthwhile enterprise for the next generation f farmers.

Engineering is a critical component for helping to meet the challenges facing increasedrice production. In the early yearsof the Green Revolution, ngineering made many technicalcontributions to reduce drudgery and help increase laborroductivity. In these changing times,however, the role of engineering, particularly in public-sector research, has to change. Theopportunity is for contributing to an integrated system fromield preparation allthe way throughthe chain to end users. It was with this potential rolef engineers in rice systems in mind thatIRRI sponsored the think tank covered n this publication.

Kenneth S . FischerDeputy Director General for ResearchIRRI

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AcknowledgmentsAs coordinator of the think tank, I particularly want to acknowledge the fforts of Glenn Denningand Derek Sutton, who helped make this onference so productive. I also thank Ellen Sunaz(administrative assistant of AED) and other AED staffor their logistical support, and theparticipants whoso enriched the exercise. Finally, I thank Bill Hardy or his excellent editorialefforts.

Mark BellHead, Agricultural Engineering DivisionIRRI

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Increasing the impactof engineering in agricultural and ruraldevelopment'Terms of referenceBackgroundFunding for international and developed-country agricultural ngineering (AE) has declinedmarkedly in recent years, which might seem strange given the involvementf engineering in somany production and postproduction ctivities. As a result, th e International Rice ResearchInstitute (IRRI), among other concerned research groups, has been reviewing how besto reorientthe discipline to increase its impact. Although the internationalAE sector has been in decline,public-sector AE in developing-country national programs is ither unchanged or growing. Thus,AE staffing in national programs-at least in the short term-looks promising. Despite this trend,however, it appears that a review of the approach toAE internationally will also identifyopportunities to increase and ensure continued impact nationally.To brainstorm about AE issues,this think tank brought together group of public- and private-sector pecialists from around theworld.

Several issues led to developing the think tank: What is the role f the public and privatesectors? (What can theprivate sector handle best? What canhe public sector do best?) Does AEreally not make an impact or ist more a lack of public awareness of impact? Irrespective ofhistorical impact, what is needed to increase the present anduture impact of the discipline?ObjectivesThe objectives of the think tank wereoI .2.

3.4.

I .2.

3 .4.

Identify opportunities to increase incomes and rice productionn Asia.Identify how AE can best ontribute to the activities identified in point 1 (i.e.strategic approach to AE research & development).Clarify the roles of the private and public (international andational) sectorsIdentify how best to introduce hanges needed in the approach toAE.

,define ain AE.

Thus, the think tank was tructured around four main questions:What should AE do (in response to trends in national economies, etc.)?How should AE be done (i.e., what is the best approach o increasing impact through hediscipline)?What are the relative roles f the national publicsector, international public sector, andprivate sector (and others)?What next (i.e., how do we implement recommended changes?)?

Panel membersNational programprojectsEulito Bautista (PhilRice, Philippines)


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Dante de Padua (former NAPHIRE& IDRC; consultant, IRRI, Philippines)*Phan-Hieu Hien (Can Tho ProjecWAF, Vietnam)Joe Rickman (CIAP-IRRI, Cambodia)Suraweth Krishnareim (AED, Thailand)Private sectorLars Gustafsson (Spectra Precision, Singapore, USA)Yoshisuke Kishida (AMA, Shin-Norinsha Corporation, Japan)Donordadvanced research institutesWilliam (Bill) Chancellor (UC Davis, USA)Lawrence Clarke (Head FAO-AGSE, Italy)Adrianus Rijk (ADB, Philippines)Gajendra Singh (AITOCAR,ThailandIndia)Derek Sutton (DFIDPWorld Bank, England)IRRIMark Bell (AED)David Dawe (SSD)Glenn Denning (EO)Boru Douthwaite (AED)Ken Fischer (DDGR)Pat Borlagdan (AED)Eugene Castro, Jr. (AED)Philip Cedillo (AED)Summ arized think tank reportTrends, limitations, and opportunitiesOne of every three peopleon Earth depends on rice for more than halff their daily caloricintake. Ninety percentof the world's rice is grown and consumedn Asia, where more than halfthe world's people live, and about two-thirdsf the world'spoor live. Rice is also an importantstaple in some countries in Latin America and Africa.

Rice surpluses and low pricesn recent years have givenan impression that the worldsfood production problems are solved. But population pressure (especiallyn rice-growingcountries) is intense: about80-85 million additional people must be fed each year. he worldsannual unmilled rice production must increase y approximately 3540% from today's 562million tons to keep up it h population growth and income-induced demandor food betweennow and the year 2020.

From 1965 to 1996, total rice production more than doubled.More than three-fourths ofthis increase came from higher yields, while nearly one-fourth washe result of increased area* ADB-Asian Development Bank, AED-Agricultural Engineering Division, AGSE-Agricultural Support Services, AgriculturalEngineering Branch, AIT-Asian Institute of Technology, AMA-Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa and Latin America,CIAP-Cambodia-IRRI-Australia roject, DDGR-deputy director general fo r research, DFID-Division for InternationalDevelopment, EO-External Operations, FAO-Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, ICAR-Indian Councilof Agricultural Research, IDRC-International Development Research Centre, NAPHIRE-National Post-harvest Research, SSD-Social Sciences Division, UAF-University of Agriculture and Forestry, UC-University of California.

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harvested (because of a combination of increased cropping intensity, new land brought intocultivation, and a shift of land fromother crops to rice). Muchof the yield increase can be tracedto the introduction of modern rice varieties and tohe increased use of fertilizer, irrigation water,and other inputs.

In the future, increasingly rapid rural o urban population movement, ncreasedindustrialization, increased urban incomes, increased cropping intensity, and laborsunwillingness to undertake arduous tasks under unpleasant conditions will mean growing scarcityof land, water, and labor or rice production. Furthermore, farmers will also have to increaseproduction without harming the nvironment.As incomes increase, diet diversification anddemand for higher-quality rice and rice by-products will be increasingly important. Rice fanningis increasingly under pressure to become more attractive and competitive in order to keep peopleon the land to produce he food needed to feed rural and urban onsumers.

To meet the growing demand, rice production n Asia must increase significantly in the face ofless labor, less land, and less water, along withgreater concern for the environment. Rice qualityand diet diversification will be increasingly important. Profitability of the rice system has to be

increased.Meeting the needAll disciplines have a role in increasing the volume,quality, and efficiency of rice production.Engineering can contribute at virtually every point along he production to consumption chain,both in its own right andalso by complementing the research of other disciplines (Table 1 ) . Forexample, increasing pressure on land, water, and labor availability requiresnnovative farm powerand machinery systems. Improved andherefore more expensive seeds require more efficient andprecise seeding devices. Reduced environmental impact requires more fficient applicationequipment for agrochemicals.

Engineering also has tremendous potential to improve the quality of life by increasing theviability and profitabilityof production, postproduction, andother rural and urbanenterprises,and by enhancing labor productivity, reducingdrudgery, improving welfare, anddesigningappropriate health and safety interventions. Engineering canlso contribute to increased output byreducing pre- and postproduction osses through enhanced harvesting, handling, and processing aswell as enabling more timely operations.Effective implementation of engineering in agriculturaland rural development will provide people with choices (Le., options among various tools andtechnologies to enhance human physical and intellectual capacity ando guide and assist peoplein making the most appropriate choice among those options).

Environmental concerns call for technologies tobe developed to prevent or reverse thenegative effects of agriculture and industrialization. In particular, diminishing soil and waterresources can be more ffectively managed through better ngineering interventions to reduceerosion and contamination (pollution) and maintain adequate water quality for urban as well asrural uses.

Engineering along with otherdisciplines all have a role in achieving the needed ncrease in riceproduction. Engineering can contribute at almost every point along th e production to consumptionchain. Engineering has both a direct and indirect role (by increasing the impact ofther

disciplines).

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Table1. Engineering activities involved in agricultural production and research andinteraction with other disciplines?Agronomy, Soil andaterlantntomology Social

and agro- gene tics, andlantathologyecologyActiv ities physiology, sciences breed ing, and sciences

Landorming (leveling, bund X Xforming, roads, irrigationand drainage channels)(primary/secondarytillage/puddling)chemical applicationtechniques)safety (applicationtechnology)techniques)(catchments, supplies,drainage systems)Harvesting (cutting, gathering,threshing, transporting)Postharvest (crop drying,storage, handling)Food processing (hammermilling, pelleting, wafers)Instrumentation/calibration X X(quality control /monitoring/recording)

Land preparation X X

Weed control (manual, X

Chem ical application and X

Seeding XWater X

Designnd construction X X

X

X

X

X

XX

XX

X(machines, buildings)An X indicates a primary opportunity for engineering to enhance the workof the other discipline. To some extent,engineering can probably enhance the workof all disciplines in each of these areas.Paradigm shift-increasing impactEngineering, perhaps more than other disciplines, has the potential to contribute to a wide rangeof options to help increase production and productivitynd reduce poverty. All oo often,however, the discipline has missed opportunities by working in isolation or interpreting its roletoo narrowly (e.g., as solely hardware design anddevelopment).

By adopting a systems approach and integrating its fforts to work within amultidisciplinary environment, engineering can have a direct impact through research anddevelopment(R&D) s well as an indirect impact y being a catalyst for increasing the impact ofother disciplines. By adopting a demand-led systems approach that considers all the stakeholdersinvolved in the production to consumption chain, intervention points can be etter identified andtargeted, and R&D can be better focused o achieve outputs appropriate to each target group.Combined with a problem-solving orientation rather han a technology focus, hardwaredevelopment becomes a tool and not the end in itself. Such an approach will be new to some in~

2 Hardware refers to machinery and equipment.4


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the discipline, but not to all. Already, someengineers, especially in developed countries, haveidentified the need to adopt some form of systems approach.

To capture the opportunities that a systems approach offers (including public-privatesector alliances) will require engineers to work more closely with targetgroups in a moremultidisciplinary environment. As such, it may be necessary to develop or tap into a wider set ofskills (such as economics, operations research, ergonomics, business management, agronomy,etc.). Problem solving, not technology generation, mustbe the focus.

Maximizing the impact of engineering will require an interdisciplinary participatory systemsapproach.

Public-private3 synergyEngineering has a tremendous opportunity o take advantageof the synergy offered by public- andprivate-sector collaboration. By taking advantageof each sectorscomparative advantage,strategic alliances will lead to increased efficiency and impact. Forxample, a better-focusedpublic sector excels in policy understanding,engineering principles, market opportunity,information supply, needs assessment, andprioritization. Furthermore, it brings a long-term viewto ensure that critical factors such as environmental issues are considered. The public sector alsooften houses the knowledge for improved hardware and business management thathe privatesector needs. Finally, the public sector can provide consumer protection and an unbiasedassessment of market opportunities and forces that can help users makeetter informed choices.The public sector also has a role in developing a suitable policy environment to allow the privatesector to develop efficiently.

The private sector in turn excels in innovation, distribution, and delivering products toconsumers. An area where the public and private ectors are critically interdependent is in R&Dto adapt existing technology to local needs, andn so doing provide farmers with the technologychoice that is so often lacking. The public sector needs to be involved ecause the private sectoroften lacks resources and s reluctant or too weak to invest sufficiently in R&D, and may lackaccess to or understanding of new technology. In addition, the profit motive that both drives andconstrains the private sector may result n a lack of strategic R&D on medium- and long-termconstraints facing the system.

By developing public-private sector alliances, a number of mutual benefits emerge,including improved avenues for impact, access to target groups, improved efficiency of hardwaredevelopment, improved efficiency of software (management) development, access to expertise,credibility, access to resources (e.g., land, equipment or testing), development of a suitablepolicy environment, and quality control. These benefits will combine to improve the access of endusers to improved options and management.Strategic alliances between a well-focused public and private ector will maximize each sectors

comparative advantages to increase he efficiency of R&D.~~~ ~ -~~

3 Although w e use public and private sectors, w e re aware that it m ay be learer to some people asgovernment and nongovernment r commercial.5


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Implications for international engineering institutesNARS will increasingly come under the budgetary pressures already facedby internationalinstitutes. The need to show impact will become stronger both nationally nd internationally. Theinternational sector, through institutions such as RRI, has a number of roles to play n increasingimpact both directly and indirectly, though the role willf course change based on the relativestrengths of the public and privatesectors in different regions. In general, the international sectorcan best help NARS by creating an enabling policy, operational, and professional environment(strategy and policy). It should also act as an advocate, acilitator, or catalyst in developing andpromoting th e role of engineering in agricultural andrural development (awareness). It shouldprovide a regional or global focal point for the collection andissemination of information,networking and a discussion forum, coordinationof technical assistance (information andnetworking), and training opportunities and promotion of investment in better R&Dmethodologies (education and training).

Work programs should be implemented within a systems approach-enabling better R&Dprioritization and implementation (helping NARS avoid the hardware trap wherehardware is theoutput and not one of the tools to overcome the problem), plus identifying, developing, andpromoting ways for the public and private ectors to work together better (R&D). The mostcritical contribution initiallywill likely be assistance in developing a systems approach. Becausethe public and private sectors differ throughout the region, the roleof the international andnational public sector must be dynamic. Although theprivate sector is growing tremendously,free-market forces still need some guidance (including at times policy limination) to ensureeffective development.The roles of international agricultural engineering institutes n strategy and policy, education andtraining, R&D, and information networking must e dynamic. Initially, their most important role

is likely to be in the development and dissemination f more effective systems R&Dmethodologies.Next stepsThe think tank brought together interested parties from around the world to identify keycomponents for amore focused and ffective engineering discipline. The output confirmed theapproach already begun at RRI (i.e., applying integrated multidisciplinaryactivities guided by asystems approach-a greater focus on application than design). IRRI will have a key role to playwith other groups to implement this paradigmshift. IRRI will work with institutes such as AI",ACIAR, DFID, and FA0 to instigate change. PhilRice and others have already xpressed theirintent to draw onhe outcomes of this think tank to better focus their efforts in engineering. Wemust take this opportunity toensure that th e engineering contribution better meets he numerousneeds of all stakeholders. Too often, engineering has been the odd partner; it is now time tointegrate engineering into multidisciplinary teams. At the same time that we are asking otherdisciplines to embrace engineering, however, the primary responsibility lies with ngineers toadopt new approaches, demonstrate application of a wider set of skills, work in multidisciplinarysettings (where we seek to first understand before beingunderstood), and focus to solve problems.

In addition to awareness activities, IRRI will continue to develop a systems approach to use inBangladesh, the Philippines, and other countries-similar to the one already begun successfully inCambodia. We must act tocapture key points and then apply and promote them.

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Key recommendations (for IRRI)Awareness programI . Continue to reorient the role and function of engineering within the institute and the region.2. Promote a systems R&D approach that is participatory and nterdisciplinary. Promote

"private-public partnerships" as an integral art of systems R&D.Policy and strategyI . Help develop R&D priorities and policiesconducive to effective private- and public-sector

development.2. Help NARS to improve prioritization and avoid R&D methodology pitfalls, thereby

improving the efficiency of activities and helping to not "reinvent the wheel."Training and educationI . Help NARS develop their R&D capability through training and ducation, noting that some

NARS already have this apacity.Information and networkingI . IRRI should act as a facilitator in the region-especially in the areas of information transfer,

networking, and promotion of "improved" research methodologies.2. Act as rice systems technology information centers-possess knowledge of all globally

available technologies that are not always known locally.3 . Link NARS to international advanced research institutes.Research and developmentI . Develop systems R&D methodologies including comprehensive decision support systems.

a. Use a systems approach-a comprehensive understanding of the rice production toconsumption continuum-to identify points of intervention with high impact. Issues suchas a lack of institutional policies, credit facilities, etc., must beconsidered.obtain an improved understanding of the problems and hus generate more appropriatesolutions.manufacturers, government organizations(GOs) & nongovernment organizations (NGOs),farmers, consumers, etc.) to provide the best olutions and meet real needs.

d. Develop, where appropriate, "private-public partnerships" as an integral part of systemsR&D (potential problems exist in areas such as intellectual property ights, such as theprivate sector's tendency toward monopoly versus the international publicector's desireto distribute products or technologies virtually ree to all possible clients).alternate supply cannot be identified.

b. Use an interdisciplinary approach in which AE is integrated with other disciplines to

c. Promote participatory R&D with the key players and stakeholders (including

e. Limit direct involvement in machinery design and development o cases in which an2. Generate basic data that NARS don't havehe capacity to produce but that are needed for

applied research.IRRI's response o key recommendations or international public-sector ctivities inengineeringTable 2shows IRRI's response to the various recommendations,ncluding some actions plannedand comments. Recommendations were made underive broad areas: awareness program, policyand strategy, training and education, information and networking, and R&D.

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Detailed output of think tankThree papers were presented to help ocus discussion and five case studies of successfultechnology development highlighted the haracteristics of successful R&D programs and notedthe relative roles of the private and public sectors in the R&D process. Two additional articleswere distributed for reference. All of these follow thischapter.

Responses to opportunities and trendsRice production in Asia must increase in the face of several constraints (e.g., less water, land,labor) and growing concern about theenvironment. Engineering has many opportunities tocontribute to this taskby integrating with other disciplines. Although some people may viewengineering as only machinery development, its potential is really muchroader. Table 3listssome of these opportunities and intervention points.

To overcome the key constraints and increase incomes, here are various opportunities forapplying engineering depending on the target roup and zone (e.g., precision land leveling toreduce weeds, improve water management,tc.). But the appropriate response cannot be made ingeneralities; i t first depends on identifying and quantifying the problem. Priorities will thereforechange according to the target zone and group. Once the needs assessment in thearget zone orgroup is done, then the appropriate options can be considered o overcome the problem. We needto consider what technologyis already available and the socioeconomicircumstances.

Although the general application f engineering to agriculture and ruraldevelopment isobvious, the need for engineering can perhaps best be strengthened throughts potentialcontribution to information, labor and energy, and power/output relations. In addition, the effortsof others will be multiplied through the successf engineering. For example, the followingequation (provided by W . Chancellor) demonstrates that all disciplines, including engineering,can contribute to improved food production.

Human resource inputdunit food produced= land requiredcrop produced x cropproducedhnit food producedx human resource inputs/land required

W. Chancellor has explained this equation. In some impoverished countries, most peopleare required ust to provide food foreveryone. This means that few human esources are availablefor other things valued in advanced civilizations such as medical care, art, and education. If wecan make food production more fficient (reducing the amountof human resources needed toproduce food) then people will be able to devote more resourceso things that will improve theirstandard of living. This reduction in the people needed to produce food can be ccomplished bythe interactionof a number of technologies in the systems with which we work.

Reducing the land required to producea given amount of crop is the provinceofagronomists, engineers, and soil scientists as well as plant breeders. Reducing the amount of croprequired to produce a given amount of food is the province of postharvest experts (includingengineers) and food technologists.Reducing the number of people needed to work a givenamount of land (i.e., labor productivity) is within the province of agricultural engineers.


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A systems approach captures the problem of a moving target because it is n touch withthe market and is therefore demand-led and responds to needs. here will be increased impact(i.e., success) through a systems approach because:- a major need will be met,- an end user will have been effectively targeted,- work is visible because those involved are activewith the beneficiary, and- work is interdisciplinary.

Table4 hows some specific activities undera systems approach in agriculturalengineering.Activities of the international public sector4The assumption is that the capacityf some NARS has increased; herefore, IRRIs role maychange. Although technology hardware often xists, it may not be locally available or known.Therefore, information sharing is an important role.The internationaI public sector has a role inpromoting safety and quality tandards and identifying appropriateoptions to ensure adequatechoices for consumers and rice production and postproduction systems. Table 5shows a summaryof potential international public-sector ctivities.

If mechanization is essential and is growingespite a diminishing international publicsector, whats th e problem (i.e., why is an international public sector needed for engineering?)?The answer is that mechanization is only one aspectf labor-saving technology. Becausetechnology is becoming more omplex, improved policies and information flow rovideTable 4. Systems approach in agricultural engineering.SystemsNeedsassessmentIdentify argetgroupsand heirproblems(quantifydemand)(defin ing true needs Use participatory rese arch -con sid er objectives of target group and other keyversuswants)layers in thechaine,g.,ublic,rivate,ndsers,manufacturers, salespersons, etc.)Engineeringdentify ndntegrateole of private secto r (entrepreneurs,manufacturers, farmers,R&D sales persons)Integrate with othe r R& D disciplinesEvaluate potential technologies in economicas well as physical termsDevelop systems o offer choices to target groupsConsider technology from similar environments (before designing)Demonstrate and train (e.g., skill enhancement for

manufacturers/farmers/contractors; research m ethodology for national R&Dprograms)Develop quality assurance/standards (especially for the private secto r)Consider ergonomics/people factors (assess safe ty)Generate, share, and exchange informationDisciplineaisewarenessfmpactnd contributions (governments,onors)strengtheningOtherevelopechanizationtrategyivenlobalrendsconsiderationsMake se of emergingoolsespeciallynformationechnology)

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Table 5. Potential activitiesof the international public ector in engineering.Theme shifts ActivitiesPolicy andstrategy

Training andeducation

Informationandnetworking

Public-private

R& D

Target engineeringoptionsFoster a healthymechanization subsectorFacilitate development of a

conducive policyenvironmentStrengthen national R&Dcapacity (education)lntroduce and promoteparticipatory R&DapproachesCapture advances inCoordinate networks

information technology

Implementsystems/interdisciplinaryapproachparadigm andmethodologies (e.g.,participatory approach)

Partnership = collaborative

Identify/develop new R&D

Carry out awareness campaignsHelp identify prioritiesAnalyze policy (with feedback to governments and other concerned

Conduct policystudies (must have NAR Sparticipation/support)agencies)

Assess training/education needsDevelop new training methods/materialsPromote Interne t connections and useLink NARS to advanced intern ationa l institut esDevelop and demonstrate curriculum on systems approachIdentify innovationsCreate awarenessDevelop databases on available techno logy-ch oices and managementIdentify information sourcesAct as center for generating choiceson available technology (hardwareDevelop W eb links for virtual networkdcenters for information e xchangeDevelop decision support systemsApply R&D toa wider scope of rural engineeringIdentify and implement a systems approach (help NARS avoid pitfalls)Develop basic designshest data s requested by NARWprivate sectorUndertake R&D on advanced technologyLink rice engineers with rice resea rchers worldwide

requirementsand software)

(See Table7)linkages alliancesopportunities to save money and increase the efficiencyof change. So the role here is learly notdesign and development. The gap is growing between technologyadvances and technology onoffer through the private sector and choices are lacking for end users. In addition, although thereis a strong case forpublic-sector funding of AE R&D work, this does not mean i t all has to bedone in the public sector. The international public sector for agricultural engineering has abroader role to play than ust mechanization. Table 6is a partial logical framework analysis forthe international sector.Role clarification: public-privateinks and rolesPrivate- and public-sector partnershipsare one goal for improved mpact. The factors to considerin who takes the lead for various activities will depend on aspects such as risk, alternate supply,potential profit (versus public good), strength of sector, source of expertise, and comparativeadvantage (Table 7).

Private-sector strength varies by region and country, and thusth e relative roles and type ofsupport required by the private sector and national public ector are constantly changing. Themost appropriate role of the international publicsector therefore varies. Forexample, at one end

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of the development spectrum with a weak public and privatesector, the role will be moreinclusive.As technology becomes more complex, however, the publicector in more highlydeveloped NARS will often need to provide more complexassistance to th e private sector-assistance that NARS may seek fromthe international publicsector (e.g., India now needs to sendpublic-sector engineers overseas to gain "improved" understanding and knowledgeo provide therequired services to the private sector).Public- and private-sector linkagesThe issue of how to best facilitate public- and private-sector collaboration is but one of the factorsinvolved in increasing the impact of engineering. Because thisis a relatively new area, however,some additional thoughts on how this can best be developedollow in Table 8.Table 6. Partial logical framework analysis.

.~ Verifiable AssumutionsisksInternational sector indicators~Goal:More and better rice that is more economicallyavailable and more

Purpose: To enhance rice production and food systems through optimized,Outputs: Engineering technologies and systems for people to have choices orenhancing rice production and use (e.g., improve quality and add value).

profitable and environmentally sound o produce.appropriate, and integrated engineering inputs and system s.

Themes*:Problemlconstraintheeds identification, description , and understanding(targeting needs based on regional differences and socioeconomicconditions); tap innovative sourcednew conceptsR&D (i n broad sense-including use of existing technology, ad aptation, andtransfer)Knowledge hub-information/knowledge delivery/exchange/disseminationfrom dynamic contemporary database-linked to other sources (e.g.,information on technology and systems for regional adaptatio n, com plextechnologies)Networks and virtual centers (inform ation echno logy), discussion and debatefora, facilitate partnersh ipsTraining and education on traditional and systems approaches and emergingtechnologiesExpert consultancyDevelop and influence policies, strategies, and standa rds (awareness program)Assist and support private sector-promote enterprise creation anddevelopment (manufacturing, operation , support services, advice/guidance.invention)Information systems and nstrum entation o facilitate researchInputs:MoneyData and technologySynergies (partnerships)People (knowledge, skills)

Extent of activity will depend on target and problem identificationheeds assessmen t.


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Table 7. Relative strengths, characteristics, and synergiesf the public and private sectors.Sector Observations

Private

Publicrimaryocuss on technologyevelopmentTakes a longer-term view (e.g., environm ental consideration s)Works better when linked to end usersOften houses understanding of software for improved hardware anagem ent(needed by the private sector)Can provide consumer protectionNeeds public-sectorstructure conducive to promoting motivation

Focused on profit (this both drives and constrains-short-term profit may notGenerally hasa short term and relatively narrowfocusStrength in hardware delivery o usersCannot always deliver as in developed countries (e.g., choice and expertise may belimited)InnovativeExpertise not always available

always be the best option for the system)

Public- and private-sector Improved avenue for impactsynergies from partnership Increased access to target groupsImproved efficiencyof hardware developmentImproved efficiencyof so ftware developmentConsu ltancy available on needed ex pertise areasIncrease opportunitiesand credibilityIncreased access to resources (e.g., land, equipm ent for testing, expertise)Improved policy environm ent s developedQuality controlImproved market needs assessment

Table8. Issues and concerns in forging public- and private-sector partnerships.Constraints tohyave a link? l inkages?linkagesInsufficient incentive Increase returns to Setting of standards R& D public-private compan iesWhatesultsromowan you facilitate linkage s?

for public sector(e.g., evaluationsystem for publicR&D)Public activities-may be policy-led,

not need-ledLack of appreciationof private-sectorinterests and timelineConflict of interestLack of moda litiesInability to select

innovative

public-sectorinvestmentCommercialopportunitiesidentified byprivate sectorMore focused R&DGreateraccountabiIity-need to showimpact. Publishedpapers are notenoughPrivate sectorgenerally has a

more effective

Activities private sector cannotafford (e.g., small scale i nless developed countries)Link R&D designwithmanufacturingDefinition of productsDesign assistanceRisk investmentAccess to new technologyProduction engineeringHigh-tech equipmentavailableBusiness planningMaterials technologyConsultancySkills trainingEnterprise developmentSource of supplyExpert systems

technology

Joint venturesConsultancyDesign transfer tomanufacturerTraining to end usersNetwork of industrial expe rts(worldwide)Secondment between private andpublic sectorsDevelop mod alitiesContract research (betw een private

Field da ys, dem onstrations, etc.Put private sector on boards ofPublic sector can recruit fromDirect intervention andassistanceDevelop incentives forcommercialization

and public sectors)

public institutesprivate sector

partnerselivery

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Developments in the Asian rice economy: challengesormechanization and useM.A. Bell and D. Dawe*

This paper outlines rends n rice production systems in Asia, highlighting he growingproblems of land, water, and abor scarcity. Associated with these trends is the need toincrease rural incomes, reduce poverty, and at the same time address growing concernsabout he environment. By examining these problems and needs in rice production andpostproduction,potentialstakeholderscanbe dentified.Rolesandapproaches in riceresearch for these stakeholders can then be developed andlarified to better address theneeds of Asian iceproductionsystems.Thispaperseeks odiscuss uture roles foragriculturalngineering in internationalgriculturalesearchnstitutions,ndwhatorganizational changes will be necessary to realize those roles. As we move into a moreknowledge-intensive environment, where knowledge is substituted for increasing levels ofinputs, we should consider how different stakeholders can best ntegrate their efforts tomore effectively communicate knowledge to farmers.

Background and trends in the rice-growing environmentWhere is rice produced?Global rice production is dominatedby the irrigated systems of Asia (Tables 1and 2). Productionby ecosystem is approximately 75% n irrigated areas, 18% in rainfed lowlands, 4% in uplandareas, and 3% in flood-prone areas. The rainfed lowlands are of particular interest as manyfarmers in this ecosystem are poor. Thailand, India, the United States, Vietnam, and Pakistan arepresently the largest rice xporters, in roughly that order (Table 3).

In the post-Green Revolution period, rice production in Asia has continued to grow. Butthe rate of growth has declined steadily n recent years becauseof a slowdown in yield growth anda virtual end to growth in new area available for production. The trend n the growth ofaveragerice yields in Asia was 2.1% annum" from 1967 to 1981, 1.8% from 1982 to 1989, and only 1.0%from 1990 to 1996. The trend in he growth of land area planted to rice was only0.4% annum"from 1990 to 1996,with most of that growth coming from Vietnam and Myanmar.Future trends in the Asian rice economy:1) more consumption and a hift towardhigher-quality riceEconomic development and population growthare the prime factors driving change in Asia (Fig.1 ) . The world population is presently rising at rate of approximately 84 million people yr".Much of this growth is n Asia, and many of these peoplewill be poor and depend primarily onrice consumption for survival (Greenland 1997; FAOSTATDatabase). As a result, rice demand isexpected to increase by approximately 40-60% over the period 193-2020 (Pinstrup-Andersen eta1 1997,'Pingali et a1 1997). This equates to an increase in production of approximately5-7mjllion t of milled rice yr-l, which is equivalent to adding around2-3 million ha of new land yr"(at current average yield 1evels)"land that is not available. Production increases will thereforehave to come primarily from reduced postproduction losses and increased ields ha".* Head, Agricultural Engineering Division, and agricultural economist, Social Sciences Division, IRRI.

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Table 1. Distribution of rice rop area by ecosystem and production and yield (roughice) for different Asiancountries, Africa, and Latin America (countriesisted by ranked rice area).Countryotal rice 1997993ough

area production rice y ield(000 ha) (OOO t ) (t ha") Irrigated Rainfedlood-plandDistributionof rice area (%)

lowlandroneWorldAsiaIndiaChinaIndonesiaBangladeshThailandVietnamMyanmarPhilippinesPakistanJapanCambodiaNepalKorea, Rep.MalaysiaSri LankaKorea, DPRLao PDROther AsiaLatin AmericaAfricaOtherUSAItalyAustraliaOthers

150,783134,83942,8003 1,34811,60010,Ooo9,1757,0216,6004,0352,2322,1001,9501,5111,0456606606005549486,1617,513

1,141245155

57 1,742522,050121,512196.97 I5 1,Ooo27,90320,70026,39721,20011,6696,43013,0003,3903,7116,5932,0652,6102,3001,4143,18520,13715,861

8,1371,4241,407

3.83.92.86.34.42.82.33.83.22.92.96.21.72.56.33.14.03.82.63.43.32.1

7.15.89. I' ) ?

53 2755 2945 3393 572 7227 7 8653 28182 615 100998 48236 91 866 2137 53670 2 61

(79,915)" (40,7 11)(74,161)39,103)

33 7(2,033) (246)17 21(1,277) (1,578)100100

8 1287 15210 1123 87 111 824 62

(12,063)18,094)(10,787) (10,787)

142 28 11 123 71337

2 59( 1 23) (3,635)20 42(1,503) (3,155)

729,727 J ." A r e a 4 a in parentheses.Data source: Area, production, yield: FAO Stat. Distributionof rice area: Huke and Huke 1997) for all Asiaexcept Japan. IRRI 1995a for Japan, world, Latin America,Africa, other.

As consumption rises, there will also be a shift toward dietdiversification and greaterdemand for higher-quality rice, such as aromatic riceWailes et a1 1995,IRRI 1997).In somecases, there are production trade-offs between producing higher-quality rice andncreasingproduction. For example, aromatic rice is nearly always lower-yielding. Thus, any attempt atprofit maximization at the farm level through shifts to produce this ower-yielding, higher-qualityrice wilI make keeping up with the growth in demand even moredifficult. Other qualityimprovements might result in less f a trade-off with highyields. For example, achieving highermilling percentages and reducing postproduction osses through improvements in postproductionsystems will actually increase yields-albeit at the country level rather than athe farm level.

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Table 2.Ecosystem classification.Ecosystem Slope Water control Rice Soil aeratiodothe restablishmentIrrigated Levelundedoodater control,fields shallowlooded

Rainfedevelolightly Noncontinuouslowland sloping bunded flooding of variablefields depth and duration,submergence notexceeding 50 cmfor more than 10consecutive daysUplandeveloeeplyarelylooded sloping fields

Deepwater/ Level to slightly >10 consecutiveflood-prone sloping or days of mediumdepressed fields toery deep water(50 to >300 cm )during crop growth

Transplanted ordirect seeded inpuddled orplowed dry soilTransplanted inpuddled soil ordirect seeded onpuddled orplowed dry soil

Anaerobic soilduring crop growth

Alternating aerobicand anaerobic soil ofvariable frequencyand duration

Direct seeded onplowed dry soilor dibbled in wetnonpuddled soilTransplanted inpuddled soil ordirect seeded onplowed dry soil

Aerobic soils

Aerobic toanaerobic soil;soil salinity ortoxicity in tidal areasSource: Greenland 1997.

Factorst drive Systemesponsesystem change

Quality preferences

Increased demand or rice

Fig. 1. Factors that drive system change and system response.

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Table3. Principal exporting countries, 1995.Areaicexportsnillions of metric % share of totalorldxportsWorld 23.3 100ThailandIndiaUSAVietnam

6.25.53.12.3

27241310

Source: FAOStat 1998.Future trends in the Asian rice economy:2) less labor, water, and land,and degradationof the natural resource baseThe needed increase in rice production will have o be achieved with less labor, less water, lessland, and greater concern about the environment Naylor 1996, IRRI 1997) (Fig. 1and Table 4).

Labor.At present, except for countries such as Japan and Korea, most Asianountrieshave more rural workers a" than ever before. But this s almost certain to change in the nearfuture as population growth lows and as rural labor is drawn awayrom the farm because ofincreased urbanization and ndustrialization. In addition, the fact that the levelof rural workersha" has not yet declined n many countries does not mean that labor available for rice productionis still abundant. For example, diversification out of rice and into higher-value agriculturalproducts (e.g., fruits and vegetables) leaves less labor availableor rice cultivation. Also, manyworkers in rural areas now work only part time n agricultural pursuits, preferring to devote moretime to other, more lucrative, employment n manufacturing and services. These phenomena arereflected in rising rural wages n many Asian countries. Thus, although average arable land areaper worker is much lower in Asia than in highly mechanized countries such as Australia and theUnited States, rising wages will force farmers in Asia to search for abor-saving technologies.

Water.Rice farmers will be forced to improve water-use efficiency n the coming years.Around 80% of the waterin Asia is now used for agriculture and, of this, around 90% is used forrice. Rice is hus the dominant userof water in most of Asia. But demand for water by industrialand municipal users is growing rapidly. At the same ime, the scope for increasing water suppliesby constructing new irrigation systems is relatively limited. Much of the land mostsuited forirrigation has already been eveloped, so that constructing new systems is likely to be veryexpensive. Also, concern is increasing about theenvironmental consequencesof large-scaleirrigation projects. It is therefore unlikely that new supplies will be able to entirely offset theincrease in industrial and municipal demand. Because theconomic value of water use is typicallymuch higher in manufacturing than n rice, water supplies available for rice will probablydecrease.

Land. As with labor and water, land or rice production will also be in increasingly shortsupply in he 21st century. Land around urbanareas, much of it irrigated, is being turnedover tohousing and industry, thus requiring the opening p of new land or increases in ropping intensityon old land. Growth in rice area harvested, however, has been diminishing throughout most ofAsia over the past twodecades. Rice area harvested in Asia increased from118 million ha in1977 to 120million ha in 1996, an average increase of less than 0.1% yr-', except for Vietnamand Myanmar, where growth has been greater.

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Table4. Factors affectingthe future of rice farming in Asia.Factor SystemesponseptionsIncreased population Increase rice demand and productionLess labor Increase mechanizationLess land Increase production efficiencyLess water Increase water-use efficiencyIncreased off-farm incomes Increase demand for higher-qualityice and

Diversify system e.g., fruits & vegetables)Increase profitabilityof farming(increase resource-useefficiency)(increase value add ed)

rice products

Environm ental concerns Increaseesource-usefficiencyEnvironment. Water quality and quantity will increasingly become an issuen the years

ahead. Intensification of rice production over the past 30 yr has caused environmental problemssuch as salinization and waterlogging of land, contaminationof water supplies by pesticides andfertilizers, and degradation of soil quality. As awareness grows, such issues will be increasinglyhandled through public opinion and political channels. The long-termffects of these problemson production are not always completely understood, butome of them are likely to presentserious constraints to increasing production in the 21st century.

Because of the reduced availabilityof labor, land, and water or rice production in the 21stcentury, it will be important to enerate new technologies and improve armer knowledge if riceproduction is to keep pace with the growthn demand. If new technologies and germplasm are notforthcoming, prices will rise.These higher prices will adversely affectmillions of poor riceconsumers, many of whom live in urban areas.I Labor, land, and water willbe the major factors limiting rice production in the future. ICountry differencesThe level of economic development andthe rate of economic growthare the prime factors thatdrive wage levels and the use of resources such as water and land.ecause different countries inth e region are at different stages of economic development and are growing at different rates, thechanges outlined previously will obviously occur at different rates throughout the region.ygrouping Asian countries according to income level, nature of the food production system, andthe extent of adoption of labor-saving technologies, it becomes easier to target th e likely needs ofeach country (Tables 5,6, and 7).Technology change patternsAs labor, land, and water become carcer and as input prices rise,arm profits will face increasedpressure. If farms are to remain profitable and stay n production, changes in farm managementneed to occur. These changes tend to occur in three stages (Pingaliet a1 1997), namely:1.2.3.

Land intensification-move to increased cropping intensity.Labor substitution-move to labor-saving mechanical and chemical technologies.An increase in knowledge and management intensity-where better knowledge andmanagement (timing and method) increase returns per unit input.

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Table5. Economic and rice production environments and stagef commercialization.CountryGroup 1 . High income, self-reliant

Japan XTaiwan XKorea, Rep. X XMalaysia X XThailand X XLaosDR XCambodia XMyanmar XGroup 3. Risk of food nsecuritySri Lanka X XBangladesh X XChina X XIndia X XIndonesia X XPakistan X XPhilippines X XVietnam X X

Group 2. Excess rice productioncapacity

Source: Hossain 1996,Pingali et al 1997.~~

Table6. Characteristicsof food production systems with increasing commercialization.Levelf Househald. .orientation objective inputs mix income ~ B W ~ C B SSubsistence Food self- Household Wide range Predominantlysufficiencyenerated (nontraded) agricultural

Semi- Surplus Mix of traded Moderately Agricultural andcommercial generation and nontraded specialized nonagriculturalinputsCom mercial Profit Predominantlyighlyredpminantlymaximizationraded inputs specia lized nonagriculturalSource: P ingali e t a1 1997.

Almost all of the changes that are occurring n Asia in response to thechangingenvironment (Fig. 2) reduce labor requirements. When labor-savingechnologies are undertakenin response to rising wages, they poseittle problem for mostof the labor force because there willbe an abundant choice of alternative obs in such situations. On the other hand, if thesetechnologies are promoted or adopted in a stagnant economy, the consequences for labor may bemuch more serious (although also possible is the ailure of any mechanization program undersuch conditions). Therefore, the implications of policy and new technologies or local labormarkets will continue to be an important research topic.Research prioritization and the rolef agricultural engineeringPrioritization of rice research must consider future trends in rice production as well s theparticular needs of individual countries (Tables 5and 7). The research focus will thus be differentin different countries and ecosystems (Table 8). In general, though, the main priorities will be:

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Table7. Arable ha tractor", adoptionof herbicides and direct seeding, and esticideuse ha" for differentcountries. (Countries are listed y levelof tractor mechanization within economic groupings.)Countryrable ha Herbicide use' Direct seedingh Pesticide use'tractor"u (US$ ha")Group 1. High income, self-reliantJapan 2 >100%erbicideKorea,ep. 23 75-1 00%Malaysia 47 ?Taiwan ? >90%Group 2. Excess rice production capacityThailand46 in directeededMyanmar 795Lao PDR 983 VeryittleCam bodia 2,798 Very littleGroup 3. Risk of food insecuritySri Lanka 28ommon'Pakistan 73 ?China 130 3 0 4 0 %India I32 Limited in northeastndouthIndonesia 30825%Philippines 480 >50%Nepal 505 VeryimitedVietnam 1,595Meko ng Delta Widely usedNorth Limited

10% in transplanted

Popular in other reas

Bangladesh 1,783 HandeedingBhutan Handeeding "''Data fromF A 0 (1996)"these figures make no allowance for differences in hp.' a ta from Nay lo r 1 9 9 6 ~ b v i o u s l yhese figures can hange dramatically." Herbicide, insecticide, and fun gicide data from Wood M acken zie Consu ltants Ltd., Lon don.! ata fromLim et a1 (1991 ) and J.K. Kim (pers. commun.).' ata fromPathinayake et a1 (1991).'Estimates from P. Hobbs (pers. commun.).I: Mostly in rainfed upland and som e deepwa ter environmen ts (R.K. Singh , pers. comm un.)." Mekong D elta produces >50% rice.iEstimates from T. T uong (pers. comm un.).

60%Very little (mech. transpl.) >57 .103 0 4 0 % 5.50>SO% in dry season 3.20??>SO%'Very litti$5-10% 9.5030%R.90 30%R30% in dryeason 8.00

5.9094%"20%'Transplanting 2.10Transdantine

1. Labor. Increase the application of labor-saving technologies. The trend in adoption of labor-saving technologies (Khan 1996)generally follows this order:a. Pumps for water management, mechanization of land preparation and leveling,

mechanization of transport and hauling, portable threshersor harvest, small mills formilling.

b. Direct seeding as a method of crop establishment, spray applications for pest control,substitution of chemicals for hand weeding.

c. Combine harvesters.2 . Water. Increase water-use efficiency+conomic reforms to increase the value placed onwater, institutional reforms o improve managementof water resources, water-savingirrigation technologies (e.g., improved leveling, ntermktent irrigation).

. .

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L

ProductionLand preparationAnimal & 2-wheel tractor (pud dling)* -wheel tractor,reduced tillage,precision levelingGermplasmCurrent gennp lasdtraditiona l varieties3 germplasm with improved:nutrient use efficienc y,yield potential,stress tolerance,grain qualityPoor seed - ertifiedklean seedCr op establishmentManual transplanting3 direct seeding,

Water managementFlood irrigation reduced irrigation (precision leveling)Pest controlManual weed control3 fixed herbicide spray regime,Spray insects on sight3 calendar spray applications,integrated pest managementNutrient managementManure applications* lanket nutrient management,

mechanized transplanting

integrated weed management (incl. herb icides)

site-specific nutrient managem entPostproductionHarvestingManual harvesting cut & haul 3 combine harvesting

ThreshingManual threshing/animal treading9 portable threshers,combine harvestingHandling and storugeBag handling & storage3 bulk handling & storageDryingSun drying3 commercial dryingMillingSmall mills3 comm ercial millsByproduct useByproductwasteByproduct use-addingvalueSystem changesMonoculturea iversified systemsSmall farmdfields3 larger farms/fieldsGovernment extensionservices3 con tract supply & extension servicesSubsistence or local m arket* ommercial market,spec ialized quality rice & products markets(adding value)Lack of concern for the environmenta ublic & legislative environmental concern

Fig. 2. System and component technology changes expectedn rice production systems.

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Table 8. Research priorities or countries at different levelsof economic and ood security.Group Research and developmenteedsnd goalsGroup 1. High incom e, self-reliant IncreaseaborroductivityPer capita rice consumption is declining Increase protection of the environm entHigh costs of production (improveheduce chemical use)

Increase input-use efficiency

Do m aintenance breeding-varietal resistance topests and diseasesImprove grain qualityIncrease yield potential

Group 2. Excess rice production capacity Develop world marketsDevelop rural infrastructureImprove grain qualityDevelop labor-saving technologiesReduce chemical useGroup 3. Risk of food insecurity Attain food securityScarce land, low income Diversify croppingLimited off-farmemploym ent options Increase labor productivityHigh population growth(2%) Maintain the natural esource baseHigh poverty evels Reduce existing yield ap in rainfed areasIncrease yield potential for irrigated areasSource: Hossain 1996.3. Land. Increase land productivity-improved germplasm, hybrid rice, improved crop4. Environment. Improve protection of the environment and improve input-use efficiency (e.&

5 . Quality. Improve rice quality-postproduction systems, breeding for better taste and aroma.

management.precision farming, decision support systems).

For each constraint, we need to identify the interventionopportunities and the types ofappropriate technology intervention (we define technology as hardware and/or oftware). Often,the technology options exist (although they are not necessarily knownr available to researchersand farmers). For example, tables similar to that of Rijk (1986) (Table 9) outlining variousidentified in Figure 1.Although technology oftenexists, however, there are problems of:technology trends can be readily constructed to complement the levels of system sophistication

0 Identifying the priority problems and appropriate interventions for each system.0 Identifying who should implement the appropriate interventions.

If appropriate technologies do not exist:Who can best intervene?If appropriate technologies exist:

Who will match technologies hardware and software) for the different systems?Who can best transfer the echnologies?Who will assist with the efficient implementation of a technology?

Identifying the best linkages between the different groups to ensure efficient system change.

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Table 9. Levels of mechanization technologyor different operations.Function or Level of mechanization techno low operation Handoolraftnimal Buffalondlephantrack-typeractorandclearingLanddevelopment

Landpreparation

Planting orseeding

TransplantingHarvesting

Crop husbandry

On-farmprocessing

Crop storage

Handling

Rural transport

Brush hook,hand saw,motor chain sawSpade, hoe,basket,wheelbarrowHoe, spade

Seed distribution byhand. plant stick,jabber. row marker,hand-pushed seederHand-operatedpaddy transplanterFinger-held knife,sickle, scythe,threshing table,pedal thresher

Hoe, weeding hoe,hand sprayer,water can,irrigation scoop

Mortar and pestle,flour-grinding stone,hand-operated paddyhuskerSun-drying, bag storage

Carrying,wheelbarrow,push cartPorter, push cart,rickshaw

for skidding andloadingEarth scoop,leveling scraper.bund formerWooden plow,spike harrow,disk harrowFurrow opener,marker wheel fordibbling. seed drill.seed-cum-fertilizerdrill

steel plow,

Peanut lifter,cutter-bar mower,reaper.reaper-binder,treading (threshing)Wooden interrow weeder,walking-type tool carrier,riding-type tool carrier,spraying machine,Persian water wheel

Animal-powered sugarcanecrusher, power gear or drivingprocessing machinery

Sled, pack harness,bullock cart

for clearing.skidders for logtransporttrack-type dozer,motor scraper,excavatorSingle-axle tractor,power tiller,two-axle tractorwith various implementsTractor seed drill.seeding with aircraft

Wheel tractor,

Motorized paddytransplanterPower reaper,power reaper-binder,power thresher,combine harvester

Intemow weeder,motor knapsacksprayer. tractor boom sprayer,spraying with aircraft,diesel or electric irrigationpumpsSingle-pass rice mill,rubber-roll rice mill,hammer mill

Artificial drying,bulk storage,elevator, fork lift

Power tiller with trailer,two-axle tractor with trailer,truckI Within each operation , the level of soph istication increa ses vertically.Source: Rijk 1986.

Identifying the important technologies will obviously bea key step. Furthermore, the roleof agricultural engineering in identifying, adapting, testing, (possibly) developing, and extendingwill vary by country and technology. Beforewe speculate about the role f agriculturalengineering in the future, it is therefore important to consider the ey constraints to future riceproduction and how agricultural engineering might help o relieve those constraints.Generating technologies to reduce poverty, increase farm incomes, andprotect the environmentThe production of new technologies will not be possible without the generation ofntermediateproducts such as knowledge and improved research methods.f all goes well, these intermediateproducts will lead o final products and ultimately to the achievement f system goals. Thisprocess involves various key players at differentsteps along the way (see Fig. 3).

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Intermediateroductsinalroducts [ Germplasm I +I

I

Key players IIntermediatePrivate sectorNGOsNARSPolicyResearchExtensionInternational publicsector

FinalFarmersConsumers

System goals

increase production andaood security for consumerssustainability

Fig. 3. Road map for impact: primary products, key players, and system goals.Meeting the ultimate system goals will dependn two critical factors: (1) setting

appropriate priorities for the most important problems andechnologies, and ( 2 )devising researchand development agendas that involve he key stakeholders in the technology generation anddissemination feedback loop. These two factors are not separate steps; indeed, they must belinked. If priorities are set correctly and the technologies re generated in a manner that takes ntoaccount the needs of the key stakeholders (e.g., Tables 10and 1I), success at reaching the systemgoals is more likely o be achieved. Different technologies will sometimes have conflicting effectson different system goals, and these need to e reconciled and taken into accountn the priority-setting process. For example, an increased use of herbicides will relieve the constraint of reducedlabor availability and help o increase production, but it may adversely affect theenvironment andthe sustainabilityof rice production.

Defining the appropriate role for each stakeholder at each tage of the process isadmittedly a difficult task, and is one f the goals of this conference. The appropriate role for eachplayer is not a question that can be answered in the abstract;t will depend oncomparativeadvantages, and on the technologies that need to be developed. herefore, before attempting toassess the mostappropriate roles for the various key players, it is probably besto attempt to setpriorities for the generation of future technologies. Once this isdone, then the other questions canbe asked. For example, What are the relative rolesof the public sector (international and national)and the private sector? To what extent are they, or should they be,ompeting and/or cooperative?To what extent are lessons from the history f agricultural engineering relevant? What impact willthe reduced availability of donor funding have?These are some of the questions that we hope toaddress during the conference.

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Table 10. Expected outputdneedsof different stakeholders in production systems.Stakeholder Expected outpu tsheed sRice farmers

Contractors

Farmer-basedcooperativeenterprisesMachineryimporter/distributor/dealerManufacturers

Extensionengineers

Researchers

Consumers

Policymakers

1. Available mechanized technologyoptions, competitive withcurrent practices2. Available and affordable spare parts3. Land tenure assurance4. Credit and finance-realistic, available, and affordable5 . Guaranteed farm-gate prices.6. Sensible subsidies and price support f implementedI . Available mechanized technology ptions, competitive with c urrent practices2. Available and affordable spare parts3. Cred it and finance- realistic, available, and affordable4. Sensible subsidies and price support if implemented1. Better managementskills2. System desig ns and procedures, technical and financial

1. Cred it and finance-realistic, availab le, and afforda ble2. Technical and financial assistance and advice3. Understanding of farmer needs and potential m arkets

1. Favorable dom estic economy and policy to promote local n do r foreign2. Credit and finance-realistic, available, and affordable3. Lower cos t of raw material-steel products4. Hardw are designs/jigs and templates5. Marketing assistance6. Techn ical assistance and advice (especially for smaller-scale manufacturers)7. Well-defined market needs1. Information bulletins2. Training on technologies3. Basket of technology options o meet farmers needs1. Security in funding2. More experience in com mercial processing and business operations3. More training on research instrumentation1. Graded and packagedice at reasonable prices2. More cons istent quality for varietal brands3. More choices4. Long er shelf lifeof rice products5 . Fewer contaminants1. Mo re economic information

investment

2. Better understandingof the workings of industry to evelop appropriate policySource: Clarke 1997.

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Table 11. Expected outputdneedsof different stakeholders n postproductionsystems.Stakeholder Expected outputdneedsRice farmers

Rice-processingbusinessmen

ExtensionengineersManufacturers

Farmer-basedcooperativeenterprisesConsumers

Researchers

Policymakers

1.Mechanized harvesting technology, competitive withurrent practices2. Guaranteed farm-gate prices3 . Premium prices for good-quality harvest4. Threshing and transportservices to rem ove burden fromarmers, particularlyduring periodsof inclement weather1. Local options for upgrading processing plants (specificallyhoice of dryingplants with the capacity o dry the volumes purchasedduring the rainyseason, with the cost of rying competitive with sun drying)2. Hardware and softwa re for producing better-quality ice products3 . Technology for using rice hull assource of energy for drying, even4. Milling technology that gives better totalnd head rice recoveries5. Standardized varieties n terms of physical and biochemical roperties6. Bulk handling technology or lower handling c osts7. Cost-effective pest control technology

powering the ice mill, that is onvenient to operate

1. Information bulletins2. Training on technologies1. Low er cos t of raw material-steel products2. Hardware designs3 . Marketing assistance4. Jigs and templates1 . Better managementskills2. System designs and procedures, technicaland financial

1.Graded and packaged ice at reasonable prices2. Mo re consistent quality for varietal brands3. More choices4. Lon ger shelf life of rice produc ts5 . Fewer contaminants1. More experience in commercial processingand business operations2. More training on research instrumentation1. Mo re economic information2. Better understandingof the workingsof industry

ReferencesClarke LJ. 1997. Agricultural mechanization strategy formulationoncepts and methodology and

the roles of the private sector and government. Agriculturalngineering Branch,Agricultural Support Systems Division, FAO, Rome, Italy.

FA0 (Food and Agriculture Organization). 1996.F A 0 yearbook 1995. Vol. 49. Rome: FAO.Greenland DJ. 1997. The sustainability of rice farming. Wallingford UK): CAB International inHossain M. 1996. Recent developments in the Asian rice economy: challenges for rice research.

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Agricultural mechanization:a history of research atIRRIand changes in AsiaW. Chancello;

Some of the earliest formal engineeringefforts on behalf of Asian agriculture were thoseConcerned with irrigation, drainage, and water supply development. overnments or other largeorganizations of involved parties sponsored mostof these efforts. These land and waterdevelopment activities were so site-specific that muchof the engineering had to take placelocally.

The development/adoption, use, and maintenanceof engineering-based technology by theprivate sector appeared in the early days on the Asian scene in the form of systems for the millingof grains and processing of plantation or export crops such as sugar, Manila hemp, cotton, etc.Much of the engineeringof these processing technologies had beenmported, but theirinstallation, maintenance, and operation required on-sitengineering activities.

A pattern similar to hat of the engineeringof land and waterdevelopment technologiesapplied to the development of the transportation infrastructure, which served all economicsectors, but which was one of the essentials of the structural transformationassociated withmodernized, high-productivity agriculture.The engineering of the mobile transport equipmentthat operated within this infrastructure, however, followed a pattern similar to that of the crop-processing technologies. Thus, formal engineering inputs o Asian agriculture were introduced inconnection with well-developed public- and private-sectorrganizations.

For hundreds of years earlier, informal developmentof traditional technologies hadbeen going on in Asia. his dealt with not only water handling, ransportation, and cropprocessing but also farm field operations. It has been primarily within the past 0 years thatformal engineering has found itsway into this latter technical arena. The pathways for thisinfusion have involved both imported technology and local technologyevelopment and haveinvolved both the public and rivate sectors. Furthermore, these formallyengineered technologieshave interfaced with, and operated side-by-sidewith, traditional technologies. The resultingmilieu in which formal engineering activities engaged with agricultural mechanizationn Asia inthe early 1960swas a scene with many individual initiatives.The great complexities of such asituation implied that anyengineering inputs advanced had little chance of finding their way intomass on-farm use unless they happened o match exactly he on-farm operational requirementsand the technical capabilities of th e manufacturer, distributor, and sales/service organization.Both the technical and economic aspects, from all points f view, needed to be satisfied by theengineering designs put forward.Agricultural mechanization research at IRRIThe Agricultural Engineering Department AED) of I R R I was initially (1960)concerned with thedevelopment and maintenance of research facilities for the Institute and with the field operationsrequired. Once this work had been completed and nstitutionalized, attention was turned to* Biology an d Agricultural Engineering Department, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA.

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research aimed at understanding the onstraints and potentials associated with the application oflow-cost inanimate energy to rice-farming operations on wet soils. Key information on energyrequirements and energy orm equivalents was developed. Much work was alsoone on tractionproblems on flooded rice soils. In 1965, a grant was received from USAID or research ondeveloping equipment to meet the needs f small-scale rice farmers. This started with extensivesurvey work to ascertain the economicircumstancesof such farmers and the economicconditions that had to be satisfied by equipment that they might adopt.

As equipment design work began(1967), the economic analyses and informationgathering focused to a greater extent on the economic potentials of various design alternatives andon the economics of manufacturing and using possible ew designs. In support of the equipmentdesign activities, engineering research was also conductedon determining the characteristics ofrice plants, soils, and production processes such as water use and growth esponse to solarradiation. Also in support of the equipment designprogram, a machine evaluation program wasstarted (later called testing and utilization). This activity aimed atevaluating the design prototypesdeveloped and testing existing technologies to find out how they might be improved, or to findtechnological features that might beof use in the equipment design work.

The period from 1967 to 1976 saw intensive activityn the equipment design area. Assome potentially valuable designs began to become available, the economics research turned moretoward understanding the conditions andprocessesnvolved in the adoption and use of thesedesigns by small-scale farmers and the comparative changes that such adoption might entail.Basic information was developedon losses associated with traditional practices, how rice isallocated and used n farmers households, and traditional rice storage and handling methods.

Table 1 lists (in approximate chronological order) the items for which designs weredeveloped and carried through the prototype testing stage. able 2 lists parallel research ongaining basic engineering knowledge and information,as well as fundamental economicunderstandings. In addition to these two basic areas f research, a great deal of work was done invarious forms (e.g., trials with .. , tests of . .,comparisons of . . with . .,effects of . .,surveyfindings about . ,performance of . ., development of .. ). Most of these activities aimed atgaining understandings valuable in supporting many of the research activities on machinedevelopment and rice systemcharacterization. Nevertheless, many of the findings from the trialswith ...,etc. studies had not been generally knownpreviously, and the distribution of thesefindings was of value to other engineers and economists. Table 3 provides information onthesubject-matter distribution for published reports of AED work at IRRI.

In the early 1970s, a new category of activity called industrial extension was started.Even though the equipment esigns developed involved majorefforts to have all machinecomponents of a type that could ither be made by existing local manufacturing technologies orbe acquired at competitive cost in local markets, small-scale manufacturers were generallyreluctant to be the first to build a new product. IRRI industrial extension engineers working withthese manufacturers were able to overcome this reluctance and assistn making sure that themanufactured products were of good quality. The good notices receivedby this industrialextension program from all quarters were the basis for expanding this activity o other rice-growing countries. These engineers extended IRRI equipment designs and assisted localmanufacturers in other countries in the manufacture of complementary items and in themodification and adaptationof IRRI designs to local needs. The countries participating wereBangladesh, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.

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Table 1. Equipment designs developed through the prototypetage.1.2.3.4.5 .6.7 .8.9.10.11 .12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20 .21.22.23.24 .25 .26 .27 .28.29.30.31 .32 .33 .34.35,36.37.38.39.40 .41 .42 .43.44.45 .46.47 .48.49 .50.51 .52 .53 .54.

Cone thresherRotary wetland tiller for large tractorsTractor PT0"-driven thresherDrum (hold-on ) thresherTable thresherTractor PTO-driven push-type iller-puddlerTraction aid a uxiliary wheelsPower weederAnhydrous ammoniaapplicator (2-wheel)Rice stripper-harvesterRotary harrow for small tractorsRow seeder for lowland riceRotary screen winnowerDifferential slip cage-wheel tillerHeated sand dryerFlame-type conducted-heat dryerAccelerated dryerfor sorghumRice hull furnaceMultipurpose tool carrierConvection dryerManual grain cleanerThresher for TaiwanRow seeder for pregem inated riceUpland row seederExtendible strake lug wheelManual submersible pumpIndividual row hopper-seeder4-6 hp tille rLow-lift bellows pumpLaboratory centrifugal hullerAxial-flow thresh er8-14 hp tillerHerbicide applicator (wiper)Batch-type dryerSteel huller rice mill improvementsLow-lift irrigation pumpMoisture testerPower grain cleanerReciprocating grain cleanerStee ring clutches for 5-7 hp tiller15-20 hp four-wheel tractorDeep-placement liquid fertilizer injectorDeep-placement granular applicatorJet pump attachmentVertical axis windmillSolar collector for grain dryerSingle-pass rice millerTubular pumpSelf-propelled cartkhresherParboiling machineDiaphragm pumpBatch dryer burnerTwin-bed batch dryerSpot injector fo r granular fertilizer55. Steam engine (gas engine conversion)

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. ,Table 1 continued.56. Portable thresher57. Portable grain cleaner58. Rice transplanter59. Piston pump for windmill60. Com bine harvester attachment for power tiller6 I . Rotating bow l rice mill62. Multicrop upland seeder63. Producer gas generator64. Load-sensing tool carrier65. Axial-flow pum p66. Rotary tiller for 6-8 hp tractor67. 10-row liquid injector68. Wetland paddy seeder69. Inclined-plate planter70. Dryer-burner safety valve7 1. Head-feed thresher72. Half-ton batch dryer73. Floating rototiller modification74. Foo

increasing the impact of engineering in agricultural and rural development

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