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In vitro and in vivo regulation of pro-inflammatory
cytokines and drug efflux transporters by signal transduction
pathways in glial cells: implications in HIV-1 neuropathogenesis
and its treatment
by
Tamima Ashraf
A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Graduate Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy
University of Toronto
© Copyright by Tamima Ashraf, 2015
ii
In vitro and in vivo regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and drug efflux transporters
by signal transduction pathways in glial cells: implications in HIV-1 neuropathogenesis and
its treatment
Tamima Ashraf
Doctor of Philosophy
Graduate Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences
University of Toronto
2015
Abstract
Cognitive impairment remains highly prevalent in human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1)
infected patients due to viral replication and associated brain inflammation. One obstacle to
effective treatment is poor penetration of antiretroviral drugs across blood-brain barrier (BBB)
and into HIV-1 brain cellular targets (microglia, astrocytes) due to functional expression of
efflux transporters [P-glycoprotein (P-gp), Multidrug resistance-associated proteins (MRPs),
breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP)]. Identifying therapeutic compounds that are not
substrates of these transporters but target signaling pathways involved in inflammation may
benefit treatment of HIV-associated neurological complications. The aim of this PhD project
was: i) to investigate signaling pathways involved in the regulation of Mrp1 and P-gp in cultured
rat/human astrocytes triggered with HIV-1 glycoprotein 120 (gp120) or cytokines, ii) to
implement and characterize an in vivo model of gp120-associated brain inflammation, iii) to
assess the efficacy of chloroquine, minocycline and simvastatin in reversing brain inflammation
in vivo and iv) to elucidate key signaling pathways involved in gp120-associated brain
inflammation in vivo. We demonstrated that gp120-associated TNF-α release resulted in
increased Mrp1 functional expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes and both c-jun N-
terminal kinase (JNK) and nuclear factor-кB (NF-κB) pathways were involved. In human
astrocytes, we demonstrated decreased P-gp expression following exposure to HIV-
1/gp120/interleukin-6 (IL-6) and involvement of NF-kB signaling in P-gp downregulation. In
our in vivo model, gp120 administration resulted in a significant increase in inflammatory
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markers in different brain regions and in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Administration of anti-
inflammatory compounds partially or completely reduced upregulation of these markers.
Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) was also observed both in vitro and in
vivo which was attenuated by the anti-inflammatory compounds. Our data demonstrate that: i)
gp120 generates an inflammatory response and alters expression of efflux transporters both in
vitro and in vivo, in part, through an interaction with MAPK pathway and ii) anti-inflammatory
agents could partially/completely reverse this response suggesting that they could serve as a
promising novel therapeutic approach for HIV-1- associated brain inflammation
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Acknowledgments
I am grateful to Dr. Reina Bendayan, my thesis supervisor, for her tremendous support,
encouragement and guidance throughout my graduate studies. Thank you for giving me the
opportunity to pursue my doctoral studies under your supervision. I have learnt a lot from you
and had a great experience in your laboratory.
I would like to sincerely thank my committee members Drs. Stephane Angers, Peter Pennefather,
Lyanne Schlichter and Sukriti Nag for their continuous support, constructive criticism and
guidance throughout my Ph.D. studies. I am truly grateful to all of you.
A special thanks to Dr. Patrick Ronaldson, a former Ph.D. and postdoctoral fellow in our
laboratory, who I had the opportunity to work with during the first few months of my Ph.D.
studies. Thank you for sharing your time, knowledge and expertise and providing me with the
necessary training with the astrocyte work.
Thanks to Dr. Carolyn Cummins and Rucha Patel for their help with the qPCR analysis.
I thank Dr. Michelle Farrugia and Dr. Yuri Persidsky for their help with the human fetal
astrocyte work.
I thank Dr. Jeffrey Henderson for collaborating with us and providing me with the opportunity to
learn immunohistochemistry in his facility.
My sincere thanks to the Graduate Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences for their generous
support and approval of several fellowship awards.
Thanks to all the members of the Bendayan lab, past and present: Tianna Huang, Kevin
Robillard, Gary Chan, Olena Kis, Anu Shah, Nilasha Banerjee, Dr. Maria De Rosa, Arpit Shah,
Monika Zhang, Donald Wang, Amy Kao and Billy Huang. A special thanks to Dr. Tozammel
Hoque for his assistance in various projects and all his encouragements throughout the past few
years. I sincerely thank Dr. Wenlei Jiang, Dr. Chiping Wu, Dr. Min Rui and Blake Ziegler for all
their help with the animal and capillary work.
I would also like thank my friends from the faculty- Lilia Magomedova, Celine Lacroix and
Monica Patel for their constant encouragement and support. I wish you all the best in your future
endeavors.
My deepest gratitude to my parents, my brother and my in-laws for always being there for me.
My heartfelt thanks to my mother, Anowara Begum, for being a constant source of courage and
inspiration. Thank you for teaching me how to always remain positive.
Lastly, I would like to thank my significant other, Mirza Ridwanul Haque, for being the greatest
source of support and encouragement. Thank you for being there for me during the ups and
downs. It would not have been possible without you.
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... iv
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ v
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... xii
List of Appendices ........................................................................................................................ xv
List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................................... xvi
Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1 Human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) pathogenesis ......................................................... 1
1.1 HIV-1 epidemiology ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 HIV-1 life cycle .................................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Treatment of HIV-1 infection ............................................................................................. 4
1.3.1 Entry inhibitors ....................................................................................................... 4
1.3.2 Fusion inhibitor ....................................................................................................... 5
1.3.3 NRTIs ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.3.4 NNRTIs ................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.5 Integrase inhibitors .................................................................................................. 6
1.3.6 PIs ........................................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Brain barriers and parenchymal cellular compartments ..................................................... 9
1.4.1 Blood-brain barrier (BBB) ...................................................................................... 9
1.4.2 Pericytes ................................................................................................................ 10
1.4.3 Brain parenchymal cellular compartments ........................................................... 10
1.4.4 Blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) .......................................................... 12
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1.5 Brain HIV-1 infection and HIV-1-associated neurological disorders .............................. 13
1.5.1 HIV-1-associated neuropathogenesis .................................................................... 13
1.5.2 HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND) .............................................. 18
1.6 Treatment obstacles of brain HIV-1 infection: brain permeability of antiretroviral
drugs .................................................................................................................................. 20
1.7 ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters ........................................................................ 23
1.7.1 P-glycoprotein (P-gp) ............................................................................................ 26
1.7.2 Multidrug resistance-associated proteins (MRPs) ................................................ 29
1.7.3 Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) .............................................................. 35
1.7.4 Regulation of ABC transporters during HIV-1 infection ..................................... 38
1.8 Potential adjuvant therapy ................................................................................................. 39
1.8.1 Minocycline .......................................................................................................... 40
1.8.2 Chloroquine ........................................................................................................... 41
1.8.3 Simvastatin ............................................................................................................ 42
1.9 Signaling pathways ........................................................................................................... 43
1.9.1 NF-кB.................................................................................................................... 44
1.9.2 MAPKs ................................................................................................................. 45
1.9.3 Regulation of ABC transporters by MAPK and NF-кB ....................................... 50
1.9.4 Effect of anti-inflammatory compounds on MAPK and NF-кB........................... 51
1.10 In vitro and in vivo models to study drug transport and HIV-associated brain
inflammation ..................................................................................................................... 52
1.10.1 In vitro systems ..................................................................................................... 52
1.10.2 In vivo models ....................................................................................................... 53
2 Goal .......................................................................................................................................... 55
3 Rationale .................................................................................................................................. 55
4 Hypotheses ............................................................................................................................... 57
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5 Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 57
Chapter 2 ....................................................................................................................................... 58
6 Regulation of Mrp1 by TNF-α in cultured glial cells: involvement of NF-кB and JNK
signaling pathways ................................................................................................................... 58
6.1 Abstract ............................................................................................................................. 59
6.2 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 60
6.3 Materials and methods ...................................................................................................... 62
6.3.1 Materials ............................................................................................................... 62
6.3.2 Cell culture ............................................................................................................ 62
6.3.3 Gp120/cytokine Treatments .................................................................................. 63
6.3.4 Immunoblot Analysis ............................................................................................ 64
6.3.5 Quantitative PCR .................................................................................................. 66
6.3.6 Enzyme-linked immunoabsorbant assay (ELISA) ................................................ 66
6.3.7 Functional studies ................................................................................................. 67
6.3.8 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................ 67
6.4 Results ............................................................................................................................... 68
6.4.1 Effect of cytokines on Mrp1 protein expression ................................................... 68
6.4.2 Functional studies ................................................................................................. 74
6.4.3 Role of NF-кB on cytokine release and Mrp1 protein expression ........................ 76
6.4.4 Role of JNKs on Mrp1 functional expression ....................................................... 85
6.4.5 Effect of HIV-196ZM651 gp120 and TNF-α on Mrp1 gene expression .............. 92
6.5 Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 94
6.6 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 100
Chapter 3 ..................................................................................................................................... 101
7 Regulation of P-gp by HIV-1 in primary cultures of human fetal astrocytes (HFAs) ........... 101
7.1 Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 102
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7.2 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 103
7.3 Materials and Methods .................................................................................................... 105
7.3.1 Reagents .............................................................................................................. 105
7.3.2 Primary Cultures of HFAs .................................................................................. 105
7.3.3 Isolation of CCR5 HIV-1 ADA and CCR5/CXCR4 HIV-1 89.6 viral isolates .. 106
7.3.4 Treatment with HIV-1, HIV-1 gp120 and IL-6 .................................................. 106
7.3.5 ELISA analysis ................................................................................................... 106
7.3.6 Immunoblot analysis ........................................................................................... 106
7.3.7 Transport assay ................................................................................................... 107
7.3.8 Data analysis ....................................................................................................... 107
7.4 Results ............................................................................................................................. 108
7.4.1 Interaction of viral protein gp120 (R5-tropic) with chemokine receptor and
pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion .................................................................. 108
7.4.2 Effect of R5/X4 and R5-tropic viral isolates on P-gp protein expression .......... 110
7.4.3 Effect of gp120 and IL-6 on P-gp protein expression ......................................... 111
7.4.4 Involvement of NF-кB in the regulation of P-gp expression .............................. 116
7.5 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 118
7.6 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 122
Chapter 4 ..................................................................................................................................... 123
8 Role of anti-inflammatory compounds on HIV-1 gp120-mediated brain inflammation ....... 123
8.1 Abstract ........................................................................................................................... 124
8.2 Background ..................................................................................................................... 125
8.3 Materials and methods .................................................................................................... 127
8.3.1 Materials ............................................................................................................. 127
8.3.2 Animals ............................................................................................................... 128
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8.3.3 Animal surgery and ICV administration of gp120/maraviroc/signaling
pathway inhibitors ............................................................................................... 128
8.3.4 Intraperitoneal administration of minocycline, chloroquine and simvastatin ..... 129
8.3.5 Brain tissue, brain capillary isolation and CSF collection .................................. 129
8.3.6 Quantitative real-time PCR ................................................................................. 130
8.3.7 ELISA ................................................................................................................. 130
8.3.8 Immunoblot Analysis .......................................................................................... 131
8.3.9 Immunohistochemistry ....................................................................................... 131
8.3.10 Data analysis ....................................................................................................... 132
8.4 Results ............................................................................................................................. 132
8.4.1 Gp120-mediated inflammatory response in the brain ......................................... 132
8.4.2 Gp120-mediated activation of astrocytes ............................................................ 138
8.4.3 Effect of gp120 on tight junction proteins and drugs efflux transporters in
brain capillaries ................................................................................................... 140
8.4.4 Effect of gp120 on drug efflux transporter brain expression in brain regions .... 140
8.4.5 Anti-inflammatory effects of chloroquine, minocycline and simvastatin .......... 144
8.4.6 Gp120-mediated activation of signaling pathways ............................................. 149
8.5 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 153
8.6 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 158
8.7 Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... 159
Chapter 5 Discussion, limitations, future directions and conclusion .......................................... 160
9 Overall discussion .................................................................................................................. 160
10 Limitations ............................................................................................................................. 172
11 Future directions ..................................................................................................................... 173
11.1 Regulation of ABC transporters at the BBB and in glial cells ....................................... 173
11.2 Effect of anti-inflammatory compounds on HIV-1 gp120 associated cognitive deficits 174
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11.3 Permeability of antiretroviral drugs during HIV-1 gp120-associated brain
inflammation in vivo ....................................................................................................... 175
12 Conclusion.............................................................................................................................. 176
References ................................................................................................................................... 177
Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 219
List of publications ..................................................................................................................... 231
Copyright Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... 232
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List of Tables
Table 1-1 Preferred and alternative antiretroviral regimens for antiretroviral therapy-naive
patients (From Ashraf T, Robillard K, Chan G and Bendayan R. Role of CNS Transporters in the
Pharmacotherapy of HIV-1 Associated Neurological Disorders. 2013. Current Pharmaceutical
Design. 20: 1543-1563) .................................................................................................................. 7
Table 1-2 Comparison of CSF to plasma ratios of antiretroviral drugs in HIV-infected patients.
Values are reported as median and/or the range of CSF: plasma (from Ashraf T, Robillard K,
Chan G and Bendayan R. Role of CNS Transporters in the Pharmacotherapy of HIV-1
Associated Neurological Disorders. 2013. Current Pharmaceutical Design. 20: 1543-1563) ..... 22
Table 1-3 CNS expression/localization of ABC transporters implicated in antiretroviral drug
transport (From Ashraf T, Robillard K, Chan G and Bendayan R. Role of CNS Transporters in
the Pharmacotherapy of HIV-1 Associated Neurological Disorders. 2013. Current
Pharmaceutical Design. 20: 1543-63) ........................................................................................... 37
Table 6-1 ELISA analysis of TNF-α secretion in cultured astrocytes treated with HIV-196ZM651
gp120. ............................................................................................................................................ 82
Table 7-1 Pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion in primary cultures of HFAs treated with HIV-
196ZM651 gp120 ............................................................................................................................. 109
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List of Figures
Figure 1-1 HIV-1 life cycle ............................................................................................................. 3
Figure 1-2 HIV-1- associated pathogenesis in the brain ............................................................... 17
Figure 1-3 Localization of ABC transporters at the BBB and BCSFB ........................................ 24
Figure 1-4 Localization of of ABC transporters in astrocytes, microglia and neurons ................ 25
Figure 1-5 Membrane topology of P-gp ....................................................................................... 27
Figure 1-6 Membrane topology of MRP1/Mrp1. ......................................................................... 30
Figure 1-7 Membrane topology of BCRP ..................................................................................... 35
Figure 1-8 The MAPK pathway ................................................................................................... 46
Figure 6-1 Effect of cytokines on Mrp1 protein expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes 70
Figure 6-2 Effect of cytokine neutralizing antibodies on Mrp1 protein expression in primary
cultures of rat astrocytes treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120. .......................................................... 73
Figure 6-3 Effect of 24 h TNF-α exposure on the cellular retention of BCECF, a fluorescent Mrp
substrate, by cortical rat astrocyte monolayers. ............................................................................ 75
Figure 6-4 Expression of Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with gp120 and
SN50, a peptidic NF-κB inhibitor ................................................................................................. 78
Figure 6-5 Expression of Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with gp120 and BAY
11-7082, a pharmacological NF-κB inhibitor ............................................................................... 80
Figure 6-6 Expression of Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with TNF-α and
SN50, a peptidic NF-κB inhibitor. ................................................................................................ 84
Figure 6-7 Expression of Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with gp120 and
SP600125, a pharmacological JNK inhibitor ................................................................................ 86
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Figure 6-8 Expression of Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with TNF-α and
SP600125, a pharmacological JNK inhibitor ................................................................................ 89
Figure 6-9 Effect of 24 h gp120 or TNF-α exposure on the cellular retention of BCECF, a
fluorescent Mrp substrate, by cortical rat astrocyte monolayers .................................................. 91
Figure 6-10 Effect of gp120 or TNF-α exposure on Mrp1 mRNA expression in primary cultures
of rat astrocytes ............................................................................................................................. 93
Figure 6-11 Proposed mechanism of NF-κB and JNK signaling in glial cells during an HIV-1
associated inflammatory response ................................................................................................ 99
Figure 7-1 Immunoblot analysis of CXCR4 and CCR5 in primary cultures of HFAs ............... 110
Figure 7-2 Immunoblot and densitometric analysis of P-gp in primary cultures of HFAs after
exposure to (A) either CCR5- tropic HIV-1 ADA or CCR5/CXCR4 dual-tropic HIV-1 89.6 viral
isolates, (B) 1.0 nM gp120 or (C) IL-6 (0.5 ng/ml or 10ng/ml). ................................................ 112
Figure 7-3 Accumulation of [3H]digoxin by HFAs in the presence or absence of gp120 .......... 113
Figure 7-4 Immunoblot and densitometric analysis of P-gp in primary cultures of HFAs treated
with 1.0nM gp120 in the presence of 0.5µg/ml IL-6 neutralizing antibody (NAB) ................... 115
Figure 7-5 Immunoblot and densitometric analysis of P-gp in primary cultures of HFAs treated
with (A) 1.0nM gp120 or (B) IL-6 (0.5 or 10ng/ml) in the presence of NF-κB inhibitory peptide,
SN50 (1.0 μM).. .......................................................................................................................... 117
Figure 8-1 Effect of gp120 on the mRNA levels of (A) IL-1β, (B) iNOS and (C) TNF-α in
different brain regions of ICV administered gp120 (500ng) rats along with a CCR5 antagonist,
maraviroc (MVC). ....................................................................................................................... 135
Figure 8-2 ELISA analysis of (A) IL-1β and (B) TNF-α secretion in the CSF of gp120 (500ng)
administered rats in the presence of Maraviroc (MVC).). .......................................................... 137
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Figure 8-3 (A) Immunohistochemical and (B) immunoblotting (upper panel) and densitometric
analysis (lower panel) of GFAP in hippocampus of ICV administered gp120 rats compared to
saline treated animals.. ................................................................................................................ 139
Figure 8-4 Immunoblot (upper panel) and densitometric analysis (lower panel) of drug efflux
transporters (P-gp, Mrp1 and Bcrp) in (A) frontal cortex, (B) hippocampus and (C) striatum of
ICV administered gp120 rats.. .................................................................................................... 143
Figure 8-5 Effect of gp120 on the mRNA levels of (A) IL-1β, (B) iNOS and (C) TNF-α in
different brain regions of ICV administered gp120 rats receiving simultaneous intraperitoneal
injection of chloroquine or minocycline.. ................................................................................... 146
Figure 8-6 ELISA analysis of (A) IL-1β and (B) TNF-α secretion in the CSF of gp120 (500ng)
administered rats receiving simultaneous intraperitoneal injection of chloroquine or minocycline
or simvastatin.. ............................................................................................................................ 148
Figure 8-7 Protein (upper panel) and densitometric analysis (lower panel) of signaling kinases in
the hippocampal tissue of gp120 administered rats.. .................................................................. 152
Figure 9-1 A schematic summarizing gp120-mediated regulation of cytokine secretion and drug
efflux transporters as well as effect of anti-inflammatory compounds in vitro or in vivo. ......... 171
xv
List of Appendices
Appendix A…………………………………………………………………………………219
Appendix B…………………………………………………………………………………220
xvi
List of Abbreviations
Aβ, amyloid-β
AA, arachidonic acid
ABC, ATP-binding cassette
AIDS, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
ANOVA, analysis of variance
BBB, blood-brain barrier
BCECF, 2',7'-bis- (2-carboxyethyl)-5- (and-6)- carboxyfluorescein
BCRP, breast cancer resistance protein
BCSFB, blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier
CAR, constitutive androstane receptor
cART, combination antiretroviral therapy
CHARTER, CNS HIV Anti-Retroviral Therapy Effects Research
CNS, central nervous system
CPE, CNS penetration effectiveness
CSF, cerebrospinal fluid
CYPs, cytochrome P450 enzymes
DMEM, Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium
DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide
EAAT, Excitatory amino acid transporter
EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
EGTA, ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid
ELISA, Enzyme-linked immunoabsor bant assay
ESCRT, Endosomal sorting complex required for transport
xvii
ERKs, extracellular regulated kinases
FBS, fetal bovine serum
FITC, fluorescein isothiocyanate
FIV, feline immunodeficiency virus
GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein
GSH, glutathione
GSSG, glutathione disulfide
Gp120, glycoprotein 120
HAART, highly active antiretroviral therapy
HAD, HIV-associated dementia
HAND, HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder
HBSS, Hank’s balanced salt solution
HEPES, 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-piperazineethanesulfonic acid
HFA, human fetal astrocyte
HIV-1, human immunodeficiency virus-1
HIVE, HIV-1 encephalitis
HO-1, heme oxygenase-1
HRP, horseradish peroxidase
ICAM, intracellular adhesion molecule
ICV, intracerebroventricular
IFN, interferon
IκB, inhibitor of NF-кB
IKK, IкB kinase
IL-1β, interleukin-1β
xviii
IL-6, interleukin 6
iNOS, inducible nitric oxide synthase
JAK-STAT, Janus kinase/signal transducers and activators of transcription
JNKs, c-jun N-terminal kinases
LPS, lippopolysaccharide
LTC4, leukotriene C4
MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase
MCP-1, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1
MDR, multidrug resistance
MIF, macrophage migration inhibitory factor
MIP, macrophage inflammatory protein
MRP, multidrug resistance-associated protein
mtDNA, mitochondrial DNA
NBD, nucleotide binding domain
NF-кB, nuclear factor- кB
NNRTI, non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase
NO, nitric oxide
NRTI, nucleoside reverse transcriptase
P38Ks, P38 kinases
PBMCs, peripheral blood mononuclear cells
PBS, phosphate buffer saline
PIs, protease inhibitors
P-gp, p-glycoprotein
PPAR, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor
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PMEA, 9‑(2‑phosphonomethoxyethyl)adenine
PMSF, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride
PVDF, polyvinylidene difluoride
PXR, pregnane X receptor
qPCR, quantitative polymerase chain reaction
RIPA, radioimmunoprecipitation assay buffer
ROS, reactive oxygen species
SCID, severe combined immunodeficiency
SD, standard deviation
SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis
SEM, standard error of mean
SIV, simian immunodeficiency virus
Tat, transactivator of transcription
TMD, transmembrane domain
TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α
VCAM, vascular adhesion molecule
Vpr, viral protein R
ZO-1, zona occluden-1
1
Chapter 1
Background
1 Human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1) pathogenesis
1.1 HIV-1 epidemiology
HIV-1 is an enveloped retrovirus that debilitates the immune system by infecting immune cells
(i.e., T-cells, monocytes or macrophages) and ultimately causes acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (AIDS) in human body (Barre-Sinoussi et al., 1983;Popovic et al., 1984). According to
the Joint United Nations Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), about 35.3 million people were
living with HIV-1 infection worldwide in 2012. In the same year, 1.6 million people died from
AIDS- related causes. Although the number of individuals newly infected with HIV-1 continues
to decrease globally, approximately 2.3 million new infections have been reported in adults (2
million) and children (260,000) in 2012. Sub-Saharan Africa remains the most affected area (25
million infected individuals) by HIV-1. However, the incidence rate in this region has decreased
significantly since 2001 due to more availability and accessibility of antiretroviral therapy. In
West and Central Africa, HIV-1 prevalence remains comparatively low, whereas, the epidemics
in Eastern Europe and Central Asia (1.3 million) are dramatically increasing. HIV-1 infected
individuals also constitute significant populations in South and South East Asia (3.9 million) and
in Latin America (1.5 million). In Western and Central Europe as well as North America, the
incidence rate has changed very little since the last decade and availability of antiretroviral
therapy has significantly reduced the AIDS-related mortality. An estimated 20,000 AIDS-related
deaths and 48,000 new infections have been reported in North America in 2012. About 1.3
million people are currently living with HIV-1 infection in North America (UNAIDS, 2013).
Heterosexual transmission remains the primary mode of HIV-1 transmission globally and
intravenous drug use (i.e., needle sharing) or homosexual transmission are other significant
mechanisms for HIV-1 acquisition.
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2
1.2 HIV-1 life cycle
HIV belongs to the lentiviral subgroup of the family Retroviridae and similar to other
lentiviruses, it is capable of infecting non-dividing cells such as T–cells, monocytes or
macrophages. Two variants of HIV have been identified- HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is
responsible for the global HIV epidemic, whereas, HIV-2 is predominantly found in West Africa.
HIV-1 has a 9kb genome that encodes nine genes- gag, pol, env, vif, vpu, vpr, tat, rev and nef.
In its native form, the viral envelope spike is a heterotrimer that is formed by three gp120
molecules attached to three gp41 molecules. The surface glycoprotein 120 (gp120) and the
transmembrane protein gp41 expressed on the surface of the virus are encoded by the viral env
gene. Gp120 is a heavily glycosylated protein that contains five conserved domains (C1-C5) and
five variable domains (V1-V5). Structurally, gp120 has three main regions- the inner domain, the
outer domain and the bridging sheet. The inner domain is conserved between HIV strains. The
outer domain is heavily glycosylated and contains three of the five variable loops (V3-V5).The
bridging sheet contains the other two variable loops and contributes to CD4 receptor and
chemokine co-receptor binding. Entry of HIV-1 into host cells is initiated by binding of HIV-1
gp120 with CD4 receptor. CD4 is a transmembrane glycoprotein that is expressed by monocytes,
macrophages and subsets of T-cells and dendritic cells. The gp120-CD4 binding induces a
conformation change that exposes the co-receptor binding site and allows the binding of gp120
to chemokine co-receptor/co-receptors expressed on host cells. The co-receptors most frequently
used by HIV-1 in vivo have been determined to be CCR5 and CXCR4. CCR5 and CXCR4 are
both G-coupled receptors that contain an extracellular N-terminal tail, three intracellular and
extracellular loops and a C-terminal cytoplasmic tail. Co-receptor selectivity decides viral
tropism. Based on cellular tropism, HIV-1 can be divided into three groups: macrophage (M)
tropic, T-cell (T) tropic and dual tropic. Dual tropic viruses can infect both macrophage and T-
cell lines. M-tropic strains utilize CCR5 chemokine receptor to enter host cells, whereas, T-
tropic viruses use CXCR4 chemokine receptor. Mutations to CCR5 gene (CCrdelta32) can alter
the susceptibility to HIV-1 infection. The gp120-chemokine receptor binding allows the
hydrophobic N-terminus of the gp41 to insert into the target cell membrane. The helically heptad
repeats (HRs) of the gp41 ectodomain form a six helix bundle that leads to the close proximity of
the host cell membrane and viral membrane. Following fusion, the viral core is released into the
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3
host cell. The viral single-stranded RNA is then immediately transcribed into double-stranded
DNA by the viral reverse transcriptase and RNAse H. HIV-1 integrase then allows the
integration of the viral genetic material into the host cell genome. The subsequent transcription,
translation, post-translational modification and maturation precede the release of the new virions
from infected cells (Bukrinskaya, 2004) (Figure 1-1). Viral gag plays a major role in the
assembly of viral particles and budding of new virions (Meng and Lever, 2013). Gag has four
domains- matrix, nucleocapsid, capsid and p6. Gag binds to viral RNA using nucleocapsid
domain which is then trafficked to the membrane where gag multimerizes. During the budding
process, gag uses the host cellular endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT)
system. The C-terminal domain of gag interacts with ESCRTI and directs gag to ESCRTIII for
budding. During the budding process, the immature virions acquire the viral envelope complex
and HIV-1 protease cleaves the precursor viral proteins (i.e., gag-pol precursor) to yield mature
HIV-1 (Meng and Lever, 2013).
The sustained viral replication continues during infection and the virus migrates to different
tissues and organs using the circulatory system.
Figure 1-1 HIV-1 life cycle. The viral entry is initiated by the binding of viral envelope spike, a
protein complex comprised of gp120 and gp41, to the CD4 receptor that triggers a
conformational change and allows the subsequent binding of gp120 to the HIV-1 co-receptor (i.
e., CCR5 and CXCR4). Binding of gp120 to the co-receptor causes the fusion of viral and cell
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4
membrane allowing the release of viral genetic material into the cell cytoplasm. The immediate
transcription of the viral RNA into double-stranded DNA by the viral reverse transcriptase
allows the integration of the viral genetic material into the host cell genome. The subsequent
transcription of the genome results in the production of HIV-1 genomic RNA as well as viral
mRNA that is translated into proteins. The protein precursors are cleaved by viral protease into
functional proteins that assemble at the plasma membrane of the host cell. Once released, the
new virions undergo maturation before becoming infectious (from Ashraf T, Robillard K, Chan
G and Bendayan R. Role of CNS Transporters in the Pharmacotherapy of HIV-1 Associated
Neurological Disorders. 2013. Current Pharmaceutical Design. 20: 1543-1563)
1.3 Treatment of HIV-1 infection
Six different classes of antiretroviral drugs are currently used in HIV-1 treatment- entry inhibitor,
fusion inhibitor, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs), non-nucleoside reverse
transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), integrase inhibitor and protease inhibitors (PIs). These drugs
target different phases of HIV-1 life cycle (Sierra-Aragon and Walter, 2012). Due to the presence
of viral reservoir in resting memory CD4 positive T-cells, viral eradication remains difficult.
Other viral sanctuary sites are the central nervous system (CNS), testis and gut-associated
lymphoid tissue. Table 1-1 summarizes recommended preferred and alternative antiretroviral
regiments for the initial therapy of treatment-naive HIV patients. A brief description of different
classes of antiretroviral drugs is provided below.
1.3.1 Entry inhibitors
Entry inhibitor targets viral binding to the host cell membrane. Entry inhibitors are developed as
receptor antagonists that can interact with the host cell co-receptor and prevent the binding of
viral gp120. Maraviroc is the first approved CCR5 antagonist and is only effective against R5
tropic viruses (Perry, 2010). Maraviroc is generally prescribed in combination with NRTIs.
Interestingly, individuals carrying CCR5 mutant alleles are partially resistant to R5 tropic viral
infection indicating the importance of co-receptors in viral infectivity (Liu et al., 1996). Other
entry inhibitors that have been tested but discontinued are aplaviroc and vicriviroc (Caseiro et al.,
2012;Nichols et al., 2008). Cenicriviroc is currently in development (Lalezari et al., 2011;Marier
et al., 2011). Although the CXCR4 antagonist AMD3100 has been successful in early phase
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studies, its use as antiviral treatment was terminated due to toxicity (Hendrix et al., 2000).
Several attachment inhibitors (i.e., BMS-488043, BMS-663068) have also been developed,
although none of these inhibitors are used clinically (Hanna et al., 2011;Nettles et al., 2012).
These inhibitors block the interaction of CD4 with gp120. A post-attachment inhibitor,
ibalizumab (TNX-355) has also been developed that prevents the CD4 bound gp120 from
interacting with chemokine coreceptor (Pace et al., 2013).
1.3.2 Fusion inhibitor
Fusion inhibitors are designed to bind to the helical region within gp41 and prevent the
conformational changes required for membrane fusion. To date, efuvirtide (T-20) is the only
approved fusion inhibitor. Efuvirtide binding to HR1 prevents the association of HR1 with HR2
regions in gp41 and blocks membrane fusion. Sifuvirtide is another fusion inhibitor that has
shown antiviral activity in early phase human studies (He et al., 2008;Liu et al., 2011).
1.3.3 NRTIs
NRTIs are nucleoside analogs that compete with nucleosides to be incorporated into viral DNA
and a lack of the 3’-hydroxyl group results in the chain termination. HIV-1 reverse transcriptase
can introduce mutations in viral genome that can result in resistance to reverse transcriptase
inhibitors. Therefore, reverse transcriptase inhibitors are used in combination with other classes
of drugs. Zidovudine was the first approved NRTI (Fischl et al., 1987;Mitsuya et al., 1985). The
NRTIs currently used are abacavir, tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF), emtricitabine,
lamivudine and zidovudine. Although NRTIs are used widely due to its success in inhibiting
viral reverse transcriptase, many NRTIs have also been associated with mitochondrial toxicity.
Mitochondrial toxicity has been estimated to occur in approximately 15-20% individuals who are
on NRTIs (Apostolova et al., 2011b). Although the exact mechanisms are not yet established, it
is proposed that NRTIs inhibit DNA polymerase responsible for mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
synthesis. Depletion of mtDNA, in turn, can result in impaired electron transport chain,
mitochondrial dysfunction and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production (Apostolova et al.,
2011a;Blas-Garcia et al., 2011). NRTI-associated mitochondrial toxicity can manifest into
hepatic failure and lactic acidosis. NRTI-mediated mitochondrial toxicity has also been detected
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in the brain of HIV-1 infected individuals on didanosine and/or zidovudine (Schweinsburg et al.,
2005).
1.3.4 NNRTIs
NNRTIs are non-competitive inhibitors of viral reverse transcriptase that bind to a hydrophobic
pocket near the substrate recognition site. They are administered in combination with NRTIs.
Commonly prescribed NNRTIs are efavirenz, nevirapine and rilpivirine. Long-term NNTRI
administration in HIV-1 infected individuals has been associated with a number of adverse
effects including neuropsychiatric disorders, hepatotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity and
metabolic disturbances. Some of the neuropsychiatric impairments include confusion, amnesia,
impaired concentration, hallucinations, depression, anxiety and others. For example, common
adverse effects associated with rilpivirine have been reported to be depression, insomnia,
headache and rash (James et al., 2012).
1.3.5 Integrase inhibitors
Integrase inhibitor binds to the viral integrase competitively and prevents strand transfer which is
essential for transfer of the proviral DNA into the host genome. Raltegravir, elvitegravir and
dolutegravir are the three approved integrase inhibitors that are prescribed in combination with
NRTIs.
1.3.6 PIs
PIs can bind to the active site of HIV-1 protease and prevent its catalytic activity. Saquinavir was
the first approved PI. Since then other PIs have been identified such as atazanavir, darunavir,
fosamprenavir, lopinavir, ritonavir, indinavir, nelfinavir and tipranavir. In the clinic, PIs are
generally administered with two NRTIs or one NRTI. In order to improve PIs bioavailability,
they are administered with low doses of ritonavir which is a potent inhibitor of cytochrome P450
enzymes (CYPs) and works as a booster.
PIs can be associated with toxicity and are prone to drug-drug interactions. In particular, they
have been implicated in the development of hyperlipidemia, lipodystrophy as well as insulin
resistance (Moyle, 2007;Pistell et al., 2010;Tsiodras et al., 2000). For example, saquinavir,
indinavir and lopinavir administration have been shown to result in an increase in triglycerides
and insulin resistance infected individuals (Calza et al., 2004;Galindo et al., 2008). A recent
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study performed in mice also correlated PI-associated metabolic dysfunction with neurocognitive
impairment (Gupta et al., 2012). In this study, mice receiving clinically relevant doses of
lopinavir/ritonavir showed metabolic dysfunction as well as cognitive impairment. Decreased
brain barrier integrity, decreased expression of synaptic markers and increased inflammatory
markers were also observed in these animals indicating the potential detrimental effects
associated with PIs (Gupta et al., 2012).
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Table 1-1 Preferred and alternative antiretroviral regimens for antiretroviral therapy-naive
patients (From Ashraf T, Robillard K, Chan G and Bendayan R. Role of CNS Transporters in the
Pharmacotherapy of HIV-1 Associated Neurological Disorders. 2013. Current Pharmaceutical
Design. 20: 1543-1563)
Preferred Regimens
One of the following Antiretroviral Regimens + NRTI Backbone
NNRTI Efavirenz
Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate and
Emtricitabine
PIs Atazanavir + Ritonavir
or Darunavir + Ritonavir
Integrase Inhibitor Raltegravir
Pregnant Women Lopinavir + Ritonavir Zidovudine and Lamivudine
Alternative Regimens
One of the following Antiretroviral Regimens + NRTI Backbone
NNRTI Efavirenz or Rilpivirine Abacavir + Lamivudine
Rilpivirine Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate
+ Emtricitabine
PIs
Atazanavir + Ritonavir or
Darunavir + Ritonavir Abacavir and Lamivudine
Fosamprenavir + Ritonavir or
Lopinavir + Ritonavir
Abacavir and Lamivudine or
Tenofovir Disoproxil Fumarate and Emtricitabine
Integrase Inhibitor Raltegravir Abacavir and Lamivudine Adapted from the 2012 Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in HIV-1 Infected Adults and
Adolescents (http://aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelines).
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1.4 Brain barriers and parenchymal cellular compartments
1.4.1 Blood-brain barrier (BBB)
The BBB constitutes a remarkable physical and biochemical barrier between the brain and
systemic circulation that regulates the traffic of molecules into/out of the brain parenchyma
(Reese and Karnovsky, 1967). The discovery of the BBB is attributed to the German
immunologist Paul Ehrlich who first reported in 1880 that injection of cationic dyes into the
systemic circulation stained most of the organs with the exception of the brain and spinal cord
(Ehrlich, 1904). Later work from Edwin E. Goldman demonstrated that if the dye is injected in
the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) directly, only the nervous tissue is stained whereas other tissues
remain unstained confirming the existence of a physiological barrier between the systemic
circulation and the brain (Goldmann, 1913). It was not until another 70 years when using
electron microscopy several researchers observed lack of horseradish peroxidase (HRP)
perfusion in mouse vascular endothelium suggesting the existence of a structural barrier at the
blood-brain interface (Reese and Karnovsky, 1967). The identification of tight junction proteins
that connect endothelial cells and restrict the paracellular trafficking of substrates further
confirmed the concept of a tightly regulated physiological barrier surrounding the CNS (Reese
and Karnovsky, 1967). To date, the BBB is known as a multi-cellular unit formed of a
monolayer of non-fenestrated brain microvessel endothelial cells, surrounding pericytes, adjacent
astrocytes and neurons. These cellular compartments and basal lamina are collectively referred to
as the “neurovascular unit” (Neuwelt et al., 2011). Brain microvessel endothelial cells are joined
by tight junctions that are maintained by trophic factors released from adjacent astrocytes and
pericytes. The intercellular network of tight junctions regulates the traffic of immune
surveillance cells and substances from the systemic circulation. Under physiological conditions,
these tight junctions form a continuous, almost impermeable cellular barrier that limits
paracellular flux and transport as well as the influx of endogenous and exogenous substances
with the exception of very small, lipid soluble molecules. The high transendothelial electrical
resistance (1500-2000 cm2) of the BBB further restricts the free flow of water and solutes.
Several receptors, ion channels, and influx/efflux transport proteins are prominently expressed at
the BBB (Pardridge, 2012;Simionescu et al., 2002). In brain microvessel endothelial cells,
specialized plasma membrane microdomains known as caveolae are believed to be involved in
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endocytosis of various macromolecules, including plasma proteins, immunoglobulins and
metalloproteins. During neuropathological conditions such as stroke, trauma, bacterial or viral
infections, multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy, brain tumors
and pain, the integrity of the BBB has been reported to be compromised (Neuwelt et al.,
2011;Ronaldson et al., 2008).
1.4.2 Pericytes
Pericytes are perivascular cells within the basal lamina that are important constituent of the BBB
(Fisher, 2009). These cells surround the endothelial cells and maintain the structural integrity and
stability of the BBB (Hori et al., 2004a). Pericytes are known to regulate many other brain
functions such as angiogenesis, capillary flow, immune response as well as hemostatis (az-Flores
et al., 1991;Bandopadhyay et al., 2001). Due to their multiple roles in maintaining a functional
BBB, pericytes have been implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous cerebrovascular and
neurodegenerative diseases (Dore-Duffy, 2008;Gonul et al., 2002).
1.4.3 Brain parenchymal cellular compartments
Neurons and the surrounding glial cells constitute the brain parenchyma. The term “glia”
(derived from Greek, meaning glue) was first used by Rudolf Virchow in 1846 to describe a cell
type that fastened the neuronal cells together. For decades, glial cells were viewed as structural
support cells in the brain. However, emerging evidence suggest that glial cells in the brain
perform a wide range of function that is critical to regulate and maintain brain homeostasis. Glial
cells include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes and microglia.
1.4.3.1 Astrocytes
Astrocytes are the most abundant glial cells in the brain. They possess a stellate morphology and
contain numerous cytoplasmic fibrils, of which glial acidic fibrillary protein (GFAP) is the main
constituent. Astrocytes possess numerous functions that aid in maintaining the homeostatic
environment of the CNS. Astrocyte-foot-processes surround more than 99% surface of the
cerebral capillary basement membrane and this close interaction between astrocytes and brain
microvessel endothelial cells has been implicated in the maintenance of tight junction integrity,
proliferation and angiogenesis of endothelial cells (Abbott et al., 2006). Other functions include
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regulation of immune and inflammatory events during injury and infection (i.e., production and
secretion of cytokines), expression of adhesion molecules for neuronal development, buffering of
excess K+ during periods of neuronal hyperactivity and secretion of neurotropic factors (i.e.,
transforming growth factor-beta, glial-derived neurotropic factor, basic fibroblast growth factors)
that are known to promote growth of neurons as well as differentiation and maturation of
microglia. Astrocytes also express numerous transporters that mediate the trafficking of
nutrients, solutes and xenobiotics across the cell membrane (Hirrlinger et al., 2005;Pardridge et
al., 1997). Loss of astrocyte mediated neuroprotective effects as well as chronic activation of
astrocytes have been reported in neurodegenerative diseases as well as in HIV-associated
neuropathogenesis (Sidoryk-Wegrzynowicz et al., 2011).
1.4.3.2 Microglia
Microglia are the resident immunocompetent cells in the brain. These cells were first identified
by the Spanish neuroanatomist del Rio-Hortega in 1932. Under normal physiological condition,
these cells appear in a resting state, characterized by smaller cell body, ramified processes and
low expression of surface antigens. In response to injury or inflammatory stimuli, microglia
become activated and release inflammatory mediators such as pro-inflammatory cytokines,
prostaglandins and NO. Activated microglia further recruit other microglia to the site of injury,
trigger activation of astrocytes and signal recruitment of peripheral monocytes from the systemic
circulation. Activated microglia have been implicated in many diseases such as Alzheimer’s,
Parkinson’s, HIV-encephalitis (HIVE) and others (Garden and Moller, 2006). Many transport
proteins are also expressed in these cells (Lee et al., 2001b). More than a decade ago, our group
proposed that along with astrocytes, these cells constitute a secondary barrier to drug
permeability in the brain and demonstrated functional expression of multiple drug efflux
transporters in both microglia as well as astrocytes (Dallas et al., 2004a;Dallas et al., 2003;Lee et
al., 2001b;Ronaldson et al., 2004b;Ronaldson et al., 2008).
1.4.3.3 Oligodendrocytes
The primary function of oligodendrocytes is to form the insulating myelin sheath that surrounds
neuronal axons in the CNS. Myelin, an extension of the oligodendrocyte plasma membrane, is a
lipid-rich biological membrane that forms multilamellar, spirally wrapped sheaths around
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neuronal axons to increase the resistance for electrical impulses during an action potential. Injury
and loss of oligodendrocytes are directly related to axonal damage (Benarroch, 2009). Several
transporters have been detected at the gene or protein level in oligodendrocytes (Hirrlinger et al.,
2002).
1.4.3.4 Neurons
Neurons form the basic structural and functional component of the CNS. The primary function of
neurons is to transmit nerve signals through axonal processes. The interaction between blood
vessels and neurons plays an essential role for the neurovascular network and maintenance of
brain homeostasis. Irreversible neuronal injury or loss has been implicated in many diseases such
as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, infectious diseases, stroke and multiple sclerosis.
Studies have demonstrated the expression of several drug transporters at this site (Lazarowski et
al., 2004).
1.4.4 Blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB)
The BCSFB composed of choroid plexus epithelial cells plays a major role in determining the
permeability of nutrients and xenobiotics. The choroid plexus is a highly vascularised branched
structure with numerous villi that project into all four cerebral ventricles (Spector and Johanson,
1989). The capillaries of the choroid plexus are fenestrated and provide little resistance to the
movement of water and solutes. However, a barrier is formed by a monolayer of polarized
epithelial cells surrounding the fenestrated capillaries that are joined together by tight junctional
proteins (Groothuis and Levy, 1997;Segal, 2000). These tight junctions form a functional barrier
that restricts the movement of molecules and ions. The main function of the choroid plexus
epithelial cells is to secrete and maintain the homeostatic composition of the CSF. The CSF fills
the ventricles of the brain, the spinal canal and subarachnoid space. In humans, the total volume
of CSF is approximately 140 ml which is replaced four to five times daily (Enting et al., 1998).
The CSF also provides a drainage system for the brain known as the sink effect into which
products of metabolism and molecules penetrating into the CSF are diluted and subsequently
removed (Davson et al., 1970;Saunders et al., 1999). The sink effect is greater for large
molecular weight and hydrophilic compounds. At the level of choroid plexus epithelial cells,
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numerous polarized expression of receptors, ion channels and transporters have been reported
(Davson and Segal, 1970;de Lange, 2004;Garner and Brown, 1992;Kusuhara and Sugiyama,
2005;Spector and Johanson, 1989)
1.5 Brain HIV-1 infection and HIV-1-associated neurological disorders
1.5.1 HIV-1-associated neuropathogenesis
HIV-1 can penetrate the CNS early in the course of the infection either as a cell-free entity or
within infected monocytes that is also known as the “Trojan horse” hypothesis (Davis et al.,
1992). Infected monocytes can migrate into the brain either by transcellular or paracellular route.
The paracellular route involves migration in-between adjacent endothelial cells and the
transcellular route occurs directly through an individual endothelial cell likely through the
formation of a pore or channel (Wittchen, 2009). Studies have suggested that both transcellular
and paracellular migration of monocytes are associated with high intracellular adhesion molecule
(ICAM)-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 enriched endothelial projections
(Carman and Springer, 2004).
Perivascular macrophages and brain resident microglial cells constitute the immunocompetent
cells in the CNS and are the primary targets of HIV-1 (Persidsky and Gendelman, 2003).These
cells express both CD4 and chemokine co-receptor for viral entry (Dalgleish et al., 1984;Deng et
al., 1996). In a healthy brain, microglia appear in a resting state. In response to HIV-1, microglia
become activated and release pro-inflammatory cytokines, prostaglandins, ROS and NO that
further trigger the activation of neighbouring microglia and astrocytes and signal recruitment of
peripheral monocytes from the systemic circulation (Garden, 2002;Persidsky et al., 1999).
Microglia are the main source of productive infection in the brain while infection of astrocytes
tends to be latent and noncytopathic. HIV-1 entry into astrocytes is independent of CD4 receptor
and mediated by galactosyl ceramide (Boutet et al., 2001;Gorry et al., 2003). It is proposed that
HIV-1 infection in astrocytes is controlled by different phases of restriction. A few potential
mechanisms could be low level of viral production which is controlled post-transcriptionally and
low level of basal promoter activity. Lower Rev function along with insufficient translation of
viral proteins have been implicated as potential mechanism of restrictive HIV-1 infection in
astrocytes. Sequestration of the virus in the astrocytes and prolonged viral viability in astrocytes
can lead to the formation of viral reservoir at this site. HIV-1 infection triggers activation of
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astrocytes leading to inflammatory response and oxidative stress. A study by Churchill et al. has
demonstrated that astrocyte infection was prominent in HIV-1 infected subjects with dementia
(Churchill et al., 2009). In addition, astrocyte infection correlated with the severity of the
neuropathological changes suggesting an important role of astrocytes in HIV-1
neuropathogenesis (Churchill et al., 2009).
A number of studies have demonstrated that virus-infected cells or induced glial cells are source
of various neurotoxic factors such as arachidonic acid (AA) and its metabolites, platelet
activating factor, quinolinic acid, ROS, NO and glutamate (Genis et al., 1992;Kong et al.,
1996;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008). In addition, a number of pro-inflammatory cytokines
(i.e., tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-10, IL-18,
interferonα (IFNα), IFNγ] are also known to be elevated during brain HIV-1 infection (Hult et
al., 2008;Perrella et al., 1992;Torre et al., 1992;von Giesen et al., 2004). Several studies have
reported detectable amount of these cytokines in the CSF of patients with HIV-associated
neurocognitive disorder (HAND) and also found statistically significant correlations of these
elevated cytokines with HAND pathogenesis (Sas et al., 2009). Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), a
cytoprotective cellular enzyme, has been found to be significantly decreased due to HIV-1
replication in cultured macrophages and HO-1 deficiency was found to be associated with
increased release of neurotoxic levels of glutamate (Ambegaokar and Kolson, 2014). Increased
macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) has also been reported in plasma of HIV-1
infected patients, in infected peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) as well as in PBMCs
treated with gp120 (Regis et al., 2010). MIF binds to different receptors (i.e., CD74, CD44,
CXCR2, CXCR4) and promotes the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., TNF-α, IL-6)
(Calandra and Roger, 2003). In vitro studies in primary glial cell cultures suggest that shed viral
proteins [gp120, transactivating protein (Tat), viral protein R (vpr)] can induce secretion of pro-
inflammatory cytokines. For example, previous work from our laboratory has demonstrated that
R5-tropic gp120 can mediate secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6)
by interacting with CCR5 chemokine receptor in primary cultures of rodent astrocytes
(Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006).
HIV-1 infection may result in a neuropathological condition known as HIVE. HIVE is
characterized by elevated monocyte/macrophage infiltration into the brain, myelin pallor, brain
atrophy, multinucleated giant cells, activated microglia, reactive astrocytosis (proliferation and
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activation of astrocytes) and presence of microglial nodules (Albright et al., 2003). Immune
activation in the brain parenchyma during HIVE is associated with enhanced monocyte
migration through the BBB (Kanmogne et al., 2007). Secretion of chemokines [i.e., monocyte
chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1); macrophage inflammatory protein-1α/β (MIP-1α/β);
regulated on activation, normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES)] from glial cells
facilitate this migration (Asensio and Campbell, 1999). In addition, HIV-1 infection can disrupt
the structural properties of the BBB by downregulating tight junction proteins [i.e., zona
occluden-1 (ZO-1), occludin] in brain microvessel endothelial cells (Kanmogne et al.,
2005;Nakamuta et al., 2008). A compromised BBB can facilitate entry of HIV-1 from the
periphery and ultimately, can increase the spread of the virus in brain parenchymal cellular
compartments. Several in vitro and in vivo studies have also demonstrated that HIV-1 proteins
(i.e., gp120, Tat) can downregulate tight junction proteins expressed in brain microvessel
endothelial cells (Kanmogne et al., 2005;Toborek et al., 2005). For example, Louboutin et al.
demonstrated a significant decrease in the tight junction protein claudin-5 due to gp120
administration in rat brain (Louboutin et al., 2010b). Upregulation of adhesion molecules (i.e.,
ICAM,VCAM] in brain endothelial cells have also been implicated in facilitating viral infected
monocyte infiltration (Andras et al., 2003;Pu et al., 2003). A recent study has identified
mechanisms involved in HIV-1 transport across the BBB. Using in situ brain perfusion and in
vitro BBB model, this study demonstrated that HIV-1 uses the mannose-6 phosphate receptor to
cross the brain microvessel endothelial cells as a free virus (Dohgu et al., 2012).
Evidence also suggests a significant contribution of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of HIV-
1. Inflammatory cytokines and HIV-1 viral proteins (Tat, gp120) can induce oxidative stress in
glial cells. In rat cortical neuroglial cultures, gp120 triggered an increased production of ROS
and subsequent neuronal death (Wakabayashi et al., 2003). Upregulation of inducible nitric oxide
synthase (iNOS) expression and associated increase in NO and peroxynitrite production have
also been reported in astrocytes and microglia (Adamson et al., 1996;Hori et al., 1999;Zhao et
al., 2001). High levels of iNOS expression were also reported to be localized to microglial
nodules and reactive astrocytes in brain tissue isolated from patients with HIVE (Zhao et al.,
2001). Increased oxidative stress markers have also been detected in the CSF of HIV-1 infected
individuals with HIV-associated dementia implying their significance in the development of
HIV-1 associated cognitive deficits (Sacktor et al., 2004).
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Neurons do not appear to be susceptible to HIV-1 infection. However, chronic exposure to
neurotoxic, inflammatory and oxidative stress markers during HIV-1 infection can cause
irreversible neuronal damage (Kaul et al., 2001). Viral proteins (i.e., gp120, Tat, vpr) released
from infected cells are known to be neurotoxic (Guha et al., 2012;Kanmogne et al., 2002).
Studies have shown that mechanisms involved in neuronal apoptosis include interaction with
viral proteins to neuronal chemokine receptors, caspase activation, calcium toxicity,
excitotoxicity due to glutamate, loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and ultimately, DNA
fragmentation (Lindl et al., 2010). For example, it has been demonstrated that gp120 mediates
caspase-3-dependent apoptosis of neurons (Singh et al., 2004). Others demonstrated vpr
associated neuronal apoptosis and neurodegeneration in vivo (Guha et al., 2012;Jones et al.,
2007). Excessive K+ and excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate also lead to neuronal loss.
Physiologically, astrocytes actively participate in removing excess K+ and excitatory
neurotransmitter glutamate released from neurons. Functional glutamate uptake systems [i.e.,
excitatory amino acid transporter 1 (EAAT1), EAAT2] have been identified in astrocytes.
Evidence suggests that these uptake systems may be compromised due to HIV-1 infection.
Studies performed in cultured glial cells exposed to gp120 or Tat have reported reduced
expression of EAAT2 expression as well as decreased glutamate uptake (Wang et al.,
2003b;Zhou et al., 2004). Excess extracellular glutamate can further stimulate metabotropic
glutamate receptors in astrocytes leading to more glutamate release (Volterra and Meldolesi,
2005). Figure 1-2 summarizes the different mechanisms involved in HIV-associated
neuropathogenesis.
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Figure 1-2 HIV-1- associated pathogenesis in the brain (Adapted from Persidsky and
Gendelman, 2003. 74:691-701. J Leukoc Biol. ;Ronaldson et al., 2008.Glia.56: 1711:1735; From
Ashraf T, Robillard K, Chan G and Bendayan R. Role of CNS Transporters in the
Pharmacotherapy of HIV-1 Associated Neurological Disorders. 2013. Current Pharmaceutical
Design. 20: 1543-1563)
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1.5.2 HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND)
Neurocognitive impairment remains highly prevalent in HIV-1 infected individuals due to
persistence of viral replication and associated inflammation in the brain (Heaton et al.,
2010;Heaton et al., 2011). Prior to the use of antiretroviral therapy, approximately 20-30% of
HIV-1 infected patients developed HIV-associated dementia (HAD), the most severe form of
cognitive impairment. Since the initiation of combined antiretroviral therapy, the development
of HAD in HIV-1 infected patients has significantly decreased (Ances and Ellis, 2007).
However, milder forms of HAND are becoming more predominant in the post-highly active
antiretroviral therapy (HAART) era in part due to the longer life expectancy of infected
individuals on treatment. HAND is characterized by cognitive, motor or behavioral
abnormalities. Despite receiving treatment, HIV-1 infected patients may develop cognitive
impairments (i.e., attention, learning, memory), psychiatric illness (i.e., depression, anxiety) and
persisted fatigue interfering with their daily life functioning (i.e., employment, medication
management, driving) and ultimately, resulting in a poor quality of life in these individuals
(Warriner et al., 2010). Studies further suggest that cognitively impaired individuals with acute
and early HIV-1 infection are at elevated risk of clinically significant changes in normal daily
functioning (Doyle et al., 2013).
Several recently published studies have confirmed that despite the availability of combined
antiretroviral therapy (cART), neurological disorders are still persistent in HIV-1 infected
patients (Power et al., 2009;Vivithanaporn et al., 2010). In particular, Vivithanaporn et al.
studied 1,651 patients with HIV-AIDS in Canada over a 10 year period and reported that more
than one in four people with HIV-1 develops neurological disorders and more alarmingly, the
mortality rate of these patients are significantly higher than those with no neurological disorder
(Vivithanaporn et al., 2010). Vivithanaporn et al. further observed that patients suffering from
neurological infection suffer from 53 brain-related conditions including HAND, pain, seizure,
stroke and others (Vivithanaporn et al., 2010). Another study performed in 1,555 HIV-1
infected patients in the United States reported that 52%of the total subjects had
neuropsychological impairment (Heaton et al., 2010).
One study performed by the CNS HIV Anti-Retroviral Therapy Effects Research (CHARTER)
group reported that nadir CD4 cell count may be used as a predictor of neuropsychological
impairment (Ellis et al., 2011). This study suggested that the risk of developing neurocognitive
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deficit is lower in infected individuals whose CD4 levels were never allowed to fall to low levels
(Ellis et al., 2011). McCombe et al. further reported that increased age, survival duration, low
nadir CD4 cell count and high baseline viral load were predictors of the development of
symptomatic HAND in patients with HIV-1 infection (McCombe et al., 2013). Brain HIV RNA
and to a lesser extent HIV DNA in patients with HIVE and microglial nodule encephalitis were
found to be correlated with worse neuropsychological performance (Gelman et al., 2013). HIV-1
infection and the development of dual-tropism may be associated with HAND in the relatively
early stage of infection suggesting that viral interaction with cellular receptors may play an
important role in the early manifestation of HAND (Morris et al., 2013).
Although CD4 count and viral load were important markers for the likelihood of developing
HAND in the pre-cART era, there are currently no standard systemic or CSF biomarkers that can
be used to diagnose HAND. Increased concentrations of CSF neopterin, a marker for
macrophage activation, have been found in virally suppressed patients without any symptoms of
HAND (Canestri et al., 2010). A correlation of cytokines present in the CSF of HIV-1 infected
patients were found with their test results of neuropsychological functioning (Nolting et al.,
2012). Increased IL-6 and MIP-1β were also found to be elevated in the CSF collected from
advanced therapy-naive HIV-1 infected HAND patients (Airoldi et al., 2012). In this study,
initiation and continuation of antiretroviral therapy for 12 weeks greatly reduced plasma RNA
load, but did not affect CSF IL-6 and MIP-1β levels suggesting that CNS immune activation can
persist despite administration of virologically effective therapy (Airoldi et al., 2012).
Different neuropsychological test batteries are being used to detect cognitive impairments in
infected patients. Lack of reliable screening methods for early diagnosis and monitoring HAND
is a key obstacle to evaluate HAND. Recently, a smartphone based screen test, neuroscreen, has
been tested in HIV-1 infected individuals to detect neurocognitive deficits. Although it
demonstrated similar ability to assess cognitive deficits as paper tests, it is yet to be determined if
it can be useful for less cognitively impaired patients (Robbins et al., 2014). Neuroimaging
techniques (i.e., morphometry, magnetic resonance spectroscopy, diffusion tensor imaging,
positron emission tomography) have potential to detect neuropathological changes in HIV-1
infected patients and to evaluate the progression of disease and/or the efficacy of cART.
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1.6 Treatment obstacles of brain HIV-1 infection: brain permeability of
antiretroviral drugs
Treatment of brain HIV-1 infection remains challenging partly due to poor permeability of
antiretroviral drugs across the BBB and into glial cells. Several classes of antiretrovirals have
been reported to poorly permeate into the brain. In particular, a number of PIs and NRTIs exhibit
low bioavailability following oral administration and reach subtherapeutic concentration in the
brain, possibly permitting this site to become a sanctuary for HIV-1 (Best et al., 2009;Best et al.,
2012;Gisolf et al., 2000). The inadequate concentration of PIs in the CNS could allow continuing
production of HIV-1 and emergence of drug resistant viral strains despite adequate plasma
concentrations and acceptable systemic antiviral efficacy indicators (Kravcik et al.,
1999;Piacenti, 2006). Table 1-2 lists the CSF to plasma ratio of different antiretroviral drugs.
In order to determine the effectiveness of antiretroviral drug permeability in the brain, a CNS
penetration effectiveness (CPE) score has been established by the CHARTER group. The
ranking of individual antiretroviral drugs was based on their chemical properties, concentrations
in CSF and/or effectiveness in the CNS reported in clinical trials (Letendre et al., 2008). In order
to validate this ranking method, a study involving 833 HIV-1 infected individuals was designed
to establish a correlation between CSF viral loads and penetration of antiretroviral drugs. As
predicted, lower CPE ranks were found to be associated with higher CSF viral loads suggesting
persistent viral replication due to poor penetration of antiretroviral drugs (Letendre et al., 2008).
An updated CPE ranking has been proposed that incorporates data from recent studies and is
more strongly associated with CSF viral loads than the older CPE method (Letendre et al., 2010).
According to the most updated CPE ranking system, each drug has been given a score between 1
and 4 (Letendre et al., 2010). A higher CPE score indicates more CNS effectiveness. Based on
this ranking zidovudine, nevirapine and indinavir/ritonavir are given a score of 4, while abacavir,
emtricitabine, delavirdine, efavirenz, darunavir/ritonavir, fosamprenavir/ritonavir, indinavir,
lopinavir/ritonavir, maraviroc and raltegravir have a score of 3. Drugs such as didanosine,
lamivudine, stavudine, etravirine, atazanavir, atazanavir/ritonavir and fosamprenavir were given
a score of 2. The lowest ranking was given to tenofovir, zalcitabine, nelfinavir, ritonavir,
saquinavir, saquinavir/ritonavir, tipranavir/ritonavir and enfuvirtide indicating their poor
permeability. Although this system has not been validated for clinical use yet, it suggests that
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enhancing the penetration of antiretroviral drugs into the CNS can ultimately improve brain
HIV-1 infection and associated cognitive impairments. Data from several clinical studies support
that higher CPE ranks are associated with low CSF viral loads and/or improved cognitive
performance in HIV-1 infected individuals (Marra et al., 2009). Besides increased permeability
of antiretrovirals, early initiation of antiretroviral therapy may also reduce the risk of
neurocognitive complications in HIV-1 infected individuals. In a study performed by the
CHARTER group, nadir CD4 level was identified as a predictor of neuropsychological
impairment suggesting that the risk of developing neurocognitive deficit is lower in infected
individuals whose CD4 levels were never allowed to fall to low levels (Ellis et al., 2011).
Therefore, other factors can also determine the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy in
improving neurocognitive impairment. In addition, as discussed in an earlier section, use of
certain antiretroviral drugs can be associated with adverse side effects including neurotoxicity.
More clinical evidence is required to understand penetration of antiretroviral drugs and
improvement in neurocognitive outcome. Overall, these observations suggest that
pharmacotherapy of brain HIV-1 infection is a complex process and further investigation is
necessary to design treatment strategies that can benefit patients with neurocognitive deficits.
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Table 1-2 Comparison of CSF to plasma ratios of antiretroviral drugs in HIV-infected patients. Values are reported as median and/or
the range of CSF: plasma (from Ashraf T, Robillard K, Chan G and Bendayan R. Role of CNS Transporters in the Pharmacotherapy
of HIV-1 Associated Neurological Disorders. 2013. Current Pharmaceutical Design. 20: 1543-1563)
.
Class Antiretroviral Drug CSF : Plasma Ratio References
PIs
Amprenavir 0.012 (0.008-0.018) (Croteau et al., 2012)
Atazanavir 0.008-0.02 (Best et al., 2009b)
Darunavir 0.009 (0.003-0.078) (Yilmaz et al., 2009)
Indinavir 0.11 (0-0.47) (Antinori et al., 2005)
Lopinavir 0.002 (0.001-0.008) (Capparelli et al., 2005)
Saquinavir 0.001-0.002 (Kravcik et al., 1999b)
Nelfinavir Not detected (Antinori et al., 2005;Solas et al., 2003)
Ritonavir 0.002 (0.001-0.005) (Kravcik et al., 1999b)
NRTIs
Abacavir 0.35 (0.31-0.44) (McDowell et al., 1999)
Didanosine 0.16 (0.03-0.24) (Huang et al., 2004)
Emtricitabine 0.26 (0.05-0.41) (Calcagno et al., 2011)
Lamivudine 0.23 (0-4.9) (Antinori et al., 2005)
Stavudine 0-0.20 (Antinori et al., 2005)
Tenofovir 0.057 (0.004-0.84) (Best et al., 2012)
Zidovudine 0.02 (0-6.74) (Antinori et al., 2005)
NNRTIs
Efavirenz 0.007 (0.003-0.011) (Tashima et al., 1999)
Enfuvirtide Negligible (Price et al., 2008)
Nevirapine 0.63 (0.41-0.77) (Antinori et al., 2005)
Integrase Inhibitor Raltegravir 0.06 (0.01-0.54) (Croteau et al., 2010)
CCR5 Antagonist Maraviroc 0.022 (0.004-0.17) (Tiraboschi et al., 2010)
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1.7 ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters
Subtherapeutic concentrations of antiretroviral drugs have been reported in the CNS. One
potential mechanism that may lead to poor penetration of antiretrovirals into different brain
cellular compartments is functional expression of efflux transporters that belong to the ABC
superfamily. Along with ABC transporters, drug metabolizing CYPs may play a role in
determining drug disposition into the CNS. In addition, drug-drug interactions can also lead to
inadequate or toxic drug concentrations resulting in poor therapeutic outcome, treatment failure
or adverse effects.
The ABC superfamily is one of the largest and ubiquitously expressed protein families
containing numerous functionally diverse membrane-associated transporters. To date, 50 ABC
proteins have been identified in humans that can be separated in seven subfamilies (A to G)
based on their structural organization (Dean and Allikmets, 2001). These membrane-associated
proteins transport numerous substrates across the lipid bilayer using ATP hydrolysis as the
energy source. ABC transporters are characterized by the presence of a highly conserved
Nucleotide Binding Domain (NBD) containing three distinct motifs, Walker A, Walker B and a
signature motif (LSGG) (Leslie et al., 2001). Localization of different ABC transporters at the
brain barriers and in brain cellular compartments is shown in figure 1-3 and figure 1-4,
respectively.
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Abluminal Luminal Basolateral Apical
MRP1
Mrp2
MRP4
MRP5
Mrp4
Brain Blood
Mrp4
MRP1
Mrp5
CSF
BBB CP
MRP4
MRP1
P-gpP-gp
P-gp
BCRP
BCRP
Figure 1-3 Localization of ABC transporters at the BBB and BCSFB. The arrows indicate the
direction of substrate transport (Adapted from Ashraf T, Kao A and Bendayan R. 2014.
Functional expression of drug transporters in glial cells: potential role on drug delivery to the
CNS. In Thomas P. Davis, editor: pharmacology of the blood-brain barrier: targeting CNS
disorders, vol 71, APHA, UK: Academic press; 45-111)
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Microglia
MR
P1
Mrp
4M
rp5
Mrp
6
P-g
p
Bc
rp
NeuronsM
RP
1
MR
P4
MR
P5
Mrp
6
MR
P8
P-g
p
Bcrp
Astrocytes
MR
P1
MR
P4
Mrp
5
Mrp
6
P-g
p
BC
RP
Figure 1-4 Localization of of ABC transporters in astrocytes, microglia and neurons. The arrows
indicate the direction of substrate transport (Adapted from Ashraf T, Kao A and Bendayan R.
2014. Functional expression of drug transporters in glial cells: potential role on drug delivery to
the CNS. In Thomas P. Davis, editor: pharmacology of the blood-brain barrier: targeting CNS
disorders, vol 71, APHA, UK: Academic press; 45-111)
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1.7.1 P-glycoprotein (P-gp)
P-gp was the first identified ABC transporter. It was isolated and characterized by Victor Ling in
Toronto, Canada, in a Chinese hamster ovary cell line where this transporter showed resistance
to colchicine (Juliano and Ling, 1976). These cells also showed resistance to a number of
structurally diverse anti-cancer agents, a phenomenon that was later termed as multidrug
resistance (MDR). P-gp consists of 1276-1280 amino acids with a molecular mass of
approximately 170 kDa. It is encoded by the MDR/mdr gene which has two isoforms in humans
(MDR1 and MDR2) and three isoforms in rodents (mdr1a, mdr1b and mdr2) (Chen et al.,
1986;Gottesman et al., 1995). P-gp is encoded by the MDR1 gene in humans, whereas,
MDR2/mdr2 is exclusively expressed in the liver and involved in phosphatidylcholine
translocation. In rodents, P-gp encoded by mdr1a and mdr1b demonstrate MDR phenotype.
The membrane topology of P-gp shows a tandemly duplicated structure with two homologous
halves connected by a hydrophilic linker region (Loo and Clarke, 2005). Each half consists of a
highly hydrophobic transmembrane domain (TMD) containing six transmembrane helices and an
intracellular NBD with an ATP-binding site (Gottesman et al., 1995;Rosenberg et al., 2003). The
hydrophilic linker region is phosphorylated at several sites by protein kinase C, although
phosphorylation of this linker region does not appear to affect P-gp function. N-linked
glycosylation sites have also been identified in P-gp within the first extracellular loop. Although
glycosylation does not appear to be required for substrate transport, studies suggest that
glycosylation may be required for proper protein folding. Recent structural studies have
generated an X-ray crystal structure of mouse P-gp which shows an internal cavity with
nucleotide-free inward facing conformation (Aller et al., 2009). This study also reported two co-
crystal structures of P-gp bound to cyclic peptide inhibitor. In the drug-bound conformation, the
drug-binding pocket of P-gp is open to the cytoplasm and lipid bilayer (Aller et al., 2009). This
conformation likely represents a pre-transport state of P-gp where drug binding followed by ATP
binding causes a dimerization in the NBDs, resulting in the outward facing conformation where
the drug is released due to changes in conformation and/or accompanied by ATP hydrolysis.
Since its discovery, overexpression of P-gp has shown resistance to numerous chemotherapeutic
drugs, immunosuppressants, cardiac glycosides, antibiotics and many more. A number of
antiretroviral drugs have been reported to be substrates of P-gp. They include a number of HIV
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PIs (i.e., darunavir, atazanavir, saquinavir, ritonavir, amprenavir), several NRTIs (i.e., tenofovir
DF, nelfinavir), entry inhibitor (maraviroc) and integrase inhibitor (raltegravir) (Fujimoto et al.,
2009;Janneh et al., 2007;Kassahun et al., 2007;Kim et al., 1998;Lee et al., 1998;Perloff et al.,
2005;Shaik et al., 2007;Walker et al., 2005). Some of these antiretrovirals, in particular PIs, have
also been identified as inhibitors of P-gp transport activity. Our laboratory has demonstrated that
PIs such as indinavir, ritonavir and saquinavir can inhibit digoxin transport, an established P-gp
substrate, in a rat brain endothelial cell line (RBE4), primary cultures of rat astrocytes and a rat
microglial cell line (MLS-9) (Bendayan et al., 2002;Ronaldson et al., 2004a). P-gp has also been
implicated in numerous drug-drug interactions and co-administration of drugs that are substrates,
inducers or inhibitors of P-gp can result in altered pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic
response (Kis et al., 2010).
Figure 1-5 Membrane topology of P-gp (TMD= Transmembrane domain; NBD= Nucleotide
binding domain) (From Sarkadi B, 2006. Physiol Review. 86:1179-236).
P-gp is expressed at several blood-tissue barriers (i.e., blood-intestinal, blood-testis, blood-
placenta) including the BBB and the BCSFB where this transporter is directly involved in the
elimination of pharmacological agents (Edwards et al., 2005;Su et al., 2009). Several studies
have detected P-gp localization at the luminal membrane of brain microvessel endothelial cells
and on the apical side of choroid plexus epithelia (Rao et al., 1999). Others including our group
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have also reported P-gp localization at the abluminal surface of the endothelium (Bendayan et
al., 2006;Pardridge et al., 1997). Pardridge et al. first demonstrated P-gp expression at the
abluminal surface of the endothelium in human and primate astrocyte foot processes (Pardridge
et al., 1997). Using immunogold cytochemistry, our laboratory has also detected P-gp
localization at the luminal and abluminal surface of endothelial cells as well as in astrocyte foot
processes (Bendayan et al., 2006). P -gp functional expression has been characterized in isolated
brain capillaries as well as in several primary and immortalized brain cell culture systems
including RBE4 and human brain microvessel endothelial cell line (Bendayan et al., 2002;Miller
et al., 2000). Studies have also reported P-gp expression in parenchymal glial cells. Work from
our laboratory has confirmed P-gp expression in a rat microglia cell line (MLS-9) as well as in
cultured rat and human astrocytes (Lee et al., 2001b;Ronaldson et al., 2004a). Subcellular
localization of P-gp in brain cellular compartments has also been investigated. Using
immunogold immunocytochemistry, our laboratory has further detected P-gp expression in
caveolae, nuclear envelope and in cytoplasmic vesicles in primary cultures of rat astrocytes
(Ronaldson et al., 2004a). Additionally, we have shown P-gp expression in purified nuclear
membranes prepared from isolated nuclei from RBE4 and MLS-9 cells (Babakhanian et al.,
2007).
Studies performed in mdr1a/1b knockout mice models further support the role of P-gp in
antiretroviral drug transport the brain. In mdr1a and mdr1b knockout mice, an enhanced
accumulation of PIs in the brain has been reported suggesting the involvement of P-gp in
limiting brain permeability of antiretrovirals. For example, brain permeation of indinavir,
nelfinavir, ritonavir and saquinavir has been reported to be 4 to 36-fold higher in mdr1a
knockout animals (Kim et al., 1998;Washington et al., 2000). In another study, administration of
P-gp specific inhibitor zosuquidar in macaques resulted in significant brain accumulation of
nelfinavir (Kaddoumi et al., 2007). A study by Choo et al. reported significant increases in [14
C]-
nelfinavir brain concentrations in mice pre-treated with several selective P-gp inhibitors
including zosuquidar (LY335979) (25-fold increase), valspodar (PSC 833) (13-fold increase) and
cyclosporin A (3-fold increase)(Choo et al., 2000). While these studies suggest that selective P-
gp inhibitors have the potential to enhance accumulation of different drugs into the CNS in vivo,
use of small molecule P-gp inhibitors to improve CNS drug delivery have been largely
unsuccessful in the clinic. In fact, several clinical trials have attempted to incorporate
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pharmacological P-gp inhibitors into therapeutic regimens; however, these trials have largely
failed due systemic toxicity associated with the high inhibitor doses necessary for effective
transporter inhibitor (Kaye, 2008). Therefore, pharmacological approaches that involve
inhibition of P-gp mediated transport should be employed with extreme caution to avoid an
unwanted elevation in CNS drug concentrations and subsequent toxicity as well as unexpected
adverse drug reactions.
Altered P-gp expression at the BBB and in brain parenchymal compartments can affect drug
distribution during therapy. P-gp has been reported to be regulated by many physiological and
pathological stimuli including pro-inflammatory cytokines, polypeptide hormone endothelin-1,
viral proteins, bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and amyloid-β (Aβ) (Bauer et al., 2007;Lee
and Piquette-Miller, 2001;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). A number of signaling pathways
have been reported to regulate P-gp such as mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway,
nuclear factor-кB pathway (NF-κB), nuclear receptors [i.e., pregnane-X-receptor (PXR),
peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), constitutive androstane receptor (CAR)],
protein kinase C, protein kinase Akt and Rho pathways (Bauer et al., 2007;Miller, 2010;Miller et
al., 2008;Ott et al., 2009;Pan et al., 2010;Wang et al., 2010b;Zhong et al., 2010). Recent studies
in rodent brain capillaries also suggest that sphingolipid signaling through sphingosine-1-
phosphate receptor 1 is involved in the regulation of P-gp (Cannon et al., 2012). Therefore, a
more viable approach for controlling P-gp mediated drug transport in the CNS may be to target
endogenous P-gp regulatory pathways.
1.7.2 Multidrug resistance-associated proteins (MRPs)
MRP family is a group of ABC transporters that are ubiquitously expressed in many tissues (i.e.,
brain, liver, kidney, intestine) and primarily confer resistance to a number of organic anions. The
mammalian MRP family (humans, MRP; rodents, Mrp) has 13 members including nine proteins
involved in drug transport, MRP1-9 (ABCC1-6 and ABCC 10-12), one ion channel (cystic
fibrosis transmembrane regulator gene, CFTR), two receptors (sulfonylurea 1 and 2) and one
truncated protein that does not mediate transport (ABCC13) (Dallas et al., 2006;Keppler, 2011).
With regards to membrane topology, MRP transporters can be classified into two groups
(MRP1-3, MRP6-7 and MRP4-5, MRP8-9). MRP1-3, MRP6 and MRP7 have predicted
membrane topology of three TMDs showing a topology of 5 + 6 + 6 configuration of
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transmembrane helices where the first TMD is linked to the core region by a shorter cytoplasmic
loop. In the case of MRP1, the first TMD is not essential for transport activity, whereas, the
linker region is required for function (Borst et al., 2000). In comparison, MRP4, MRP5, MRP8
and MRP9 contain two TMDs each having 6 transmembrane helices and a NBD, but do not
possess the first TMD with five helices at their N-terminus (Bakos et al., 1998).
Figure 1-6 Membrane topology of MRP1/Mrp1 (TMD= Transmembrane domain; NBD=
Nucleotide binding domain) (From Dallas S, Miller DS, Bendayan R. 2006. Pharmacol Rev.
58:140-61).
MRP1 was first identified in a human lung cancer cell line, H69AR, which displayed
characteristics of the MDR phenotype in the absence of P-gp expression (Cole et al., 1992).
MRP1 shows substrate selectivity towards organic anions or neutral organic drugs and unlike
P-gp, MRP1 is also capable of transporting glutathione (GSH), glucuronide and sulphate
conjugates (Hipfner et al., 1999;Leier et al., 1996). Substrates of MRP1 include anticancer drugs,
inflammatory mediator leukotriene C4 (LTC4), PIs, oxyanions and several dietary constituents
(i.e., bioflavanoids) (Dallas et al., 2006;Leslie et al., 2001). In the presence of GSH, Mrp1 has
been shown to be involved in the transport of a few cationic drugs (i.e., vincristine, etoposide)
(Loe et al., 1998;Rappa et al., 1997). MRP1 is also known to be involved in the transport of a
number of HIV-1 PIs- atazanavir, saquinavir, ritonavir, indinavir and lopinavir (Dallas et al.,
2004a;Janneh et al., 2009;Janneh et al., 2005;van, I et al., 2001). Interaction of emtricitabine, an
NRTI and MRP1 has also been implicated (Bousquet et al., 2008). Using PBMCs, Bousquet et
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al. have shown a decrease in MRP1 function after exposure to emtricitabine and increased
intracellular calcein and [3H]-vincristine accumulation. In the presence of an MRP-specific
inhibitor, MK571, emtricitabine accumulation increased in PBMC suggesting an interaction with
MRP1 in vitro (Bousquet et al., 2008).
MRP1 is known to be ubiquitously expressed with higher expression in lung, testes and PBMCs.
In the CNS, MRP1 protein expression has been located in the luminal membrane of brain
microvessel endothelial cells and basolateral membrane of choroid plexus epithelial cells
(Gazzin et al., 2011;Rao et al., 1999). Studies have also detected MRP1 protein in pericytes,
astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes and neurons (Berezowski et al., 2004;Dallas et al.,
2004a;Dallas et al., 2003). Functional expression of MRP1 has also been demonstrated in vivo. In
Mrp1 knockout mice, vincristine permeation in the knockout animal brain was found to be
significantly higher than the wild-type animal (Wang et al., 2010a). In addition, a few signaling
pathways have been identified in MRP1 regulation such as MAPK, NF-kB and Janus
Kinase-Signal Transducer and Activator of Transcription (JAK-STAT) (Ashraf et al.,
2011;Hayashi et al., 2006;Ronaldson et al., 2010).
MRP1, along with other MRP isoforms (MRP2, MRP4 and MRP5), can also contribute towards
cellular defence during oxidative stress by regulating intracellular GSH and glutathione disulfide
(GSSG) concentrations. GSH levels within cells are tightly regulated and compromised levels
lead to the progression of many disorders including cancer, inflammatory and neurodegenerative
diseases. Elevated levels of GSH have been found in tissues from Mrp1 and Mrp2 knockout mice
(Kruh et al., 2007). It is now known that both MRP1 and MRP2 can mediate transport of GSH as
a substrate as well as cotransport of GSH in the presence of other compounds. MRP1 mediated
transport of GSH has been well characterized in cultured astrocytes and this transporter has also
been implicated in the transport of GSSG and other oxidized GSH derivatives (Hirrlinger et al.,
2001). Other MRP isoforms are also known to be involved in GSH transport (MRP4 and MRP5),
although their functional role in brain cellular compartments is not clear (Lai and Tan,
2002;Wijnholds et al., 2000b). For example, using astrocyte cultures derived from Mrp1 and
Mrp5 knockout mice, Minich et al demonstrated that Mrp1, but not Mrp5 is involved in GSH and
GSSG transport in cultured astrocytes (Minich et al., 2006). Another recent study observed
depletion of cellular GSH and increase in the extracellular GSH content in primary rat astrocyte
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cultures treated with PIs indinavir or nelfinavir. This process was attenuated in the presence of
MRP-specific inhibitor, MK571 suggesting involvement of Mrp-mediated transport activity
(Brandmann et al., 2012).
MRP1 and MRP2 share similar substrate specificities, although differences in kinetic properties
exist between MRP1 and MRP2 mediated transport. Endogenous substrates of MRP2 include
conjugated steroids, bile salts and LTC4. MRP2 also transports many exogenous compounds
such as anticancer drugs, antiretrovirals, antibiotics, environmental toxins and metal complexes.
MRP2 can also mediate transport of GSH independently or along with other compounds. With
respect to antiretrovirals, studies have suggested that MRP2 can transport a number of PIs such
as atazanavir, ritonavir, saquinavir, indinavir and lopinavir (Agarwal et al., 2007;Huisman et al.,
2002;Janneh et al., 2005). MRP2-mediated transport of tenofovir has also been reported
(Mallants et al., 2005). MRP2 has a more limited tissue distribution compared to MRP1 (Leslie
et al., 2005). At the BBB, Mrp2 has been localized at the luminal side of brain microvessel
endothelial cells and brain capillaries (Miller et al., 2000). At the BCSFB, the mRNA expression
of Mrp2 has been reported to be negligible (Choudhuri et al., 2003). In brain parenchyma, Mrp2
mRNA, but not protein expression in astrocytes isolated from embryonic rats has been detected
(Hirrlinger et al., 2002). Study by Potschka et al demonstrated an increased accumulation of
phenytoin, an antiepileptic agent in Mrp2-transport deficient mice suggesting a functional role of
this transporter at the level of the BBB (Potschka et al., 2003). Nuclear receptor CAR has been
implicated in the regulation of Mrp2 in rodent capillaries (Wang et al., 2010b).
MRP3 has a narrower but similar substrate preference as MRP1 and MRP2. However, MRP3
cannot transport GSH and prefers glucuronide conjugates over glutathione conjugates (Zelcer et
al., 2001). Weiss et al. demonstrated that NNRTIs and NRTIs enhance cellular accumulation of
methylfuorescin glutathione complex, an MRP-specific substrate, in MRP1,MRP2 or MRP3
overexpressing cell lines indicating interaction between NRTIs/NNRTIs and MRP isoforms
(Weiss et al., 2007). At the BBB, Mrp3 expression appears negligible and has not been detected
in mouse brain microvessels; however, gene expression was reported in hCMEC/D3 cells
(Dauchy et al., 2009). Low levels of Mrp3 have also been detected in bovine brain microvessel
endothelial cells whereas expression was not observed in capillary enriched homogenate (Zhang
et al., 2000). In choroid plexus epithelium, Mrp3 staining was observed at the inter-cellular
junctions, although the function of this protein at this site is unknown (Soontornmalai et al.,
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2006). In brain parenchyma, MRP3/Mrp3 gene expression has been detected in astrocytes,
microglia, oligodendrocytes and neurons (Hirrlinger et al., 2002;Nies et al., 2004).
Unlike MRP1-3, MRP4 has the unique ability of transporting a range of endogenous molecules
involved in cellular communication of signaling including cyclic nucleotides (cycline adenosine
monophosphate, cyclic guanosine monophosphate), eicosanoids, urate, conjugated steroid
hormones, folate, bile acids, nucleotide and purine analogs (Chen et al., 2001). MRP4 substrates
also include several NRTIs- abacavir, zidovudine monophosphate and tenofovir (Borst et al.,
2004;Ray et al., 2006). In Mrp4 knockout mice model, increased brain penetration of adefovir
has been reported suggesting a functional role of MRP4 in limiting drug penetration into the
brain (Belinsky et al., 2007). Using immunocytochemical analysis, MRP4 expression has been
detected both at the luminal and abluminal sides of brain capillary endothelial cells and at the
basolateral side in the choroid plexus epithelia (Leggas et al., 2004;Nies et al., 2004;Roberts et
al., 2008;Zhang et al., 2004). MRP4 expression has also been localized in astrocytes, microglia,
oligodendrocytes and neurons (Ballerini et al., 2002). Our laboratory has also detected
MRP4/Mrp4 expression in primary cultures of human and rat astrocytes (Ronaldson and
Bendayan, 2008).
Similar to MRP4, MRP5 can function as a cyclic nucleotide export pump and confers resistance
to nucleoside analogs. In addition to cyclic nucleotides, MRP5 substrates include a number of
other organic anions such as nucleoside monophosphate analogs, glutathione S-conjugates and
fluorescein diacetate. GSH is also a substrate for MRP4 and MRP5, although GSH cotransport is
not necessary for all the substrates of these transporters. Among antiretroviral drugs, MRP5 has
been reported to transport stavudine (Reid et al., 2003). MRP5 is also expressed in brain cellular
compartments. In comparison to MRP4 expression, MRP5 is localized at the luminal membrane
of brain microvessel endothelial cells, but is expressed at the basolateral membrane of the
choroid plexus (Nies et al., 2004;Roberts et al., 2008;Zhang et al., 2004) . MRP5 is also highly
expressed in pyrimidal neurons and astrocytes (Nies et al., 2004). Others have reported Mrp5
gene expression in oligodendrocytes and microglia (Hirrlinger et al., 2002;Nies et al., 2004).
Using 9‑(2‑phosphonomethoxyethyl)adenine (PMEA), a substrate for MRP4 and MRP5, our
group has shown that these transporters are functional in a rat microglia cell line (MLS-9)(Dallas
et al., 2004b).
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34
Functional studies have shown that MRP6 exhibits a weak resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs
such as etoposide, doxorubicin and daunorubicin. MRP6 can also transport GSH conjugates (i.e.,
LTC4, N-ethymaleimide S-glutathione). Transcripts of Mrp6 have been detected in primary
cultures of bovine brain microvessel endothelial cells, in capillary enriched fraction of bovine
brain homogenate and in human brain tissue (Zhang et al., 2000). Mrp6 expression at the gene
and protein level has been detected in glial cells and neurons, but not in pericytes (Berezowski et
al., 2004). Loss of MRP6 function causes an autosomal recessive multi-organ disorder known as
pseudoxanthoma elasticum, resulting in calcification of elastic fibres (Varadi et al., 2011). To
date, interaction of MRP6 and antiretroviral drugs has not been established.
A few in vitro studies have suggested that MRP7 is a lipophilic anion transporter that confers
resistance to several natural product anticancer drugs (i.e., docetaxel, vincristine). High levels of
MRP7 transcripts have been detected in various tumor specimens suggesting a potential role of
this transporter in the intrinsic sensitivity of tumors (Takayanagi et al., 2004). Transcripts of
Mrp7 have been detected in brain tissue (Kao et al., 2002). Although MRP7 showed resistance to
lopinavir in an over-expressing cell line, functional expression of MRP7 in different brain
cellular compartments is yet to be characterized (Bierman et al., 2010).
MRP8 has been characterized as a lipophilic anion efflux pump in vitro (Chen et al., 2005).
MRP8, similar to MRP4 and MRP5, confers resistance to several purine and pyrimidine
nucleotide derivatives (Oguri et al., 2007). Transcripts and protein expression of MRP8 have
been detected in human brain samples and gliomas. MRP8 is considered an axonal protein since
immunofluorescence microscopy studies have detected MRP8 protein to be colocalized with
neurofilaments in white matter in human brain (Bortfeld et al., 2006). The axonal localization of
MRP8 together with its substrate affinity towards steroids indicates that this transporter may
potentially participate in regulating neurotransmitter receptors by mediating the efflux of
neurosteroids from neurons. With respect to antiretrovirals, MRP8 has been reported not to be
involved in the cellular efflux of zidovudine or lamivudine (Guo et al., 2003). Further studies are
needed to characterize MRP8 involvement in transporting other antiretroviral drugs,
MRP9 overexpressing cells have been reported to show resistance to atazanavir, lopinavir and
ritonavir (Bierman et al., 2010) suggesting the potential involvement of this transporter in
antiretroviral therapy. Although MRP9 transcripts have been detected in brain, additional studies
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35
are required to clarify the functional expression of this transporter in the brain (Bera et al., 2002).
Therefore, the role of MRP9 in antiretroviral drug transport in the brain is not yet clear.
1.7.3 Breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP)
This transporter was first identified in a P-gp and MRP1-negative breast cancer cell line that
showed high resistance to mitoxantrone, an anthracycline anticancer drug (Doyle et al., 1998).
ABCG2 (BCRP) consists of 665 amino acids with a molecular mass of approximately 72 kDa.
Unlike most other ABC transporters, ABCG2 is a half-transporter and is predicted to function as
a homodimer. Evidence also suggest that BCRP may also function as a monomer (Mitomo et al.,
2003).
The substrate profile of ABCG2 overlaps with that of P-gp or MRP1 and includes many anti-
cancer drugs (i.e., daunorubicin, doxorubicin, mitoxantrone, etoposide, topotecan,
camptothecins, methotrexate), antibiotics (i.e., erythromycin, enrofloxacine, gepafloxacine),
phototoxins (i.e., pheophorbide-A), calcium channel blockers (i.e., azidopine, dipyridamole),
HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (i.e., rosuvastatin, pitavastatin), fluorescent compounds (i.e.,
rhodamine123), carcinogens (i.e.,aflatoxin B1) and many others (i.e., cimetidine, riboflavin)
(Mao and Unadkat, 2005;Merino et al., 2006;Zhang et al., 2005). ABCG2 also confers resistance
to zidovudine, lamivudine, abacavir and stavudine (Wang et al., 2003a). Experiments in bcrp
knockout animal show enhanced brain penetration of abacavir suggesting BCRP involvement in
brain antiretroviral drug transport (Giri et al., 2008).
Figure 1-7 Membrane topology of BCRP (TMD= Transmembrane domain; NBD= Nucleotide
binding domain) (from Sarkadi B, 2006. Physiol Review. 86:1179-236).
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36
ABCG2 is expressed in several blood-tissue barriers including the blood-brain, blood-placental
and blood-testis barriers. Cooray et al. detected luminal expression of ABCG2 in rat capillaries.
Several studies have also reported the expression of ABCG2/Abcg2 in primary cultures of
human brain microvessel endothelial cells, mouse brain capillaries and immortalized rat brain
endothelial cell line (Cooray et al., 2002;Eisenblatter and Galla, 2002;Lee et al., 2007;Zhang et
al., 2003). ABCG2 expression has also been detected in pericytes and at the luminal membrane
of choroid plexus epithelial cells (Eisenblatter et al., 2003). Our group has confirmed Abcg2
protein expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes and in a microglia cell line, MLS-9 (Lee
et al., 2007).
Several in vivo studies support that ABCG2 can restrict brain permeation of a number of
compounds. Functionally active ABCG2 has been reported in intact brain capillaries (Hartz et
al., 2010b). A few studies have also reported ABCG2 mediated transport in cultured human and
rodent brain microvessel endothelial cells. However, several studies have suggested lack of
ABCG2 mediated transport in endothelial cells (Hori et al., 2004b;Zhang et al., 2003). For
example, accumulation of mitoxantrone, an established P-gp substrate, did not increase in the
presence of ABCG2 inhibitors in primary cultures of human brain endothelial cells as well as in
RBE4 cell line. In addition, a lack of ABCG2 mediated transport of mitoxantrone has been
demonstrated in primary cultures of rat astrocytes and in a microglia cell line (Lee et al., 2007).
A study by Cisternino et al. reported 700-fold higher Abcg2 mRNA in mouse brain capillaries
compared to the cortex. In mdr1a/b deficient mice, they also observed 3-fold higher Abcg2
mRNA levels in the capillaries compared to wild-type mice. At the protein level,
upregulated ABCG2 protein expression was observed in brain microvessels compared to wild
type animals In mdr1a knockout mice model suggesting a compensatory role of ABCG2
(Cisternino et al., 2004). Recent studies also indicate that ABCG2, in conjunction with P-gp can
limit the penetration of tyrosine kinase inhibitors into the brain (Agarwal et al., 2011;Breedveld
et al., 2005;Gardner et al., 2009).
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Table 1-3 CNS expression/localization of ABC transporters implicated in antiretroviral drug transport (From Ashraf T, Robillard K,
Chan G and Bendayan R. Role of CNS Transporters in the Pharmacotherapy of HIV-1 Associated Neurological Disorders. 2013.
Current Pharmaceutical Design. 20: 1543-63)
Name Gene name
CNS protein Expression/Localization Known antiretroviral
substrates
References
P-gp
(MDR1)
ABCB1
Brain microvessel endothelial cells
(LM/ALM), choroid plexus epithelium
(AP), astrocytes, neurons
Darunavir, atazanavir,
saquinavir, ritonavir,
amprenavir, lopinavir,
tipranavir, nelfinavir, tenofovir
df, raltegravir, maraviroc
(Fujimoto et al., 2009;Janneh et
al., 2007;Kassahun et al.,
2007;Kim et al., 1998;Lee et al.,
1998;Perloff et al., 2005;Walker
et al., 2005)
BCRP
(ABCG2)
ABCG2
Brain microvessel endothelial cells (LM),
choroid plexus epithelium (AP)
Zidovudine, lamivudine,
stavudine, abacavir, acyclovir
(Wang et al., 2003a)
MRP1
ABCC1
Brain microvessel endothelial cells (LM),
choroid plexus epithelium
(BL),astrocytes, microglia, neurons
Atazanavir, saquinavir,
ritonavir, indinavir, lopinavir,
emtricitabine
(Bousquet et al., 2008;Janneh et
al., 2009;Janneh et al.,
2007;Janneh et al., 2005;van, I et
al., 2001;Zastre et al., 2009)
MRP4
ABCC4
Brain microvessel endothelial cells (LM),
choroid plexus epithelium
(BL),astrocytes
Tenofovir, abacavir,
zidovudine
(Borst et al., 2004;Ray et al.,
2006)
MRP5
ABCC5
Brain microvessel endothelial cells (LM).
choroid plexus epithelium (BL),
astrocytes, neurons
Stavudine
(Reid et al., 2003)
(LM = luminal; ALM = abluminal; AP = apical; BL = basolateral)
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1.7.4 Regulation of ABC transporters during HIV-1 infection
Evidence in literature suggests that functional expression of ABC transporters in the brain is
altered during HIV-1 infection. Increased P-gp expression has been reported in brain autopsy
tissues from patients with HIVE (Langford et al., 2004). Since antiretroviral drugs can modulate
the expression of transporters in vitro and in vivo, it remains unclear if this increased P-gp
immunoreactivity is due to therapy itself or due to HIV-associated pathogenesis. In contrast,
decreased protein expression has been reported in brain autopsy samples from patients (not
receiving pharmacotherapy) with HIVE and in brain tissue from severe combined
immunodeficiency (SCID) mice model of HIVE (Persidsky et al., 2000). Using cell culture
systems, many groups have demonstrated altered P-gp expression in human or rodent brain
cellular compartments. Persidsky et al. reported decreased functional expression of P-gp in
primary cultures of human brain microvessel endothelial cells exposed to TNF-α, IL-1β, IFN-γ
and supernatants from HIV-1 infected macrophages (Persidsky et al., 2000). In both murine
brain microvessel endothelial cells and astrocytes, HIV-1 tat exposure resulted in an
upregulation of P-gp expression (Hayashi et al., 2005). Exposure to HIV-1 resulted in an
increase in MDR1 gene and protein expression in primary cultures of brain microvessel
endothelial cells. No significant change in MRP1 expression was observed (Roy et al., 2013).
However, co-exposure of HIV-1 and PI saquinavir, showed induced functional expression of P-
gp compared to HIV-1 exposure alone. Another group compared P-gp and MRP1 expression in
PBMCs isolated from HIV-1 infected patients and healthy volunteers and observed significant
decrease in P-gp expression, but no significant change in MRP1 (Meaden et al., 2001). In
contrast, Turriziani et al. reported increased mRNA expression of MDR1, MRP1, MRP4 and
MRP5 in PBMCs from infected individuals (Turriziani et al., 2008).
In our laboratory, we observed that HIV-1 gp120 can induce secretion of pro-inflammatory
cytokines (IL-6, IL1-β and TNF-α) by interacting with CCR5 chemokine receptors in primary
cultures of rat astrocytes and significantly decrease functional expression of P-gp (Ronaldson
and Bendayan, 2006). Our group also examined the effect of different cytokines on P-gp
expression and demonstrated that IL-6 could profoundly decrease P-gp expression, whereas,
TNF-α or IL-1β exposure resulted in a modest enhancement in P-gp expression (Ronaldson and
Bendayan, 2006). In regards to Mrp1 regulation, in primary cultures of rat astrocytes, we have
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39
observed an increase in functional expression of this transporter in response to gp120 treatment
which correlated with an enhanced efflux of GSH and GSSG, implying a potential role of MRP1
in regulating oxidative stress in glial cells (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008). In a transgenic rat
model, significant changes in mRNA expression of several ABC transporters were observed in
the brain, kidney, liver and testes (Robillard et al., 2014). In the brain, decreased mRNA
expression of Mdr1a, Mdr1b, Mrp1, MRP4 and increase Mrp5 mRNA expression was observed
(Robillard et al., 2014). These observations provide evidence that ABC transporters are regulated
during HIV-associated brain inflammation which may result in altered brain permeability of
antiretroviral drugs.
1.8 Potential adjuvant therapy
Antiretroviral drugs that are currently being used in HIV-1 therapy do not exhibit anti-
inflammatory properties (with the exception of maraviroc) and majority of them demonstrate
poor brain permeability. In addition, neurotoxicity has been associated with better permeable
drugs (i.e., efavirenz) (Cavalcante et al., 2010). Therefore, alternative treatment options are being
considered that can reduce HIV-associated brain inflammation.
A number of studies have reported the anti-inflammatory potential of different compounds
against LPS-mediated inflammatory response. Various anti-psychotic compounds (i.e.,
spiperone, risperidone), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (i.e., flurbiprofen) and natural
extracts (i.e., tripchlorolide, xanthorrhizol, curcumin) are known to inhibit LPS induced cytokine
and NO release in microglia (Ajmone-Cat et al., 2001;Lim et al., 2005;Pan et al., 2008;Zheng et
al., 2008a;Zheng et al., 2008b). Administration of chloroquine, an anti-malarial drug, reduced
gene expression of TNF-α in LPS treated PBMCs (Weber and Levitz, 2000). A plant derived
compound, 2-cyano-3,12-dioxooleane-1,9(11)-dien-28-oic acid (CDDO)-methyl ester prevented
induced transcription of TNF-α and IL-1β in primary cultures of mouse microglia and
macrophages (Tran et al., 2008). Lipoic acid can be another potential suppressor of
neuroinflammation due to its role against cognitive deficits in rodents (Holmquist et al., 2007).
In a LPS injected rat model, minocycline, a tetracycline derivative, significantly reduced
microglial activation in the hippocampus and rescued behavioral deficits (Zhu et al., 2014).
40
Several studies have also examined anti-inflammatory properties of different compounds in
attenuating HIV-1-associated inflammatory response. For example, chloroquine, has been found
to inhibit gp120 production and decrease mRNA synthesis of cytokines (Wozniacka et al.,
2008;Wozniacka et al., 2006). Curcumin treatment prevented gp120-mediated release of ROS,
TNF-α and MCP-1 in mouse microglial cells line N9 and protected primary rat cortical neurons
from apoptosis (Guo et al., 2013). Simvastatin prevented Tat induced upregulation of
inflammatory genes (Andras et al., 2008). Since neurological disorders are becoming more
prevalent in HIV-1 infected patients and inflammation is a common immune response,
identifying therapeutic compounds that can effectively permeate the BBB and exhibit anti-
inflammatory properties may provide an additional option in preventing/treating HIV-associated
neurological disorders.
1.8.1 Minocycline
Minocycline, a second generation tetracycline derivative, has been widely reported to have
neuroprotective properties (Orsucci et al., 2009). Due to its small molecular weight (495 kDa)
and highly lipophilic nature, minocycline can cross into BBB and has been known to penetrate
into the CSF of humans better than other tetracyclines. Minocycline was originally developed to
treat gram negative and gram positive bacterial infections. Currently, minocycline is
recommended for treatment of anthrax, acne, gonorrhoea, acute intestinal amoebiasis, respiratory
tract infection, chlamydial infections and a number of other infections.
Numerous published studies have documented that minocycline exhibits neuroprotective and
anti-inflammatory effects in various animal models (Cai et al., 2010;Ryu and McLarnon, 2006).
Administration of minocycline has been shown to successfully reverse the activation of glial
cells and secretion of inflammatory cytokines in an Aβ injected rat model (Ryu et al., 2004).
Minocycline administration resulted in beneficial effects in clinical trials for multiple sclerosis,
rheumatoid arthritis and asthma (Daoud et al., 2008;Zabad et al., 2007). In a recent study,
treatment with minocycline significantly attenuated the increase of immune activation markers
(i.e., CD38, CD69, HLA-DR,CCR5, IL-10, soluble CD14, LPS) in a humanized NOD/LtsZ-
scidIL-2Rγnull
mice model (Singh et al., 2014).
41
Minocycline is also known to exhibit an anti-HIV-1 effect (Copeland and Brooks, 2010;Szeto et
al., 2010). In vitro, minocycline reduced HIV-1 replication and decreased CD4 T-cell activation.
Minocycline decreased the activation and proliferation markers (i.e., CD25, Ki-27) and
decreased cytokine secretion (IL-2, IFN-γ, TNF-α) (Szeto et al., 2010). Minocycline also reduced
CCR5 expression on CD4+ T-cells that may potentially reduce the spread of R5-tropic viruses
(Szeto et al., 2010). In vivo, minocycline was able to decrease viral plasma load and viral RNA
in the brain of Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) macaque model (Zink et al., 2005).
However, in a clinical study, minocycline administration was unable to decrease HIV-1 viral
load in the CSF (Ho et al., 2011). Another study has further reported that minocycline treatment
was unsuccessful to improve the neurocognitive outcome in patients with cognitive impairment
after 24 weeks of administration (Sacktor et al., 2011). Similarly, in a Ugandan population,
minocycline treatment did not improve cognitive function in therapy naive, HIV-infected
individuals (Nakasujja et al., 2013). Interestingly, in a SIV model of neuropathogenesis, early
administration of minocycline was reported to be effective against striatal dopaminergic system
dysfunction, suggesting that timely treatment initiation may contribute to minocycline efficacy
(Meulendyke et al., 2012). Using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in SIV infected
macaques and examining biomarkers in post-mortem tissues, Ratai et al. reported that
minocycline could attenuate a progressive decline in neuronal integrity, decrease glial activation
and CSF and plasma viral loads (Ratai et al., 2010). Following minocycline treatment, decreased
plasma viral load and monocyte activation was also observed in this primate model (Campbell et
al., 2011). It is still inconclusive if administration of minocycline in earlier stage of infection will
have a better clinical outcome in HIV-infected patients. Therefore, further investigation is
required to determine the potential anti-inflammatory effects of minocycline during HIV-1-
associated inflammatory response.
1.8.2 Chloroquine
Chloroquine, an anti-malarial drug, has been used to treat malaria for several decades and it is
recently being used to treat inflammatory disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis and systemic
lupus erythematosus. Studies have also demonstrated beneficial effects of chloroquine against
HIV-1 infection. Chloroquine is a weak base that is known to affect acid vesicles leading to
dysfunction of enzymes (i.e., acid hydrolases) necessary for post-translational modifications.
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Tsai et al. demonstrated altered production of gp120 due to chloroquine (Tsai et al., 1990).
Production of gp120 decreased in T- cells after chloroquine administration (Tsai et al., 1990).
Chloroquine may also inhibit HIV-1 replication by restricting intracellular iron distribution
which may lead to inhibition of ribonucelotide reductase necessary for viral replication.
Chloroquine has been shown to interfere with toll-like receptor 7 downstream pathways to
prevent activation of transcription factors to block the production of IFN-α (Martinson et al.,
2010;Ries et al., 2012;Sun et al., 2007).
A number of studies have also investigated the anti-inflammatory properties of chloroquine in in
vivo animal models. Chloroquine has been found to decrease mRNA synthesis of cytokines
(Naarding et al., 2007;Savarino et al., 2001;Wozniacka et al., 2008;Wozniacka et al., 2006). In a
LPS injected rat model, chloroquine significantly diminished LPS-mediated upregulation of
serum cytokines (Hong et al., 2004). In another study, administration of chloroquine in rats up to
four consecutive days completely prevented a bacterial toxin induced intracerebral toxicity
(Hagihara et al., 2000). The administration of hydroxyl analogue of chloroquine
(hydroxychloroquine) in HIV-1 infected patients resulted in a decrease in detectable viral RNA
and IL-6 levels in plasma suggesting a therapeutic potential of this compound (Sperber et al.,
1995). Another study reported reduced T-cell activation in chronic HIV-infected patients due to
chloroquine administration (Murray et al., 2010). In contrast, chloroquine administration in HIV-
1 infected patients on antiretroviral therapy did not improve T-cell activation or inflammatory
markers (Routy et al., 2014). Therefore, it is inconclusive if chloroquine has the potential to
reverse HIV-associated inflammatory response.
1.8.3 Simvastatin
Simvastatin, a 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, is known to have
anti-inflammatory properties. Similar to other statins, simvastatin strongly inhibits endogenous
cholesterol synthesis by inhibiting 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase and also
inhibits the synthesis of isoprenoid intermediates (i.e., geranylgeranylpyrophosphate) that act as
important lipid attachments for post-translational modifications for a number of proteins.
Simvastatin is known to have anti-inflammatory properties and demonstrates neuroprotective
effects in various animal models (Adamson and Greenwood, 2003;Andras et al., 2008;Jiang et
al., 2007). In dyslipidemic patients, simvastatin treatment decreased IL-8 production in
43
neurtrophil leukocytes (Marino et al., 2014). In a rodent model of traumatic brain injury,
administration of simvastatin in rats attenuated the activation of microglia and astrocytes (Li et
al., 2009). In a study by Andras et al., simvastatin prevented Aβ and HIV-1 Tat induced
upregulation of inflammatory genes in human brain microvessel endothelial cells (Andras et al.,
2008). Besides anti-inflammatory properties, simvastatin also exhibits anti-HIV effects. A study
by Navatob et al. demonstrated that simvastatin may limit the infection of R5 tropic virus in vitro
by disrupting CC-chemokine receptor and CC-chemokine expression pattern (Nabatov et al.,
2007). Amet et al. has demonstrated that simvastatin and lovastatin increased intracellular Gag
and decreased viral release from chronically infected cells due to diminished geranylgeranylation
(Amet et al., 2008). Simvastatin has also been reported to attenuate Aβ accumulation in brain
endothelial cells by increasing low density lipoprotein related receptor protein-1 (LRP1)
expression and decreasing HIV-1 induced receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE)
expression in hCMEC/D3 cells (Andras et al., 2010). In addition, pre-treatment with simvastatin
decreased HIV-1 induced accumulation of Aβ in these cells suggesting protective role of statins
at the BBB against Aβ accumulation (Andras et al., 2010). Overall, these studies indicate that
simvastatin has the potential to be used against the brain inflammatory responses observed
during HIV-1 infection.
1.9 Signaling pathways
Experimental data from various in vitro and in vivo models suggest the involvement of different
signal transduction pathways in the regulation of cytokine secretion and ABC transporters during
HIV-associated brain inflammation (Ashraf et al., 2011;Hayashi et al., 2006;Ronaldson et al.,
2010). Potential anti-inflammatory compounds are also known to target different signaling
pathways to attenuate the inflammatory response. For example, simvastatin has been reported to
reverse the production of TNF-α by inhibiting the MAPK and NF-κB pathways in cultured
endothelial cells (Jiang et al., 2007). Minocycline is also known to attenuate LPS-induced
increase in iNOS and nitric oxide expression by inhibiting MAPK and NF-κB in retinal
microglia (Yang et al., 2007). These two pathways are discussed briefly below:
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1.9.1 NF-кB
NF-κB is a transcription factor that was first discovered in the nuclei of mature B lymphocytes
(Nabel and Baltimore, 1987). Since then, the activation of NF-κB has been associated with
numerous immune and inflammatory responses. Unlike other transcription factors, NF-κB is a
cytosolic protein bound to inhibitor of NF- κB (IκB) protein which is regulated by an upstream
kinase known as IκB kinase complex (IKK). Upon activation by different stimuli, IκB is
phosphorylated by IKK followed by degradation that in turn triggers the translocation of
unbound NF-κB to the nucleus where it initiates transcription of specific target genes (Bonizzi
and Karin, 2004;Schmitz et al., 2004). A number of signals can activate NF-κB such as
inflammatory cytokines, phorbol esters, oxidative stress, UV light, bacterial and viral products
and growth. NF-κB can activate and enhance transcription of genes involved in inflammation
(i.e., TNF-α) (Bonizzi and Karin, 2004;Schmitz et al., 2004;Shah and Kumar, 2010).
Studies have demonstrated that NF-κB is activated in human brains of patients with Alzheimer’s
disease (Boissiere et al., 1997). NF-κB activation was also found to be related with the
pathophysiological responses associated with Parkinsons’s disease (Hunot et al., 1997). Since
inflammation is a component of these neurodegenerative diseases, it has been suggested that this
transcription factor may play a role in HIV-infection of the brain (Atwood et al., 1994). Studies
have demonstrated that NF-κB plays an important role in HIV-1 transcription, thereby, making
this transcription factor a potential pathway for anti-HIV therapy (Mingyan et al., 2009). NF-κB
activation has been found to be associated with cytokine secretion in myeloid cells during HIV-1
infection suggesting a pivotal role of this pathway during inflammation in the CNS. In addition,
NF-κB is known to be activated in different brain cells (i.e., endothelial cells, microglia and
astrocytes) during HIV-1 infection (Hayashi et al., 2005;Sui et al., 2007). Interestingly, NF-κB is
activated by inflammatory signals (i.e., cytokines) and in turn, can also activate and enhance
transcription of genes involved in inflammation (i.e., TNF-α) (Bonizzi and Karin, 2004;Schmitz
et al., 2004). Similar phenomenon has been observed with the MAPK pathway where various
cytokines amplify their own signals by activating components of these pathways. Evidence also
suggest that occasional cross-talk between NF-κB and MAPK occurs during regulation of several
transcription factors and gene transcription (Liu and Lin, 2007). Therefore, the potential
involvement of this pathway during HIV-associated inflammation needs further investigation.
45
1.9.2 MAPKs
The MAPK pathway consists of a large family of serine/threonine kinases that construct a highly
regulated network of intracellular signaling pathways involved in generating various cellular
responses in the presence of extracellular stimuli and in turn, regulate multiple critical cellular
functions (i.e., gene expression, cytoskeletal organization, cell division) (Pearson et al., 2001)
The three main subfamilies of the MAPK pathway are extracellular signal-regulated kinases
(ERKs), c-jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) and P38 kinases (P38Ks).These kinases are known to
be actively involved in regulating cytokine secretion as well as the expression of drug efflux
transporters (Hayashi et al., 2006;Leghmari et al., 2008;Ronaldson et al., 2010). These
pathways are also involved in various pathological processes associated with HIV-1 infection
(i.e., neurotoxicity, macrophage activation, viral replication) (Furler and Uittenbogaart,
2010;Medders and Kaul, 2011). A recent study has further demonstrated that inhibition of these
kinases can downregulate HIV-1 infection in vitro (Gong et al., 2011). Therefore, further
examination of these pathways during HIV-associated brain inflammation is necessary.
46
Figure 1-8 The MAPK pathway (From Ronaldson et al., 2008. Glia. 56: 1711:1735).
1.9.2.1 ERK1/2
ERK1 and ERK2 were the first identified members of the ERK subfamily. These two kinases
have been widely studied due to their pronounced role in cell growth and differentiation, cell-
cycle regulation and cell survival (Whitmarsh and Davis, 2000). Although another five ERK
isoforms have been identified in different cell systems, their function and physiological
relevance is not yet fully understood. Previously, only growth factors were considered as
activators of the ERK1/2 pathway and the regulatory role of these kinases in cancer or tumor cell
growth have been examined extensively (Boulton et al., 1991;Cobb et al., 1991b). Besides
growth factors, other factors such as pro-inflammatory cytokines, viral infection or carcinogens
can also activate this pathway (Boulton et al., 1991;Cobb et al., 1991a). The upstream kinase of
ERK1/2 is MEK1/2 (Alessi et al., 1995). PD98059 and U0126 are two well-established MEK
inhibitors that can manipulate ERK1/2 regulated cellular activities (Dudley et al., 1995;Favata et
Reproduced with permission from the copyright owner
47
al., 1998). The downstream targets of ERK1/2 include transcription factors c-fos, ELK1 and
CREB (Kyosseva, 2004).
Activation of the ERK1/2 has been observed in primary cultures of astrocytes and microglia in
response to LPS (Pyo et al., 1998;Schumann et al., 1998). An increase in ERK1/2
phosphorylation was found to be associated with cognitive and motor deficits during brain injury
in rats (Dash et al., 2002). In the context of HIV-1, gp120 or whole virus-mediated activation of
Raf-1, an upstream kinase of ERK1/2, led to profound but transient upregulation of ERK1/2
(Popik and Pitha, 1996). The same group demonstrated that MEK/ERK pathway was activated
by both CCR5 and CXCR4-tropic viruses. Other viral proteins have also been implicated in the
activation of ERK1/2. This pathway was found to be involved in Tat stimulated TNF- α
production in human macrophages (Leghmari et al., 2008). Using rat hippocampal slices, Tat-
mediated release of TNF-α and MCP-1 was found to be mediated by ERK1/2 activation.
Treatment with resveratrol inhibited ERK1/2 phosphorylation and attenuated Tat-induced release
of TNF-α and MCP-1 (Lee et al., 2011). Another viral protein Nef-mediated upregulation of
ICAM-1 was found to be ERK1/2 dependent and inhibition of ERK1/2 blocked ICAM-1
upregulation in endothelial cells (Fan et al., 2010).
1.9.2.2 JNKs
The three main subtypes of JNKs (JNK1, JNK2 and JNK3) are encoded by three different genes
and a total of 10 isoforms result from alternative splicing (Kumagae et al., 1999;Mielke and
Herdegen, 2000). JNKs respond to various cellular stress inducers (UV, heat shock,
cycloheximide) as well as pro-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., TNF-α , IL-1β) (Sluss et al., 1994).
As a result, these enzymes are also known as stress-activated proteins kinases (SAPKs). The full
activation of JNKs requires the phosphorylation of both Thr183 and Tyr185 residues by specific
upstream kinases, MKK4 and MKK7 (Johnson et al., 2007). Once activated, JNK phosphorylates
and in turn activates a number of transcription factors and non-transcription factors. In addition
to c-jun, the first identified downstream target of JNK, other JNK regulated transcription factors
are ATF-2, ELK-1, p53 and c-myc (Mielke et al., 1999). The non-transcription factors that are
also phosphorylated by JNK include members of the B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) family and the
result of their activation can lead to apoptosis, motility, immune response, metabolism or DNA
repair (Jhonson et al., 2007).
48
JNK1 and JNK2 are ubiquitously expressed in the body whereas JNK3 is expressed primarily in
the brain, and to a lesser extent in heart and testis (Kyriakis et al., 1994). However, JNKs may
have an isoform specific role in different cell systems (Gupta et al., 1996;Pawate and Bhat,
2006). All three isoforms have been detected in glial cells (microglia and astrocytes), but their
specific functional roles are not clearly understood (Hidding et al., 2002;Waetzig et al.,
2005;Zhang et al., 1998;Zhang et al., 1996).
It is established that JNKs are involved in the pathogenesis of various CNS diseases, such as
Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, ischemia, HIV-1 associated inflammation (Kumagae et al., 1999).
Therefore, inhibition of JNKs may provide anti-inflammatory effects in the brain. Studies in
cultured microglia and LPS injected mice showed that inhibition of JNKs attenuated LPS-
induced TNF-α secretion (Ciallella et al., 2005). In the context of HIV-1 infection, JNKs are also
known to be activated by viral proteins. Vpr induced apoptosis was found to be mediated by
activation of JNKs and subsequent downregulation of anti-apoptotic genes (Mishra et al., 2007).
HIV-1 or gp120-mediated activation of ERK1/2 and JNK pathways were also observed in
primary culture of microglia, astrocytes and neurons where treatment with HIV-1 or gp120
resulted in apoptosis in microglia and neurons (Lannuzel et al., 1997).
Several inhibitors of the JNKs (i.e., CEP-11004, CEP-1347, SP600125) have been effectively
used both in in vitro and in vivo models of brain inflammation (Bogoyevitch et al., 2004;Han et
al., 2001;Saporito et al., 2002;Vincenti and Brinckerhoff, 2001) providing evidence that JNK
inhibition might be a desirable target against neuroinflammation. CEP1347 has been shown to
inhibit gp120-mediated apoptosis in hippocampal neurons (Bodner et al., 2002). In cultured rat
embryonic neurons, the increased activity of JNKs and the subsequent neuronal death was
blocked by CEP-1347 (Maroney et al., 1998). In another study, CEP-11004 inhibited LPS
induced TNF-α secretion in cultured microglia and in LPS injected mice (Ciallella et al., 2005).
These data provide evidence that JNK inhibition might be a desirable target against neuro-
inflammation. A recently developed mixed lineage kinase 3 inhibitor, URMC-099, has shown
increased BBB permeability and shown potential in in vitro and in vivo models (Goodfellow et
al., 2013). URMC-099 inhibited LPS-induced TNF-α release in microglia, Tat- induced cytokine
release in human monocytes and upregulation of phospho-JNKs in Tat-injected mouse brain.
49
This compound also exhibited neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties in both in vitro
and in vivo models of HIV-1 associated brain inflammation (Marker et al., 2013).
1.9.2.3 P38Ks
To date, four isoforms of P38K have been identified in humans (α, β, γ and δ) and data suggest
that P38αK and P38βK play a major role during inflammatory and immune responses. However,
the cellular and physiological role of P38γ and P38δ in inflammation are not yet clearly
understood. P38Ks are activated by dual phosphorylation on Thr180 and Tyr182 residues by
upstream kinases, MKK3 and MKK6 (Kyriakis and Avruch, 2001). SB203580 is a known
inhibitor of P38α and β isoforms. Some of the typical target transcription factors of P38Ks are
ATF2, Elk1 or SAP1 (Cohen et al., 1997). Similar to the JNKs, P38Ks are activated by cellular
stress, i.e., UV radiation, osmotic or heat shock, LPS and pro-inflammatory cytokines (Cuenda et
al., 1995). These kinases also play a major role in mediating inflammation-related responses
(Cuenda and Rousseau, 2007).
Evidence suggests that P38Ks are involved in the regulation of gene expression of several
cytokines (i.e., TNF-α, IL1-β) during neuroinflammatory conditions. For example, inhibition of
P38Ks prevented LPS-induced TNF-α production in rats (Zhu et al., 2005; Badger et al., 1996).
Both Tat and Nef-induced TNF-α production in human macrophages was found to be P38K
dependent (Kumawat et al., 2010;Leghmari et al., 2008). Viral protein Nef-mediated activation
of JNK, P38K and NF-кB pathways have also been reported in murine macrophages (Mangino et
al., 2012). Effect of Vpr on neuronal death has been found to be partly mediated through release
of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-10. JNK as well as P38K pathways were found to
be involved in the release of these cytokines in monocyte derived macrophages(Guha et al.,
2012). P38K was also found to be involved in LPS-enhanced transcytosis of HIV-1 across brain
microvessel endothelial cells (Dohgu and Banks, 2008). This pathway is known to be involved in
HIV-1 replication. In an in vitro study done in T-cell and monocyte cell lines, inhibition of P38K
blocked viral replication (Muthumani et al., 2004). Therefore, the inhibition of this pathway
leads to successful suppression of cytokine synthesis. Several P38K inhibitors that have shown
successful cytokine suppression have been tested in clinical trials (Kaminska, 2005;Lee et al.,
2000;Schindler et al., 2007). The protective role of P38K inhibitors in the CNS suggest a
50
therapeutic strategy against inflammatory conditions seen in HIV-1 infection and
neurodegenerative diseases.
1.9.3 Regulation of ABC transporters by MAPK and NF-кB
Ample evidence suggest that MAPK and NF-кB are involved in the regulation of transporters.
ERK1/2 are known to regulate the expression of both P-gp and Mrp1. In both human breast
carcinoma and gastric carcinoma cell lines, ERK1/2 inhibition resulted in significant decrease in
P-gp protein expression (Katayama et al., 2007). In cultured astrocytes, ERK1/2 inhibition
resulted in the attenuation of Tat-mediated upregulation of Mrp1 protein expression (Hayashi et
al., 2006). Activation of ERK pathway upregulated ABCG2 mRNA expression, whereas,
activation of JNKs downregulated ABCG2 mRNA expression in human acute lymphoblstic
leukemia cell lines (Tomiyasu et al., 2013).
Similar to ERK1/2, JNKs are also known to be involved in the regulation of ABC transporter
expression. JNK activation led to a decrease in mRNA and protein expression of P-gp in several
carcinoma cell lines (Zhou et al., 2006). C-jun, a downstream target of the JNK pathway, was
also found to be involved in the downregulation of MDR1 gene in a human cell line (Miao and
Ding, 2003). In the context of HIV-1 infection, Hayashi et al. has demonstrated that viral protein
Tat-induced upregulation of Mrp1 is ERK1/2 and JNK pathway dependent in brain microvessel
endothelial cells and in astrocytes (Hayashi et al., 2006). P38Ks are also involved in regulating
transporter expression. In a mouse leukemic cell line, the reversal of MDR phenotype was
observed after inhibiting the P38K pathway (Barancik et al., 2001). Other studies have
demonstrated the role of the NF-κB pathway in the regulation of P-gp expression (Bentires-Alj et
al., 2003;Yu et al., 2008). Regulation of ABC transporters has also been demonstrated in the
mouse BV-2 microglia cell line where exposure to LPS significantly reduced functional
expression of ABC transporters (e.g. Mdr1, Bcrp, Mrp4), presumably, through interactions with
the NF-κB pathway (Gibson et al., 2012). Based on these observations, it is clear that regulation
of these transporter is very complex, cell/tissue specific and dependent on disease related
pathologies.
51
1.9.4 Effect of anti-inflammatory compounds on MAPK and NF-кB
Many compounds have demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties by interacting with MAPK or
NF-кB pathway. For example, curcumin and CDDO-methyl ester have suppressed activation of
NF-кB, whereas, cathechols have been found to attenuate both NF-кB and P38K activation (Tran
et al., 2008;Zheng et al., 2008b). Flurbiprofen derivative HCT1026 can inhibit cytokine induced
activation of signaling pathways in macrophages (Idris et al., 2009). Simvastatin has been shown
to reverse the production of TNF-α by inhibiting the MAPK and NF-kB pathways in cultured
endothelial cells (Jiang et al., 2007). Simvastatin has also been reported to inhibit LPS-
stimulated ERK1/2 activation (Sundararaj et al., 2008).
Chloroquine inhibited the phosphorylation of P38K in coronavirus infected human fetal lung cell
line (Kono et al., 2008). SB203580, a P38K inhibitor, suppressed viral replication in this cell
system suggesting that chloroquine may inhibit replication of coronavirus by suppressing P38K
pathway (Kono et al., 2008). Both in a murine B-lymphoma and in a monocytic cell line, CpG-
DNA induced phosphorylation of JNKs, P38Ks as well as their downstream targets c-Jun and
ATF-1 were observed (Yi and Krieg, 1998). Administration of chloroquine inhibited CpG-DNA
induced secretion of TNF-α and IL-6 by blocking phosphorylation of JNKs and P38Ks. NF-кB
was also found to be activated in these cell lines due to CpG-DNA exposure. Inhibition of NF-
кB as well as administration of a P38K inhibitor attenuated cytokine secretion suggesting
involvement of signaling pathways in generating inflammatory response (Yi and Krieg, 1998). In
a SIV model, minocycline administration has shown similar inhibitory effect on P38K and JNK
phosphorylation in the brain (Follstaedt et al., 2008). In microglial and spinal cord culture
system, minocycline attenuated glutamate-induced microglial activation, release of NO and IL-
1β by preventing P38K phosphorylation (Tikka et al., 2001). These studies provide evidence that
many compounds exert their anti-inflammatory properties by interacting with different signaling
pathways.
Although the mechanisms of action for some of these compounds are unknown in astrocytes or
microglia during HIV-1 infection, their ability to suppress inflammation indicates that signaling
pathways associated with the regulation of pro-inflammatory genes are likely to be involved.
Since these compounds have the potential to be used alongside antiretroviral drugs to mitigate
52
the sufferings of patients with neurocognitive disorders, there effect on HIV-associated brain
inflammation should be investigated in greater detail.
1.10 In vitro and in vivo models to study drug transport and HIV-
associated brain inflammation
1.10.1 In vitro systems
In order to understand the CNS-specific role of drug transporters, numerous brain microvessel
endothelial cells and glial cell culture systems have been established (Nicolazzo et al.,
2006;Poller et al., 2008;Tsuji et al., 1992). To date, many researchers have established primary
cultures of brain microvessel endothelial cells from a number of mammalian species (i.e.,
bovine, porcine, murine, human). In addition, several immortalized rodent and human cell
systems were also generated (i.e., rat RBE4, GPNT, b.End3, BB19, NKIM-6, HCMEC/D3)
(Tsuji et al., 1992;Van Bree et al., 1992). Among these systems, the immortalized HCMEC/D3
cell line generated from human brain microvessel endothelial cells is one of the most established
and extensively characterized system to study drug transport across the BBB (Poller et al., 2008).
HCMEC/D3 cell line has been shown to retain several morphological and functional
characteristics of the brain microvessel endothelial cells in vivo. Dauchy et al. compared the gene
and functional expression of various ABC transporters between HCMEC/D3 and freshly isolated
human brain microvessels and reported that P-gp and BCRP expression are lower in HCMEC/D3
than in the human microvessels, but functional expression remains comparable (Dauchy et al.,
2009). Isolated brain capillaries from rodent brain tissues are also used to perform functional
assay and understand regulation of drug transporters (Bauer et al., 2007;Miller et al., 2000).
In order to study drug transport in brain parenchymal cells, standard procedures have been
established to generate primary cultures of astrocyte or microglia (Decleves et al., 2000;Hong et
al., 2000;Tanaka and Maeda, 1996) (Dallas et al., 2003;Hong et al., 2001;Lee et al.,
2001a;Ronaldson et al., 2004a;Schlichter et al., 1996). Mouse or rat neonatal brain tissues are
generally used to establish astrocyte cultures since astrocytes are still immature and continue to
divide at this stage. The process of astrocyte isolation involves mechanical and enzymatic
methods. The isolation process and culture conditions (i.e., lack of flask coating) do not allow
neuronal contamination. Microglia are the principal contaminating cells in astrocyte cultures.
After confluency, the cultured astrocytes are shaken to remove microglia that can be used to
53
establish primary cultures of microglia. However, a major obstacle in working with microglia
has been the difficulties associated with obtaining a large number of primary microglial cells to
routinely perform studies. Therefore, immortalized cell systems, BV-2 and N9 are mostly
utilized. However, microglial activation can be poorly reproduced in these systems and these cell
lines also exhibit a limited cytokine and chemokine profile compared to primary cultures of
microglia.
Since the BBB is considered a dynamic multi-compartment unit, advances have been made to
establish co-culture systems where mixed cultures of cells are grown either together or in
separate compartments using transwell systems. A co-culture system may allow cell-cell
communication or generate specific signaling proteins or tropic factors necessary for the
differentiation and proliferation of neighboring cells. Therefore, co-culture systems with mixed
glia or pericytes have been considered a more physiological model of BBB (Meyer et al.,
1991;Pardridge, 1999). Several studies have also described dynamic three-dimensional model of
the BBB where drug transport properties are studies in brain microvessel endothelial cells co-
cultured with other cellular components of the neurovascular unit under flow conditions (Cucullo
et al., 2008).
Exposure to cultured brain microvessel endothelial cell or astrocytes or microglia to HIV-1/viral
proteins/LPS can induce secretion of inflammatory cytokines, ROS and other neurotoxic factors.
Therefore, these systems are often used to delineate regulation of transport activities during
inflammation or oxidative stress (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008). For example, regulation of P-
gp along with other ABC transporters has been demonstrated in the mouse BV-2 microglia cell
line where exposure to LPS significantly reduced functional expression of ABC transporters
(e.g., Mdr1, Bcrp, Mrp4) (Gibson et al., 2012).
1.10.2 In vivo models
Many animal models have also been generated to study HIV-associated brain inflammation. SIV
infected rhesus macaques has been widely used as an established animal model to study HIV
infection as well as HIV-associated brain inflammation (Rausch et al., 1999;Sasseville and
Lackner, 1997). SIV infected primates develop a progressive immune dysfunction characterized
by depletion of CD4+ T-cells. Similar to HIV-1 infected individuals, these non-human primates
develop reservoirs in resting CD4+ T-cells as well in the brain. Microglial activation, astrogliosis
54
and multinucleated giant cells have been seen in SIV-infected macaque brains (Petry and Luke,
1997). Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection is also being used to study HIV-
pathogenesis (Miller et al., 2011). FIV infects feline populations and causes pathology similar to
HIV. Neuropathological changes as well as behavioral and psychological impairments have also
been observed in this model (Fletcher et al., 2011;Maingat et al., 2009). HIV-1 transgenic rat
model has been shown to be another model for examining HIV-associated immune response in
the periphery as well as in the brain. This model is developed by expressing a modified HIV
transgene with functional deletion of the gag and pol genes that makes the virus non-infectious
(Reid et al., 2001). These transgenic rats also develop cognitive and motor deficits (Reid et al.,
2001). Pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IFN-γ,TNF-α) were found to be significantly
elevated in brain lysates of transgenic rats compared to wildtype controls. Other transgenic
mouse models are also available that express specific viral proteins (gp120 or Tat).
SCID mice injected with HIV-1 in the brain is a model that mimics several important
pathological changes observed during HIVE (i.e., activation of microglia, reactive astrogliosis,
neuronal apoptosis). This model is generated by inoculating cultured monocytes isolated from
HIV-1 infected patients into the mice brain. Persidsky et al. demonstrated that inflammatory
response was detectable on day 3 after inoculation and HIV-1 antigens were found in the mice
brain tissue up to 5 weeks (Persidsky et al., 1996). Immunohistochemistry on fixed brain
sections confirmed the inflammatory reactions such as activation of glial cells and presence of
pro-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β). Pathological changes were also observed
at sites distant from the inoculation area in the mice brain. In addition, neuronal cell death and
behavioral abnormalities were also noticed in the SCID mice model of HIVE (Persidsky et al.,
1996;Potula et al., 2005;Potula et al., 2008). A number of humanized mice models [i.e., hu-
PBL-SCID, SCID-hu-thy/liv, NOD/SCID-γ(c)(-/-), NOD/SCID-Rag 2(-/-)γ(c)(-/-)] has also been
used to investigate HIV-associated neuropathogenesis (Zhang et al., 2010).
Ample evidence suggests that intracerebral injection of gp120 or Tat leads to the activation of
glial cells and neuronal loss in rodent brains (Bansal et al., 2000;Louboutin et al.,
2010b;Nosheny et al., 2004). In different animal models, doses of gp120 ranging from 100ng to
500 ng (administered intracerebrally) have been shown to induce an inflammatory response. One
study demonstrated that when administered chronically (for 3 to 7 days) into the lateral ventricle,
55
gp120 can induce prominent neuronal cell-death in cerebral cortex by activating caspase-3
(Acquas et al., 2004). Louboutin et al. have shown that chronic expression of gp120 in rat can
lead to ongoing brain inflammation (Louboutin et al., 2010b). In their system, an SV-40 derived
vector expressing gp120 was injected in rat caudate-putamens and chronic apoptosis of microglia
and neurons, secretion of MIP-1α and an increase in oxidative stress was observed. In this study,
different doses of gp120 was also injected in the rat caudate-putamens for 1 h, 6 h,1d, 2d, 4d, 7d,
14d and 28 days which resulted in increased glial population upto 14 days in a time and dose-
dependent manner (Louboutin et al., 2010b). Therefore, intracerebral injection of viral proteins is
another potential method to generate an in vivo model of HIV-1 associated brain inflammation.
2 Goal
The goals of this project are i) to understand the regulation of drug efflux transporters in
astrocytes during HIV-1 gp120 associated inflammation and ii) to identify potential anti-
inflammatory compounds that can successfully reverse HIV-1 gp120-associated brain
inflammation in vivo.
3 Rationale
Inflammation is a common immune response associated with brain HIV-1 infection that can
result in BBB disruption and neuronal loss (de Vries et al., 1997;Genis et al., 1992). Both
microglia and astrocytes are known to play significant roles in HIV-associated chronic brain
inflammation (Becher et al., 2000). Secretion of cytokines can further alter the expression of
drug efflux transporters (Hayashi et al., 2005;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). Our laboratory
has extensively characterized the regulation of P-gp and Mrp1, two major transporters involved
in antiretroviral drug permeation, by HIV-1 gp120 in primary cultures of rodent astrocytes in
vitro (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008). Previous work from our
laboratory suggests that HIV-1 gp120 mediated secretion of cytokines resulted in altered P-gp
expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). It is not known
if P-gp is regulated in a similar manner in human astrocytes. The regulation of other ABC
transporters by gp120-mediated inflammation has not been examined in astrocytes. It is yet to be
established how different signaling pathways (MAPK and/or NF- κB) are involved in the
56
regulation of cytokine secretion and drug transporters in this cell system. The regulation of drug
efflux transporters in astrocytes during HIV-1 gp120 associated inflammation is necessary to
understand antiretroviral drug permeation into these cells during pathological conditions. In
addition, identification of potential anti-inflammatory agents that can prevent cytokine secretion
in both microglia and astrocytes can be an effective therapeutic approach against the severity of
brain inflammation during brain HIV-1 infection. Therefore, development of an in vivo model of
HIV-1 gp120 associated brain inflammation to assess the anti-inflammatory effect of different
compounds is required. Understanding the mechanisms underlying CNS inflammatory response
and drug resistance and identifying potential anti-inflammatory agents may benefit in reversing
HIV-1 associated inflammatory responses in the brain.
57
4 Hypotheses
i) HIV-1 gp120 triggers secretion of cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6 and IL1-β) and regulates membrane
drug efflux transporters (P-gp and Mrp1) through interacting with signaling pathways (i.e.,
MAPK) in astrocytes.
ii) HIV-1 gp120 induces an inflammatory response, alters drug efflux transporters and activates
signaling pathways in rodent brain.
iii) Anti-inflammatory agents (i.e., simvastatin, chloroquine, minocycline) can reverse HIV-1
gp120-associated cytokine release in the brain.
5 Objectives
1) To investigate the role of MAPK and NF-κB pathways in the regulation of P-gp and Mrp1 in
primary cultures of rat/human astrocytes exposed to pro-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., TNF-α,
IL-6 and IL1-β) or gp120.
2) To implement and characterize an in vivo model of HIV-associated brain inflammation by
intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of gp120 in rodents
3) To evaluate the potential therapeutic effect of anti-inflammatory agents (i.e., minocycline,
chloroquine) in reversing the cytokine secretion as well the disruption of BBB in our
implemented rodent model of gp120-associated brain inflammation
4) To investigate, in vivo, the role of signaling pathways (i.e., MAPK) in the regulation of the
inflammatory response in our implemented model of gp120-associated brain inflammation.
58
Chapter 2
6 Regulation of Mrp1 by TNF-α in cultured glial cells:
involvement of NF-кB and JNK signaling pathways
This work is published and reproduced in this thesis with permission from ASPET:
PT Ronaldson, T Ashraf and R Bendayan. Regulation of multidrug resistance protein 1 by tumor
necrosis factor-alpha in cultured glial cells: involvement of nuclear factor- κB and c-Jun N-
terminal kinase signaling pathways.2010. Molecular Pharmacology. 77(4):644-59.
Author contributions:
Research design: PT Ronaldson (first author), T Ashraf (second author) and R Bendayan
(principle investigator).
Conducted experiments and data analysis: PT Ronaldson (Figures 6-1, 6-2, 6-3, 6-4, 6-6, 6-7,6-8,
6-11; table 1); T Ashraf (Figure 6-5, 6-6,6-7,6-8, 6-9,6-10)
Writing of the manuscript: PT Ronaldson (preparation of the manuscript and responses to
reviewer’s comments); T Ashraf (revisions, submissions and responses to reviewer’s comments)
and R Bendayan (overall conceptual and editorial review of several manuscript drafts and
responses to reviewer’s comments)
59
6.1 Abstract
Pharmacotherapy of brain HIV-1 infection may be limited by ABC transporters [i.e., P-gp,
Mrp1] that export antiretroviral drugs from HIV-1 brain cellular targets (i.e., astrocytes,
microglia). Using an in vitro astrocyte model of an HIV-1 associated inflammatory response, our
laboratory has shown that cytokines (i.e., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6), which are secreted in response to
HIV-1 envelope gp120 exposure, can decrease P-gp functional expression; however, it is
unknown if these same cytokines can alter expression and/or activity of other ABC transporters
(i.e., Mrp1). In primary cultures of rat astrocytes, Mrp1 expression was increased by TNF-α (2.7-
fold) but was not altered by IL-1β or IL-6. Cellular retention of 2', 7’-bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5-
(and-6)-carboxyfluorescein (BCECF), an Mrp substrate, was reduced in TNF-α treated
astrocytes, suggesting increased Mrp-mediated transport. Pharmacological inhibition of NF-κB
signaling with SN50 prevented both TNF-α release and Mrp1 expression changes in astrocytes
triggered with gp120; however, SN50 did not attenuate Mrp1 expression in cells triggered with
TNF-α. In contrast, Mrp1 functional expression was not altered in the presence of gp120 or TNF-
α when astrocyte cultures were pre-treated with SP600125, an established JNK inhibitor.
SP600125 did not affect TNF-α release from cultured astrocytes triggered with gp120. Mrp1
mRNA expression was increased after treatment with gp120 (1.6-fold) or TNF-α (1.7-fold),
suggesting altered Mrp1 gene transcription. These data suggest that gp120 and TNF-α can up-
regulate Mrp1 expression in cultured astrocytes. Furthermore, our results imply that both NF-κB
and JNK signaling are involved in Mrp1 regulation during an HIV-1 associated inflammatory
response.
60
6.2 Introduction
Astrocytes, the most numerous cell type in the brain, perform multiple functions required for
CNS homeostasis. During HIV-1 infection of the brain, astrocytes are known to participate in the
immune response via release of proinflammatory cytokines (Speth et al., 2005). Increased
cytokine secretion (i.e., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) during brain HIV-1 infection is well established and
may be triggered by soluble viral proteins (i.e., HIV-1 envelope gp120) (Kaul et al., 2005).
Studies in cultured glial cells suggest that gp120 binding to chemokine receptors (i.e., CXCR4,
CCR5) may mediate this inflammatory response (Ronaldson et al., 2008). In vitro, our laboratory
has shown that proinflammatory cytokine release is increased in cultured rat astrocytes treated
with gp120 via a CCR5-dependent mechanism (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006).
Although advances in HIV-1 pharmacotherapy have efficiently reduced systemic viral load,
HAND remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in HIV-1 patients (McArthur et
al., 2003). These neurological complications may be associated with poor CNS permeation of
antiretroviral compounds, a phenomenon that may be attributed to expression of ABC efflux
transporters [i.e., P-gp, MRPs/Mrps (MRPs in humans; Mrps in rodents)] at brain barrier sites
(i.e., BBB, BCSFB) and in brain cellular targets of HIV-1 (i.e., microglia, astrocytes).
MRP1/Mrp1, a 190 kDa membrane protein, extrudes from cells many organic anions as well as
their GSH, glucuronide, and sulfate conjugates (Ronaldson et al., 2008). Although MRP1/Mrp1
is primarily associated with efflux of anticancer drugs, antiretroviral agents (i.e., HIV-1 PIs) are
also known substrates of this transporter (Dallas et al., 2004a;Williams et al., 2002). Mrp1
expression has been identified in several brain cellular compartments including brain capillary
endothelial cells (Miller et al., 2000), choroid plexus epithelial cells (Wijnholds et al., 2000a)
and glial cells (Dallas et al., 2003;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008). In the context of HIV-1
infection, expression levels of MRP1/Mrp1 remain controversial. While studies in PBMCs
isolated from HIV-1 infected patients showed no difference in MRP1 expression as compared to
healthy individuals (Meaden et al., 2001), another study has shown higher MRP1 expression
levels in response to HIV-1 infection (Turriziani et al., 2008). The high variability in the data can
be, in part, explained by differences in therapeutic regimens because some antiretroviral drugs
are known to alter expression of membrane transporters (Ronaldson et al., 2008;Zastre et al.,
2009).
61
Cytokine secretion (i.e., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) in response to infection or cell stress may alter
MRP1/Mrp1 functional activity. Using a human hepatoma cell line (HepG2), IL-1β and IL-6
treatment resulted in an increase in MRP1 mRNA expression and transport activity (Lee and
Piquette-Miller, 2003). Studies in Sprague-Dawley rats have demonstrated that treatment with
LPS, a bacterial endotoxin that stimulates cytokine release, enhances hepatic Mrp1 mRNA
expression, suggesting involvement of cytokines in regulating Mrp1 expression (Cherrington et
al., 2004). In contrast, studies in human monocyte-derived macrophages reported that gp120-
induced production and secretion of TNF-α and IL-6 were not correlated to altered expression of
MRP1 (Jorajuria et al., 2004).
Cellular exposure to HIV-1 virions, HIV-1 viral proteins and/or cytokines is associated with
activation of intracellular signaling systems such as NF-κB (Kim et al., 2005) and the MAPK
pathway (Ghorpade et al., 2003;Hayashi et al., 2006;Hayashi et al., 2005). Additionally, both
NF-κB and components of the MAPK pathway [i.e., JNKs] have been implicated in the
regulation of ABC transporters such as P-gp (Bauer et al., 2007;Hartz et al., 2008;Zhou et al.,
2006) and Mrp1 (Hayashi et al., 2006). Currently, there are no published reports demonstrating
the involvement of either pathway in the regulation of Mrp1 in glial cells exposed to HIV-1
gp120 and/or cytokines.
Recently, our laboratory has reported increased functional expression of Mrp1 in response to
oxidative stress in cultured rat astrocytes treated with gp120 (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008).
Furthermore, we have also shown that gp120 treatment can induce secretion of TNF-α, IL-1β,
and IL-6 from these astrocyte cultures (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). It is unknown if
cytokines can regulate Mrp1 expression in glial cells and, if cytokines are capable of altering
Mrp1 expression, which intracellular signaling pathways may be involved. In the present study,
we have i) evaluated Mrp1 functional expression in cultured rat astrocytes triggered with TNF-α,
IL-1β, and IL-6 and ii) investigated the role of NF-κB and JNKs in the regulation of Mrp1
expression in cultured astrocytes exposed to HIV-196ZM651 gp120 or cytokines.
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6.3 Materials and methods
6.3.1 Materials
HIV-196ZM651 gp120 full length protein (derived from subtype C, R5-tropic HIV-1) was obtained
from the National Institute of Health (NIH) AIDS Research and Reference Reagent Program,
Division of AIDS, NIAID, NIH (Bethesda, MD). PSC833 (i.e., valspodar) was a generous gift
from Novartis Pharma (Basel, Switzerland). The rat monoclonal MRP1 antibody MRPr1 was
obtained from Kamiya Biomedical Company (Seattle, WA). BCECF, acetoxymethyl ester and
free acid, were purchased from Invitrogen (Mississauga, ON, Canada). MK571 was purchased
from Biomol Inc. (Plymouth Meeting, PA). The cell-permeable NF-κB inhibitory peptide SN50
and the pharmacological NF-κB inhibitor (E)3-[(4-methylphenyl)sulfonyl]-2-propenenitrile
(BAY 11-7082) were purchased from EMD Biosciences Inc. (La Jolla, CA). Rat recombinant
TNF-α, the anthrapyrazolone JNK inhibitor SP600125 and the murine monoclonal actin antibody
AC-40 were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (Oakville, ON, Canada). Rat recombinant IL-1β, rat
recombinant IL-6, the murine monoclonal TNF-α neutralizing antibody, and the murine
monoclonal IL-1β neutralizing antibody were purchased from Chemicon Inc. (Temecula, CA).
The rat monoclonal IL-6 neutralizing antibody was obtained from R&D Systems (Minneapolis,
MN). The rabbit polyclonal total JNK/SAPK antibody and the rabbit polyclonal phosphorylated
JNK/SAPK antibody were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology (Danvers, MA).
6.3.2 Cell culture
Primary cultures of rat astrocytes were prepared as previously described by our laboratory
(Ronaldson et al., 2004a;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008). All
procedures were carried out in accordance with the University of Toronto Animal Care
Committee and the Province of Ontario Animals for Research Act. Briefly, postnatal (1-3 day
old) Wistar rats (Charles River Laboratories, St Constant, PQ, Canada) were killed by cervical
dislocation and whole brains isolated. Cerebral cortices were dissected and subjected to
enzymatic digestion for 30 min in serum-free minimum essential medium containing 2.0 mg/ml
porcine pancreatic trypsin (Sigma-Aldrich) and 0.005% DNase I (Roche Applied Science, Laval,
PQ, Canada). Tissue was mechanically disaggregated using a cell dissociation kit (Sigma-
Aldrich) to yield a mixed glial cell suspension. The cell suspension was then centrifuged for 10
63
min at 100 g and resuspended in fresh culture medium consisting of minimum essential medium
supplemented with 5% horse serum, 5% fetal bovine serum (FBS), and 50 μg/ml gentamicin.
The cells were plated on 75 cm2 polystyrene tissue culture flasks (Sarstedt, St. Leonard, PQ,
Canada) and incubated in fresh medium at 37˚C, 5% CO2 and 95% air overnight for 7-10 days.
The cells were then placed on an orbital shaker at 120 rpm for 6 h to remove contaminating
oligodendrocytes, microglia, progenitor cells and neurons. The cells were harvested with 0.1%
trypsin/ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) in Hank’s Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS) and
plated at a density of 5 x 104 cells/well on 48-well polystyrene plates (Becton-Dickinson,
Franklin Lakes, NJ). The astrocytic nature of isolated cells and culture purity were previously
assessed by morphological analysis and by immunostaining for standard biochemical markers
(i.e., GFAP) (Ronaldson et al., 2004a).
The human cervical carcinoma cell line stably transfected with human MRP1 (MRP1-HeLa) was
kindly provided by Dr. Susan Cole (Queen’s University, Kingston, ON, Canada). Cells were
grown as monolayers on 75 cm2 tissue culture flasks at 37C in 5% CO2 and 95% air. Cultures
were maintained in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) (4 mM L-glutamine; 25 mM
D-glucose) supplemented with 400 g/ml G418 and 10% FBS. Confluent cultures were
subcultured with 0.25% trypsin-EDTA and were used as a positive control for western blotting
experiments.
6.3.3 Gp120/cytokine Treatments
All treatments were performed on monolayers of primary cultures of rat astrocytes grown in 75
cm2 tissue culture flasks. At the beginning of each experiment, culture medium was aspirated and
fresh culture medium containing 1.0 nM HIV-196ZM651 gp120. HIV-196ZM651 gp120 is R5-tropic
(also known as macrophage-tropic) and is derived from a subtype C viral isolate. R5-tropic
viruses are the most prevalent strains of HIV-1 in the brain (Gabuzda and Wang, 2000). In HIV-
1 infected patients, concentrations ranging between 12 ng/ml and 92 ng/ml have been reported to
be released in serum (Oh et al., 1992). These serum concentrations correspond to a molar
concentration range of 0.1 nM to approximately 1.0 nM. All experiments were conducted at
37C in 5% CO2 and 95% air. Control (i.e., untreated) cultures were comprised of untreated cells
in fresh culture medium. For experiments examining the involvement of NF-κB or JNK on the
64
regulation of Mrp1 in gp120-treated cells, cultures were pre-treated with 1 µM SN50, 5 µM
BAY 11-7082 or 20 µM SP600125 respectively for 30 min prior to HIV-196ZM651 gp120
exposure. At 6, 12, and 24 h, the cells were collected and prepared for immunoblot analysis as
described below.
Cytokine exposure experiments were initiated by aspirating the culture medium and adding fresh
medium containing 0.5 ng/ml or 10 ng/ml TNF-α, 0.4 ng/ml or 10 ng/ml IL-1β, or 0.3 ng/ml or
10 ng/ml IL-6. These proinflammatory cytokines were selected since their expression is
increased during HIV-1 associated immunological responses in the brain (Kaul et al., 2005). The
lower concentration of each cytokine was selected based on the maximum level of TNF-α, IL-1β,
or IL-6 secreted from primary cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 as
determined by ELISA (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006), while the higher cytokine concentration
(i.e., 10 ng/ml) is widely reported in the literature to induce a profound inflammatory response in
vitro. Untreated cells in 5% horse serum, 5% fetal bovine serum containing culture medium were
used as control. For experiments examining the involvement of NF-κB or JNKs on the regulation
of Mrp1 in cells exposed to TNF-α, cultures were pre-treated with 1 µM SN50 or 20 µM
SP600125 respectively for 30 min prior to triggering with TNF-α. At 6, 12, and 24 h, the
medium was aspirated and the cells were collected for immunoblot analysis.
Treatment of primary cultures of rat astrocytes with cytokine neutralizing antibodies and HIV-
196ZM651 gp120 were conducted by aspirating culture medium and replacing it with fresh medium
containing the cytokine neutralizing antibody and 1.0 nM HIV-196ZM651 gp120. At 6, 12, and 24
h, the medium was aspirated and the cells were collected for immunoblot analysis.
Concentrations for the neutralizing antibodies were determined from cytokine activity curves
provided by the manufacturer. For these experiments, the following concentrations were selected
since they were shown to completely neutralize the biological activity of their respective
cytokine: 0.2 μg/ml TNF-α neutralizing antibody, 0.5 μg/ml IL-1β neutralizing antibody and 0.5
μg/ml IL-6 neutralizing antibody.
6.3.4 Immunoblot Analysis
Whole cell lysates from primary cultures of rat astrocytes and HeLa-MRP1 cells were prepared
by exposing the cells to 1.0 ml of modified radioimmunoprecipitation assay (RIPA) buffer [50
65
mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.4), 150 mM NaCl, 1.0 mM ethylene glycol tetraacetic acid (EGTA), 1%
(v/v) Nonident P-40, 0.25% (m/v) sodium deoxycholate, 0.1% (m/v) Sodium dodecyl sulfate
(SDS), 200 µM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF), 0.1% PI cocktail (Sigma-Aldrich)]. The
cells were then gently rocked for 15 min at 4C to allow lysis to occur. Cell suspensions were
collected and centrifuged at 3000 g for 15 min at 4C to remove cellular debris. Supernatants
were then collected for immunoblot analysis. Protein concentration of the cell lysates was
determined using Bradford’s protein assay.
For immunoblotting, 1 μg or 25 g or 50 g aliquots of cell lysates were mixed in Laemmli
buffer and resolved on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel. The gel was then electrotransferred onto
a polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membrane. Protein transfer was verified by Ponceau S
staining. The membranes were blocked overnight at 4°C in Tris-buffered saline (15 mM Tris-
HCl, 150 mM NaCl, pH 7.6) containing 0.05% (v/v) Tween-20 (TBS-T) and 5% (m/v) dry skim
milk powder. Following six washes (5 min each) with TBS-T, the membrane was incubated with
the appropriate primary antibody for 4 h at room temperature. MRP1/Mrp1 protein expression
was assessed using the monoclonal MRPr1 antibody, which was raised against a bacterial fusion
protein containing amino acids 194-360 of human MRP1 and its epitope was subsequently
localized to amino acids 238-247 (Hipfner et al., 1999). MRPr1 does not cross-react with P-gp or
MRP2-6 (Hipfner et al., 1999;Scheffer et al., 2000). Total and phosphorylated JNK protein
expression was determined using the polyclonal total JNK/SAPK antibody and the polyclonal
phosphorylated JNK/SAPK antibody respectively. The polyclonal total JNK/SAPK antibody was
produced by the immunization of rabbits with a GSH transferase/human JNK2 fusion protein
(Product Data Sheet, Cell Signaling Technology, 2008). The polyclonal phosphorylated
JNK/SAPK antibody was produced by immunizing the animals with a fusion protein
corresponding to the amino acids surrounding threonine 183 and tyrosine 185 of human JNK and
is specific for JNK isoforms that are phosphorylated at these residues (Product Data Sheet, Cell
Signaling Technology, 2008). Actin expression was detected using the monoclonal AC-40
antibody, which recognizes a conserved C-terminal epitope on all actin isoforms (Product Data
Sheet, Sigma-Aldrich Canada, 2005). Following a second wash, the membranes were incubated
for 1.5 h in the presence of anti-mouse (Serotec Inc., Raleigh, NC), anti-rat (Sigma-Aldrich), or
anti-rabbit (Sigma-Aldrich) HRP-conjugated secondary antibodies (1:5000 dilution) in 5% milk
66
at room temperature. Protein bands were detected by enhanced chemiluminescence and exposed
to X-ray film for 1 min. The MRP1-HeLa cell line was used as a positive control for
MRP1/Mrp1.
6.3.5 Quantitative PCR
Total RNA was extracted from confluent monolayers of primary cultures of rat astrocytes
treated with either HIV-196ZM651 gp120 (1.0 nM) or TNF-α (10 ng/ml) for 6 h, 12 h or 24 h using
TRIZOL reagent (Invitrogen). Extracted RNA was treated with amplification grade DNase I
(Invitrogen) to remove contaminating genomic DNA. The concentration of RNA in each sample
was quantified spectrophotometrically by measuring UV absorbance at 260 nm. The High
Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcriptase Kit (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA) was used to
synthesize first-strand cDNA. Primer pairs for the rat Mrp1 gene (5-
AGAAGGAATGTGTTAAGTCGAGGAA-3 and 5-CCTTAGGCTTGGTGGGATCTT-3) and
the rat Cyclophilin B gene (housekeeping gene; 5-GGAGATGGCACAGGAGGAA-3 AND 5-
GCCCGTAGTGCTTCAGCTT-3) were designed using Primer Express 3 software (Applied
Biosystems) and were validated for specificity and efficacy using BioTaq universal rat normal
tissue cDNA (BioTaq Inc., Gaithersburg, MD). Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was performed using
SYBR Green Master Mix (Applied Biosystems) on an ABI 7900HT Fast Real-time PCR System
(Applied Biosystems). The quantity of the target gene (i.e., Mrp1) was normalized to Cyclophilin
B using the comparative CT method (ΔΔCT). Results were expressed as mean ± standard
deviation (SD) of at least three separate experiments.
6.3.6 Enzyme-linked immunoabsorbant assay (ELISA)
An ultrasensitive ELISA kit for detection of rat TNF-α (Pierce Biotechnology, Rockford, IL) was
used to measure secretion of cytokines from primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with HIV-
196ZM651 gp120 in the presence or absence of SN50. Standard curves for TNF-α (0-2500 pg/ml)
were generated using purified recombinant rat TNF-α and the assay was performed according to
manufacturer’s instructions. Absorbance was read at 450 nm using a SpectraMax Plus384
microplate spectrophotometer (Molecular Devices, Sunnyvale, CA). The concentration of
secreted TNF-α was expressed as pg/ml. All experiments reflect eight separate measurements
obtained from different cell cultures on different days.
67
6.3.7 Functional studies
These studies were performed on confluent monolayers of rat astrocytes triggered with HIV-
196ZM651 gp120 or with TNF-α (0.5 or 10 ng/ml) and grown on 24-well polystyrene plates
(Becton-Dickinson) at an approximate density of 8 x 104 cells/well. Cells were washed and
incubated at 37C for 30 min in HBSS, pH 7.4, containing 10 mM (4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-1-
piperazineethanesulfonic acid) (HEPES) and 0.01% bovine serum albumin. The cells were then
incubated for the desired time with the cell permeable ester BCECF-AM (5 M) in the presence
or absence of SP600125 (20 μM). Since BCECF-AM is a known P-gp substrate (Bachmeier et
al., 2004), all incubations were performed in the presence of 1.0 M PSC833, an established P-
gp inhibitor. At the end of each time point, the incubation medium was aspirated and the reaction
was terminated with 1000 l ice-cold phosphate buffer saline (PBS). The cells were then
solubilized with 200 l 1% Triton-X-100 for 30 min. BCECF cellular retention was measured
using a fluorescent assay plate reader at an excitation wavelength of 505 nm and an emission
wavelength of 535 nm. All samples were corrected for background fluorescence. Cellular
BCECF content was standardized to cellular protein content (mg/ml) determined by the Bradford
colorimetric method using bovine serum albumin (Sigma-Aldrich) as the standard. Cellular
retention of BCECF was expressed as nanomoles per milligram of protein (nmol/mg protein).
6.3.8 Data Analysis
Each set of experiments was repeated at least three times in cells pertaining to different
isolations. In an individual experiment, each data point represents quadruplicate trials. Results
are reported as a mean SD from at least three separate experiments. To determine significance
of transport inhibition, Student’s t-test was used for unpaired experimental data. For multiple
comparisons, the test of repeated measures Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the post hoc
multiple-comparison Bonferroni t-test were used. A value of p < 0.05 was considered to be
statistically significant.
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6.4 Results
6.4.1 Effect of cytokines on Mrp1 protein expression
Our laboratory has previously reported increased cytokine secretion (i.e., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) in
primary cultures of rat astrocytes exposed to HIV-196ZM651 gp120 (Ronaldson and Bendayan,
2006). In addition, we demonstrated that cellular exposure to these cytokines decreased
functional expression of the ABC transporter P-gp (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006); however, it
was unknown whether TNF-α, IL-1β or IL-6 were involved in the regulation of other ABC
transporters that are expressed in astrocytes. Therefore, we explored the role of these cytokines
in the regulation of Mrp1 protein expression (Fig 6-1A). Mrp1 protein was detected using the
monoclonal MRPr1 antibody, which has been shown to react with both human MRP1 and rat
Mrp1 (Dallas et al., 2003). As expected, in the MRP1-HeLa cell line (the positive control), a
single band was observed at approximately 190 kDa, a size previously reported for MRP1/Mrp1
(Hipfner et al., 1999). Mrp1 protein expression was increased up to 2.7-fold by 24 h in primary
cultures of rat astrocytes treated with TNF-α but was not altered in cultures treated with either
IL-1β or IL-6 (Fig 6-1B). Appropriate loading of each sample was confirmed by detection of a
single band at approximately 43 kDa, which corresponds to actin. We did not observe any
change in actin protein expression in response to TNF-α, IL-1β, or IL-6 treatment at any of the
time points examined (data not shown).
69
A.
70
Figure 6-1 Effect of cytokines on Mrp1 protein expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes.
A. Primary cultures of rat astrocytes were treated with TNF- (0.5 ng/ml; 10 ng/ml), IL-1 (0.4
ng/ml; 10 ng/ml), and IL-6 (0.3 ng/ml; 10 ng/ml) for 6 h, 12 h, and 24 h and Mrp1 expression
was assessed by immunoblot analysis. Crude membrane preparations of primary cultures of rat
astrocytes (25 g) and MRP1-HeLa cells (1 g) were resolved on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide
gel and transferred to a PVDF membrane. The blots were incubated with the monoclonal
MRP1/Mrp1 antibody MRPr1 (1:500 dilution). Equal sample loading was confirmed by the
detection of actin using the monoclonal antibody AC40 (1:500 dilution). Primary cultures of rat
astrocytes not exposed to cytokines were used as a control. B. Densitometric analysis of Mrp1
protein in cultured rat astrocytes treated with TNF-α, IL-1β, or IL-6. Results (% control) are
expressed as mean ± SD of three separate experiments. Asterisks indicate data points that are
significantly different from control.
B.
71
In order to confirm the involvement of these cytokines in altering Mrp1 expression, we measured
Mrp1 protein expression in cultured rat astrocytes treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 and various
cytokine neutralizing antibodies. In the presence of cytokine neutralizing antibodies only, Mrp1
protein expression was not significantly altered in our rat astrocyte cultures (Fig 6-2). We
observed no change in Mrp1 expression when cultures were treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 and
the TNF-α neutralizing antibody (Fig 6-2A & 6-2B). In contrast, Mrp1 protein expression was
significantly increased in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 and
the IL-1β or the IL-6 neutralizing antibody. These data suggest that TNF-α, but not IL-1β or IL-
6, is involved in upregulation of Mrp1 protein expression.
72
A.
73
Figure 6-2 Effect of cytokine neutralizing antibodies on Mrp1 protein expression in primary
cultures of rat astrocytes treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120. A. Primary cultures of rat astrocytes
were treated with neutralizing antibodies for TNF- (0.2 ng/ml), IL-1 (0.5 ng/ml), and IL-6 (0.5
ng/ml) in the presence or absence of 1.0 nM HIV-196ZM651 gp120 for 6 h, 12 h, and 24 h and
Mrp1 expression was assessed by immunoblot analysis. Crude membrane preparations of
primary cultures of rat astrocytes (25 g) and MRP1-HeLa cells (1 g) were resolved on a 10%
SDS-polyacrylamide gel and transferred to a PVDF membrane. The blots were incubated with
the monoclonal MRP1/Mrp1 antibody MRPr1 (1:500 dilution). Equal sample loading was
confirmed by the detection of actin using the monoclonal antibody AC40 (1:500 dilution).
Primary cultures of rat astrocytes not exposed to HIV-196ZM651 gp120 or to the cytokine
neutralizing antibodies were used as a control. B. Densitometric analysis of Mrp1 protein in
cultured rat astrocytes treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 and various cytokine neutralizing
antibodies. Results (% control) are expressed as mean ± SD of three separate experiments.
Asterisks indicate data points that are significantly different from control. NAb = Neutralizing
Antibody.
B.
74
6.4.2 Functional studies
In order to investigate whether increased Mrp1 mRNA and protein expression in response to
TNF-α exposure resulted in altered Mrp-mediated transport activity, we measured cellular
retention of BCECF, a fluorescein derivative and established Mrp1, Mrp2, Mrp4, and ABCG2
substrate (Bachmeier et al., 2004). Mrp2 expression was not detected in our primary cultures of
rat astrocytes and Mrp4 expression was not altered in response to either HIV-196ZM651 gp120
treatment (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008) or TNF-α exposure (data not shown). Additionally, a
previous study by our laboratory demonstrated that ABCG2 was expressed but not capable of
efflux transport in primary cultures of rat astrocytes (Lee et al., 2007). Therefore, we
hypothesized that any change in BCECF cellular retention would most likely correspond to an
alteration in Mrp1-mediated transport activity. For these experiments, cells were grown as
monolayers and incubated in the presence or absence of 0.5 ng/ml TNF-α or 10 ng/ml TNF-α for
24 h. The time course of BCECF (5 M) cellular retention at 37C (Fig 6-3) showed increasing
accumulation until approximately 15 min. At this point, BCECF cellular retention decreases for
the duration of the experiment, suggesting the presence of an active efflux process for this
fluorescent substrate. In cultured rat astrocytes treated with 0.5 ng/ml TNF-α for 24 h, BCECF
cellular retention was significantly decreased up to 2.4-fold (Fig 6-3), suggesting an increase in
Mrp1 functional activity. BCECF cellular retention was also decreased up to 4.4-fold in cultures
treated with 10 ng/ml TNF-α, implying that TNF-α increases Mrp1 functional activity in a
concentration-dependent manner.
75
Figure 6-3 Effect of 24 h TNF-α exposure on the cellular retention of BCECF, a fluorescent Mrp
substrate, by cortical rat astrocyte monolayers. BCECF (5 M) accumulation was measured at
37C in the presence of 0.5 ng/ml or 10 ng/ml TNF-α. Results are expressed as mean ± SD of
three separate experiments, with each data point in an individual experiment representing
quadruplicate measurements. Asterisks represent data points that are significantly different from
control.
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6.4.3 Role of NF-кB on cytokine release and Mrp1 protein expression
NF-κB is a redox-regulated transcription factor that is known to be activated in cultured cells
triggered by gp120 (Saha and Pahan, 2007). In addition, NF-κB-mediated signaling has been
implicated in the regulation of ABC transporters such as P-gp in rat brain capillaries (Bauer et
al., 2007); however, it is currently unknown if NF-κB signaling can regulate Mrp1 expression.
Therefore, we investigated the possible involvement of NF-κB in the regulation of Mrp1 protein
expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with gp120. Control experiments
showed that Mrp1 protein expression was increased in cultured astrocytes triggered with 1.0 nM
HIV-196ZM651 gp120 but was unchanged in cultures treated with denatured (i.e., heat-inactivated)
HIV-196ZM651 gp120 (Fig 6-4A). These data imply that a cellular response specific for the native
conformation of HIV-196ZM651 gp120 is required for enhancement of Mrp1 expression.
Furthermore, these results also indicate that altered Mrp1 expression was not associated with low
level endotoxin contamination in recombinant HIV-196ZM651 gp120 samples. Immunoblot
analysis of primary cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with 1.0 nM HIV-196ZM651 gp120 in the
presence and absence of SN50, a cell-permeable NF-κB inhibitory peptide, was performed.
SN50 has been previously shown to specifically inhibit NF-κB nuclear translocation at a
concentration of 10 µM or less (Lin et al., 1995), thus rendering it a good pharmacologic
inhibitor of NF-κB mediated signaling processes. Using trypan blue exclusion, we observed that
cell viability was not compromised by exposure to SN50 at concentrations up to 10 µM (data not
shown). In cells triggered with HIV-196ZM651 gp120, Mrp1 expression was increased by 2.5-fold;
however, Mrp1 protein expression was unchanged in cultures treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120
and 1.0 µM SN50 at the time points examined (6, 12, or 24 h) (Fig 6-4B).
77
A.
78
Figure 6-4 Expression of Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with gp120 and
SN50, a peptidic NF-κB inhibitor. A: Immunoblot analysis of primary cultures of rat astrocytes
triggered with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 and with denatured HIV-196ZM651 gp120. Whole cell lysates
(25 μg) from primary cultures of rat astrocytes were resolved on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel
and transferred to a PVDF membrane. Mrp1 was detected using the monoclonal antibody MRPr1
(1:500 dilution) and relative levels of Mrp1 expression were determined by densitometric
analysis. Results are expressed as mean ± SD of three separate experiments. Asterisks represent
data points that are significantly different from control. B: Immunoblot analysis of primary
cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 in the presence of 1.0 µM SN50, a
cell permeable NF-κB inhibitory peptide. Whole cell lysates (25 g) from primary cultures of rat
astrocytes were resolved on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and transferred to a PVDF
B.
79
membrane. MRP1/Mrp1 was detected using the monoclonal antibody MRPr1 (1:500 dilution)
and relative levels of Mrp1 expression were determined by densitometric analysis. Results are
expressed as mean ± SD of three separate experiments. Asterisks represent data points that are
significantly different from control.
In order to confirm the involvement of NF-κB signaling in the regulation of Mrp1 protein
expression, we also conducted experiments in the presence and absence of BAY 11-7082, an
established pharmacological NF-κB inhibitor. Similar to our results with SN50, Mrp1 protein
expression was not significantly different from control in rat astrocyte cultures triggered with
HIV-196ZM651 gp120 (24 h) in the presence of 5.0 μM BAY 11-7082 (Fig 6-5). Appropriate
loading of each sample was confirmed by the detection of a single band at approximately 43
kDa, which corresponds to actin. Overall, these data provide evidence for involvement of NF-κB
signaling in the regulation of Mrp1 expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with
HIV-1 viral envelope proteins.
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Figure 6-5 Expression of Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with gp120 and BAY
11-7082, a pharmacological NF-κB inhibitor. A: Immunoblot analysis of primary cultures of rat
astrocytes triggered with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 in the presence and absence of BAY 11-7082 (5
μM). Whole cell lysates ( 50 μg) from primary cultures of rat astrocytes were resolved on a 10%
SDS-polyacrylamide gel and transferred to a PVDF membrane. Whole cell lysate from HeLa-
MRP1 cells (1 μg) was used as a positive control. Mrp1 was detected using the monoclonal
antibody MRPr1 (1:500 dilution). B: Densitometric analysis of Mrp1 expression in primary
cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 in the presence and absence of 5 μM
BAY 11-7082. Results are expressed as mean ± SD of three separate experiments. Asterisks
represent data points that are significantly different from control.
81
Since gp120 treatment is known to stimulate cytokine release (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006),
we investigated the role of NF-κB in TNF-α secretion in primary cultures of rat astrocytes
triggered with gp120. Secretion of TNF-α was measured in rat astrocyte cultures treated with
HIV-196ZM651 gp120 and SN50. Ultrasensitive ELISA analysis demonstrated increased TNF-α
protein expression (p < 0.01) in cell culture supernatants from primary cultures of rat astrocytes
triggered with 1.0 nM HIV-196ZM651 gp120 for 6, 12, and 24 h (table 6-1). In contrast, TNF-α
release in astrocyte cultures treated with 1.0 nM HIV-196ZM651 gp120 in the presence of 1.0 μM
SN50 was below the detection limit of the assay (i.e., less than 15 pg/ml). Previous work by our
laboratory has shown that basal levels of TNF-α in our primary cultures of rat astrocytes are
below the detection limit of the assay (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). These observations
suggest that TNF-α secretion from primary cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with HIV-196ZM651
gp120 is mediated by an NF-κB dependent mechanism.
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Table 6-1 ELISA analysis of TNF-α secretion in cultured astrocytes treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120.
Time of Exposure
HIV-196ZM651 gp120 (1.0 nM)
HIV-196ZM651 gp120 (1.0 nM)
+ SN50 (1.0 µM)
HIV-196ZM651 gp120 (1.0 nM)
+ SP600125 (20 µM)
6 h
583.08 ± 22.58
BDL **
570.43 ± 49.28
12 h
483.90 ± 32.81
BDL **
490.54 ± 36.43
24 h
384.71 ± 34.28
BDL **
369.56 ± 33.29
** p < 0.01; Results are expressed as mean SD of eight separate measurements obtained from different cultures on different days. Statistical
comparisons are between cultures treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 alone and cultures triggered with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 plus inhibitor; Cytokine values
are expressed as pg/ml; BDL= Values that are below detection limit of the assay.
83
The above results imply that NF-κB mediated signaling is involved in release of TNF-α in
cultured astrocytes triggered with HIV-196ZM651 gp120; however, these data were unable to
discern if NF-κB is directly involved in the regulation of Mrp1 itself. In order to address this
question, we pre-treated our astrocyte cultures with 1.0 μM SN50 followed by exposure to 0.5
ng/ml or 10 ng/ml TNF-α. Immunoblot analysis showed increased expression of Mrp1 in
astrocyte cultures treated with 1.0 µM SN50 and 0.5 ng/ml TNF-α (2.4-fold) or 10 ng/ml TNF-α
(2.6-fold) (Fig 6-6), suggesting that NF-κB does not directly regulate Mrp1 expression.
Appropriate loading of each sample was confirmed by detection of a single band at
approximately 43 kDa, which corresponds to actin. Taken together, these data indicate that NF-
κB signaling processes are indirectly involved in the regulation of Mrp1 protein expression by
triggering release of cytokines (i.e., TNF-α) in glial cells following exposure to HIV-196ZM651
gp120.
84
Figure 6-6 Expression of Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with TNF-α and
SN50, a peptidic NF-κB inhibitor. Immunoblot analysis of primary cultures of rat astrocytes
triggered with TNF-α (0.5 ng/ml or 10 ng/ml) in the presence of 1.0 µM SN50. Whole cell
lysates from primary cultures of rat astrocytes (25 g) were resolved on a 10% SDS-
polyacrylamide gel and transferred to a PVDF membrane. Mrp1 was detected using the
monoclonal antibody MRPr1 (1:500 dilution) and relative levels of Mrp1 expression were
determined by densitometric analysis. Results are expressed as mean ± SD of three separate
experiments. Asterisks represent data points that are significantly different from control.
85
6.4.4 Role of JNKs on Mrp1 functional expression
Components of the MAPK pathway such as the JNKs have also been shown to be activated in
response to HIV-1 viral proteins and/or inflammation (Chen and Thorner, 2007;Hayashi et al.,
2006). Additionally, JNK isoforms may be involved in regulation of ABC membrane
transporters (Hartz et al., 2008;Hayashi et al., 2006). Therefore, we investigated the involvement
of JNKs in regulation of Mrp1 protein expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes triggered
with HIV-196ZM651 gp120. Immunoblot analysis of cultured astrocytes triggered with 1.0 nM
HIV-196ZM651 gp120 in the presence or absence of 20 μM SP600125, an established JNK
inhibitor, was performed. SP600125 is known to reversibly inhibit JNK signaling with IC50
values in the range of 40-90 nM (Bennett et al., 2001). Furthermore, SP600125 displays greater
than 300-fold selectivity for JNK over related MAPKs (i.e., ERK1 and p38 MAPK) and 10-100-
fold greater selectivity over other intracellular kinases (Bennett et al., 2001). Using the trypan
blue exclusion method, we observed that cell viability was not altered in the presence of 20 µM
SP600125 (data not shown). In our hands, we demonstrated that 20 μM SP600125 decreased
total JNK phosphorylation in primary cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with TNF-α to a level
that was not significantly different from control untreated cells (data not shown). Mrp1 protein
expression was unchanged in cultures treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 and SP600125 at the time
points examined (6, 12, or 24 h) (Fig 6-7), suggesting that JNKs may be involved in the
regulation of this ABC transporter. Appropriate loading of each sample was confirmed by the
detection of a single band at approximately 43 kDa, which corresponds to actin.
86
Figure 6-7 Expression of Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with gp120 and
SP600125, a pharmacological JNK inhibitor. Immunoblot analysis of primary cultures of rat
astrocytes triggered with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 in the presence of 20 µM SP600125. Whole cell
lysates from primary cultures of rat astrocytes (25 g) were resolved on a 10% SDS-
polyacrylamide gel and transferred to a PVDF membrane. Mrp1 was detected using the
monoclonal antibody MRPr1 (1:500 dilution) and relative levels of Mrp1 expression were
determined by densitometric analysis. Results are expressed as mean ± SD of three separate
experiments. Asterisks represent data points that are significantly different from control.
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To determine the role of JNKs in the regulation of cytokine release, we measured the secretion of
TNF-α in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 in the presence of
SP600125. TNF-α release in astrocyte cultures treated with 1.0 nM HIV-196ZM651 gp120 in the
presence of 20 μM SP600125 was not statistically different (p > 0.05) from TNF- α secretion in
astrocyte cultures treated with 1.0 nM HIV-196ZM651 gp120 alone (table 6-1). These observations
imply that JNK signaling is likely not involved in the release of TNF-α from primary cultures of
rat astrocytes triggered with HIV-196ZM651 gp120.
In order to determine if JNK signaling was directly involved in regulation of Mrp1 protein
expression, we pretreated our rat astrocyte cultures with 20 μM SP600125 followed by exposure
to 0.5 ng/ml or 10 ng/ml TNF-α. Control experiments in the absence of SP600125 demonstrated
increased Mrp1 protein expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes exposed to 0.5 ng/ml
TNF-α (2.5-fold) or 10 ng/ml TNF-α (2.6-fold) (Fig 6-8A). In contrast, no change in protein
expression of Mrp1 was observed in astrocyte cultures treated with 20 µM SP600125 and 0.5
ng/ml TNF-α or 10 ng/ml TNF-α (Fig 6-8B). Appropriate loading of each sample was confirmed
by detection of a single band at approximately 43 kDa, which corresponds to actin.
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A.
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Figure 6-8 Expression of Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with TNF-α and
SP600125, a pharmacological JNK inhibitor. A: Immunoblot analysis of primary cultures of rat
astrocytes triggered with TNF-α (0.5 ng/ml or 10 ng/ml). Whole cell lysates from primary
cultures of rat astrocytes (25 g) were resolved on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and
transferred to a PVDF membrane. Mrp1 was detected using the monoclonal antibody MRPr1
(1:500 dilution) and relative levels of Mrp1 expression were determined by densitometric
analysis. Results are expressed as mean ± SD of three separate experiments. Asterisks represent
data points that are significantly different from control. B: Immunoblot analysis of primary
cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with TNF-α (0.5 ng/ml or 10 ng/ml) in the presence of 20 µM
SP600125. Whole cell lysates from primary cultures of rat astrocytes (25 g) were resolved on a
10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and transferred to a PVDF membrane. Mrp1 was detected using
the monoclonal antibody MRPr1 (1:500 dilution) and relative levels of Mrp1 expression were
determined by densitometric analysis. Results are expressed as mean ± SD of three separate
experiments. Asterisks represent data points that are significantly different from control.
B.
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In order to investigate if pharmacological inhibition of JNK isoforms resulted in altered Mrp-
mediated transport activity, we measured cellular retention of BCECF in cortical astrocyte
monolayers triggered with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 or TNF-α in the presence or absence of
SP600125. For these experiments, cells were grown as monolayers and incubated with 1.0 nM
HIV-196ZM651 gp120 or 10 ng/ml TNF-α for 24 h. In cultures treated with the JNK inhibitor,
SP600125 (20 μM) was added 30 min prior to HIV-196ZM651 gp120 or TNF-α exposure. In
cultured rat astrocytes treated with 1.0 nM HIV-196ZM651 gp120 or 10 ng/ml TNF-α, BCECF
cellular retention was significantly decreased up to 2.4-fold (Fig 6-9). In contrast, BCECF
cellular retention was not altered in rat astrocyte cultures treated with SP600125 and HIV-
196ZM651 gp120 or with SP600125 and TNF-α. Control experiments demonstrated that 20 µM
SP600125 itself did not affect cellular retention of BCECF (data not shown). Taken together,
these data indicate that inhibition of JNK signaling processes attenuates the increase in Mrp1
functional expression observed in glial cells following exposure to HIV-1 viral proteins or
proinflammatory cytokines.
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Figure 6-9 Effect of 24 h gp120 or TNF-α exposure on the cellular retention of BCECF, a
fluorescent Mrp substrate, by cortical rat astrocyte monolayers. BCECF (5 M) accumulation
was measured at 37C in cultured astrocytes treated with 1.0 nM HIV-196ZM651 gp120 or 10
ng/ml TNF-α in the presence and absence of SP600125, a specific pharmacological JNK
inhibitor. Results are expressed as mean ± SD of three separate experiments, with each data point
in an individual experiment representing quadruplicate measurements. Asterisks represent data
points that are significantly different from control.
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6.4.5 Effect of HIV-196ZM651 gp120 and TNF-α on Mrp1 gene expression
Since we observed increased protein expression of Mrp1 in cultured rat astrocytes triggered with
gp120 or TNF-α, we sought to evaluate Mrp1 mRNA expression in cultured astrocytes exposed
to these same mediators. Quantitative PCR analysis was used to measure the expression of Mrp1
mRNA in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 or TNF-α. Mrp1
mRNA was significantly increased (1.6-fold) in cultured astrocytes triggered with 1.0 nM HIV-
196ZM651 gp120 for 6 h; however, Mrp1 expression was not altered in primary cultures of rat
astrocytes exposed to HIV-196ZM651 gp120 for 12 h or 24 h (Fig 6-10A). Similarly, Mrp1 mRNA
expression was increased in cells treated with 10 ng/ml TNF-α for 6 h (1.7-fold) but no change in
Mrp1 expression was observed in primary cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with TNF-α for 12
h or 24 h (Fig 6-10B). Taken together, these data suggest that increased Mrp1 protein expression
in cultured rat astrocytes triggered with either gp120 or TNF-α may result, at least in part, from
increased expression of Mrp1 mRNA.
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Figure 6-10 Effect of gp120 or TNF-α exposure on Mrp1 mRNA expression in primary cultures
of rat astrocytes. Primary cultures of rat astrocytes were triggered with 1.0 nM HIV-196ZM651
gp120 (A) or 10 ng/ml TNF-α (B) for 6 h, 12 h, or 24 h. Mrp1 mRNA expression was measured
using quantitative PCR analysis. Results (% control) are expressed as mean ± SD of four
separate experiments. Asterisks indicate data points that are significantly different from control.
B.
A.
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6.5 Discussion
ABC transporters (i.e., P-gp, Mrp1) are important determinants of xenobiotic permeation across
brain barriers and brain parenchyma cellular compartments (i.e., astrocytes, microglia)
(Ronaldson et al., 2008). This is particularly significant for treatment of HIV-1 infection because
antiretroviral agents (i.e., HIV-1 PIs) are known substrates for P-gp and/or Mrp1 (Dallas et al.,
2004a;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006;Williams et al., 2002), a factor that may limit the ability
of these drugs to attain efficacious CNS concentrations. Until recently, ABC transporter
functional expression had only been characterized in non-pathological (i.e., healthy) astrocyte
cultures (Ronaldson et al., 2004a). In order to elucidate the role of brain pathologies on ABC
transporter expression and/or activity, we implemented an in vitro model of an HIV-1 associated
inflammatory response by triggering cultured astrocytes with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 (Ronaldson
and Bendayan, 2006). This model was characterized by increased production and secretion of
proinflammatory cytokines (i.e., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) as determined by semiquantitative RT-PCR
and ELISA respectively (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006).
Previous in vitro and in vivo studies have shown that cytokines (i.e., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6) can
alter Mrp1 expression (Cherrington et al., 2004;Lee and Piquette-Miller, 2003). In the context of
HIV-1 associated inflammation, Jorajuria and colleagues reported increased TNF-α and IL-6
production and increased expression of MRP1 mRNA in human monocyte-derived macrophages
infected with HIV-1 BaL, an R5-tropic viral strain (Jorajuria et al., 2004). Using Spearman’s
rank correlation test, these researchers concluded that MRP1 mRNA expression was not directly
correlated with TNF-α or IL-6 production (Jorajuria et al., 2004); however, a causal relationship
between cytokine secretion and altered MRP1 mRNA levels was not established. In our study,
we have directly triggered primary cultures of rat astrocytes with proinflammatory cytokines.
While we observed no change in Mrp1 expression in cultured astrocytes triggered with IL-1β or
IL-6, Mrp1 expression was increased in the presence of TNF-α (2.7-fold). We further examined
the role of these cytokines on Mrp1 protein expression by treating primary cultures of rat
astrocytes with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 in the presence of TNF-α, IL-1β or IL-6 neutralizing
antibodies. Our results indicate that Mrp1 expression was not altered in the presence of TNF-α
neutralizing antibody but was significantly increased when IL-1β or IL-6 neutralizing antibodies
were utilized. These data confirm that TNF-α is prominently involved in upregulation of Mrp1
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expression in our astrocyte cultures. Taken together with our previous publication (Ronaldson
and Bendayan, 2006), these results provide evidence for the complex manner by which cytokines
regulate ABC transporter expression. With respect to P-gp, we observed decreased expression
mediated by IL-6 but increased expression mediated by TNF-α and IL-1β (Ronaldson and
Bendayan, 2006), suggesting that multiple cytokine signaling pathways are involved in
regulation of P-gp expression. In the present study, we demonstrate that Mrp1 is increased by
TNF-α, but not by IL-1β or IL-6, suggesting that Mrp1 expression is regulated by a TNF-α
mediated pathway during an inflammatory response.
In order to determine if increased Mrp1 protein expression correlated with enhanced activity, we
used BCECF, an established Mrp substrate (Bachmeier et al., 2004). An important consideration
is that BCECF is also a substrate for Mrp2, Mrp4 and ABCG2. Since these transporters were
either not expressed (i.e., Mrp2), nor affected by HIV-196ZM651 gp120 or TNF-α treatment (i.e.,
Mrp4) or not functional (i.e., ABCG2) in our primary cultures of rat astrocytes (Lee et al.,
2007;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008), we are able to conclude that any difference in BCECF
efflux is most likely attributed to changes in Mrp1 activity. Our studies showed that TNF-α
treatment reduced BCECF cellular retention in a concentration-dependent manner, which implies
an increase in Mrp-mediated transport. These data are particularly intriguing in light of our
previous study, which showed a significant decrease in P-gp functional expression in the same in
vitro model (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). Therefore, we propose that Mrp1 may play an
enhanced role in antiretroviral drug transport during HIV-1 associated inflammatory responses.
Changes in Mrp1 functional expression may be particularly relevant for HIV-1 PIs, which are
substrates for MRP1/Mrp1 (Dallas et al., 2004a;Williams et al., 2002).
Intracellular signaling mechanisms responsible for gp120 effects in glial cells have not been
clearly identified. Previous studies have indicated that NF-κB mediated signaling pathways are
activated in response to gp120 exposure in cultured rat astrocytes (Saha and Pahan, 2007). Since
it has been shown that NF-κB activation is associated with changes in expression of other ABC
transporters such as P-gp (Bauer et al., 2007;Hayashi et al., 2005), we hypothesized that NF-κB
may also be involved in Mrp1 regulation. In the present study, we show that increased Mrp1
expression induced by HIV-196ZM651 gp120 was attenuated by SN50, an NF-κB inhibitory
peptide. Although SN50 was used primarily as an inhibitor of NF-κB nuclear import, it may also
96
affect nuclear translocation of other transcription factors. Using an immortalized human T-
lymphocyte cell line, SN50 (210 µg/ml; 75 µM) was shown to inhibit nuclear import of multiple
transcription factors including AP-1, NFAT, STAT1, and NF-κB (Torgerson et al., 1998). In
contrast, studies in primary cultures of human peripheral blood-derived T-lymphocytes
demonstrated that SN50 had no effect on nuclear translocation of AP-1 or NFAT at a
concentration that was 5.6-fold lower than used by Torgerson and colleagues (Kolenko et al.,
1999), suggesting that cross-talk with other signaling pathways occurs only at high
concentrations of SN50. This corroborates data obtained in a murine fibroblast cell line (3T3),
which showed that SN50 specifically inhibited NF-κB nuclear translocation at concentrations
less than 10 µM (Lin et al., 1995). We used a much lower concentration of SN50 than any of
these studies (i.e., 2.8 µg/ml; 1 µM), suggesting that our results reflect an inhibition of NF-κB
with little contribution from other signaling pathways.
NF-κB activation is associated with production/secretion of cytokines such as TNF-α (Filipov et
al., 2005). Therefore, we examined TNF-α release from primary cultures of rat astrocytes
exposed to HIV-196ZM651 gp120 in the presence and absence of SN50. Indeed, pre-treatment with
SN50 reduced TNF-α secretion to levels that were below ELISA detection limits (i.e., less than
15 ng/ml), suggesting involvement of NF-κB. When we treated our cultures with TNF-α in the
presence of SN50, we observed a significant increase in Mrp1 protein expression, implying that
NF-κB does not directly regulate Mrp1 expression. A recent study in LPS-treated mice deficient
in IκB demonstrated a similar increase in hepatic Mrp1 mRNA levels as compared to LPS-
treated wild-type mice (Lickteig et al., 2007). LPS treatment has been shown to induce the
cellular release of proinflammatory cytokines that can alter the expression of ABC transporters
including Mrp1 (Cherrington et al., 2004). Taken together with our present study, these data
suggest that NF-κB activity is involved in the regulation of Mrp1 expression only by enhancing
the release of TNF-α.
The cellular response to gp120 and/or cytokines involves a multiplicity of signaling pathways in
addition to NF-κB. It has been previously shown that both gp120 and TNF-α can activate the
MAPK pathway, in particular the JNKs (Barbin et al., 2001;Bodner et al., 2004). Other HIV-1
proteins (i.e., Tat) have been shown to up-regulate Mrp1 expression in primary cultures of
murine astrocytes via a JNK-dependent mechanism (Hayashi et al., 2006). Therefore, we
97
investigated the role of the JNK pathway on regulation of Mrp1 expression in cultured astrocytes
exposed to gp120 and/or TNF-α. Pharmacological inhibition of JNK signaling with SP600125
prevented upregulation of Mrp1 expression in HIV-196ZM651 gp120 triggered astrocyte cultures.
Pre-treatment with SP600125 attenuated upregulation of Mrp1 in response to TNF-α exposure;
however, SP600125 had no effect on HIV-196ZM651 gp120 induced release of TNF-α from rat
astrocyte cultures. Furthermore, SP600125 prevented the increase in cellular BCECF efflux in
cultures treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 or TNF-α. Our data corroborates the work of Hayashi
and colleagues (2006) and implies that JNKs are involved, in part, in regulation of Mrp1
functional expression in glial cells exposed to HIV-1 viral proteins and/or inflammatory
mediators (Fig. 6-11). Specifically, our results indicate that JNK phosphorylation and
upregulation of Mrp1 occurs subsequent to NF-κB-mediated TNF-α release. Studies in human
macrophages and microglia have demonstrated that JNK phosphorylation may also occur in
response to gp120 binding to CCR5 (Yi et al., 2004). Since we did not observe a change in Mrp1
protein expression in cultured astrocytes treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 and the TNF-α
neutralizing antibody, we can conclude that JNK phosphorylation resulting from the gp120-
CCR5 interaction was not a confounding factor in our study.
Our data shows increased Mrp1 mRNA expression in cultured astrocytes triggered with HIV-
196ZM651 gp120 or with TNF-α, suggesting that an HIV-1 inflammatory response may, in part,
alter transcription of the Mrp1 gene. MAPK signaling cascades (i.e., JNK) are complex and may
affect the expression of ABC transporter genes by the recruitment of transcription factors (i.e.,
AP-1, c-Jun) (Hartz et al., 2008;Shinoda et al., 2005;Zhou et al., 2006). Using chromatin
immunoprecipitation, increased c-Jun binding to the MRP1 promoter was observed in human
small cell lung cancer cell lines treated with the anticancer drug doxorubicin (Shinoda et al.,
2005). Additionally, this study showed that SP600125 inhibited c-Jun binding, confirming the
involvement of JNK signaling in MRP1 regulation. Although conducted in cancerous human cell
culture systems, the hypotheses proposed in this study can be tested in healthy rodent cell culture
systems because similar signaling pathways and/or transcription factors are expressed in both
models. Some of these similarities include expression of JNK/AP-1 (Nair et al., 2008), JNK/c-
Jun (Shinoda et al., 2005), and Nrf2 (Song et al., 2009). Furthermore, human MRP1 and rat
Mrp1 are both regulated by a highly-conserved 100 nucleotide sequence in the promoter region,
suggesting that regulatory mechanisms for both genes may be structurally and functionally
98
similar (Muredda et al., 2003). Nonetheless, studies are required to determine specific JNK-
associated transcription factors involved in regulation of Mrp1 during cellular exposure to HIV-
196ZM651 gp120 and/or proinflammatory cytokines.
In addition to inflammatory processes, oxidative stress is also involved in HIV-1 associated
pathologies in the CNS. Our group has recently shown that gp120 treatment can lead to an
oxidative stress response in primary cultures of rat astrocytes characterized by increased free
radical production and increased oxidation of intracellular glutathione (Ronaldson and
Bendayan, 2008). Our study demonstrated, for the first time, that gp120-induced oxidative stress
increases Mrp1 functional expression in cultured glial cells (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008).
Oxidative stress responses in astrocytes are associated with activation of several intracellular
signaling mechanisms including NF-κB (Caccamo et al., 2005) and JNK MAPK (Chen et al.,
2008). Additionally, Nrf2 signaling is also known to be activated in response to oxidiative stress
and may be involved in the regulation of ABC transporters such as MRP1/Mrp1 (Hayashi et al.,
2003;Song et al., 2009). Clearly, the cellular response to HIV-1 viral proteins such as gp120 is
complex and involves multiple pathophysiological responses (i.e., inflammation, oxidative
stress). Future studies will delineate those cellular signaling processes that are activated by
proinflammatory cytokines and those that are induced by oxidative stress in an effort to clarify
mechanisms of HIV-associated pathophysiological processes as well as novel strategies for the
treatment of brain HIV-1 infection.
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Figure 6-11 Proposed mechanism of NF-κB and JNK signaling in glial cells during an HIV-1
associated inflammatory response. Brain HIV-1 infection is characterized by the presence of
HIV-1 viral proteins such as gp120 within the brain parenchyma. In our model, R5-tropic gp120
(i.e., HIV-196ZM651 gp120) directly binds to specific chemokine receptors (i.e., CCR5) expressed
at the astrocyte cell surface (1). In turn, this activates NF-κB mediated signaling (2), leading to
increased production and secretion of proinflammatory cytokines including TNF-α (3). Once
secreted, TNF-α may bind to its receptor (TNFRs) that are expressed at the plasma membrane of
astrocytes (4). The activation of TNFRs leads to increased phosphorylation (i.e., activation) of
JNK isoforms (5). Our data show that these signaling events can lead to increased mRNA and
protein expression of ABC membrane transporters such as Mrp1 (6). The end result of this
signaling mechanism is an increase in Mrp1 transport activity. Overall, these data may point to a
greater role for Mrp1 in antiretroviral drug resistance during an HIV-1 associated inflammatory
response.
100
6.6 Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Carolyn Cummins (Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy) for providing the
equipment and facility for the qPCR analysis. The authors also thank Ms. Manisha Ramaswamy
and Mr. Vijay Rasaiah for excellent technical assistance.
101
Chapter 3
7 Regulation of P-gp by HIV-1 in primary cultures of human
fetal astrocytes (HFAs)
This work is published and reproduced in this thesis with permission from John Wiley and Sons:
T Ashraf, PT Ronaldson, Y Persidsky and R Bendayan. Regulation of P-glycoprotein by HIV-1
in primary cultures of human fetal astrocytes. 2011. Journal of Neuroscience Research. 89: 1773-
1782.
Author contributions:
Research design: T Ashraf (first author), PT Ronaldson, Y Persidsky and R Bendayan (principle
investigator).
Conducted experiments and data analysis: T Ashraf (figures 7-2C, 7-4, 7-5; table 1); PT
Ronaldson (figures 7-1,7-2B, 7-3; table 1) and Y Persidsky (Figure 7-2A)
Writing of the manuscript: T Ashraf (preparation of the manuscript drafts and responses to
reviewer’s comments); PT Ronaldson (conceptual and editorial review of several manuscript
drafts and responses to reviewer’s comments), Y Persidsky (editorial review) and R Bendayan
(overall conceptual and editorial review of several manuscript drafts and responses to reviewer’s
comments)
102
7.1 Abstract
P-gp, a drug efflux pump, is known to alter the bioavailability of antiretroviral drugs at several
sites including the brain. We have previously shown that HIV-1 gp120 induces pro-inflammatory
cytokine secretion and decreases P-gp functional expression in rat astrocytes, a cellular reservoir
of HIV-1. However, whether P-gp is regulated in a similar way in human astrocytes is unknown.
This study investigates the regulation of P-gp in an in vitro model of gp120-triggered human
fetal astrocytes (HFAs). In this sytem, elevated levels of IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α were detected in
culture supernatants. Pretreatment with CCR5 neutralizing antibody attenuated cytokine
secretion suggesting that gp120-CCR5 interaction mediated cytokine production. Treatment with
gp120 (R5-tropic) resulted in reduced P-gp expression (64%) and function as determined by
increased (1.6-fold) cellular accumulation of [3H]digoxin, a P-gp substrate. Exposure to R5 or
R5/X4-tropic viral isolates also resulted in a downregulation in P-gp expression (75% and 90%
respectively) and treatment with IL-6 also showed lower P-gp expression (50%). Moreover, IL-6
neutralizing antibody blocked gp120 mediated P-gp downregulation, suggesting that IL-6 is a
key modulator of P-gp. Gp120 or IL-6 mediated downregulation of P-gp was attenuated by SN50
(an NF-кB inhibitor), suggesting involvement of NF-кB signaling in P-gp regulation. Our results
suggest that, similarly to the case with rodent astrocytes, pathophysiological stressors associated
with brain HIV-1 infection have a down-regulatory effect on P-gp functional expression in
human astrocytes, which may ultimately result in altered antiretroviral drug accumulation within
brain parenchyma during HIV-1 infection.
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7.2 Introduction
Neuroinflammation is a common immune response associated with HIV-1 infection. The
sequestration of HIV-1 in brain cellular reservoirs (i.e., astrocytes, microglia) may allow the
virus to evade antiretroviral therapy, thereby prolonging HIV-1 associated inflammatory
responses (i.e., production of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6, chemokines
and other neurotoxins) (Alexaki et al., 2008;Persidsky and Gendelman, 2003). Brain autopsy
samples from HIV-1 infected individuals and tissue samples from HIV-1 inoculated animal
models confirm elevation of inflammatory mediators during progression of HIV-1 associated
neuroinflammation (Persidsky et al., 1997;Persidsky et al., 1999). The release of circulatory viral
proteins and cytokines in brain parenchyma often results in neurologic impairment and neuronal
cell loss that are associated with cognitive and motor disorders in patients with prolonged HIV-1
infection (Ances and Ellis, 2007;Kaul, 2009).
Poor penetration of antiretroviral drugs across the BBB and subsequently into parenchymal cells
remains a major obstacle in efficient suppression of HIV-1 infection in the brain (Ronaldson et
al., 2008). Inadequate permeability of different antiretroviral drugs, in particular HIV-1 PIs and
NRTIs, into different brain cellular compartments is primarily due to functional expression of
ABC efflux transporters (P-gp, MRPs and BCRP). P-gp is encoded by the MDR gene, which has
two isoforms in humans (i.e., MDR1, MDR2) and three isoforms in rodents (i.e., mdr1a, mdr1b,
mdr2). P-gp substrates include various classes of antiretroviral drugs such as PIs (i.e., darunavir,
ritonavir) and NRTIs (i.e., abacavir) (Kis et al., 2010). Mdr1a/1b knockout animal models show
increased CNS accumulation of several PIs, which confirms a role for P-gp in antiretroviral drug
permeability into the brain (Salama et al., 2005;Spitzenberger et al., 2007). Localization of P-gp
has been reported at the BBB in brain microvessel endothelial cells, adhesive pericytes and
astrocytes (Bendayan et al., 2006). Furthermore, we have also confirmed localization of P-gp in
a rat microglia cell line, in cultured rat astrocytes, in a rat brain endothelial cell line and in a
human brain microvessel endothelial cell line (Bendayan et al., 2002;Lee et al., 2001b;Ronaldson
et al., 2004a;Zastre et al., 2009).
Evidence in the literature suggest that P-gp functional expression in the brain is altered during
HIV-1 infection. Increased P-gp immunoreactivity in glial cells has been reported in brain
autopsy tissues from patients with HIVE (Langford et al., 2004;Persidsky et al., 2006b). It is not
104
yet conclusive if the induced P-gp expression observed in post-mortem brain tissue is due to the
disease manifestation itself or the therapeutic regimen. It is known that antiretrovirals, in
particular, HIV-PIs, through their interaction with orphan nuclear receptors (i.e., PXR) may play
an important role in the upregulation of P-gp expression (Chan et al., 2011;Chandler et al.,
2003;Zastre et al., 2009). Therefore, in vitro systems have been used to delineate the cell-specific
effect of viral proteins and cytokines. Hayashi et al. have reported HIV-1 viral protein Tat
induced upregulation of P-gp expression in both murine brain microvessel endothelial cells and
astrocytes (Hayashi et al., 2005). Our group has demonstrated that both gp120 and IL-6 can
decrease P-gp expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes, whereas, TNF-α or IL-1β
exposure results in an enhancement in P-gp expression. Due to the expression of ABC drug
transporters, astrocytes may act as a secondary barrier to drug permeability within brain
parenchyma, thereby, resulting in altered drug distribution in the brain extracellular fluid (Lee et
al., 2001a). Since drug efflux transporters such as P-gp are known to limit the uptake of
antiretroviral drugs in astrocytes, the upregulation or downregulation of P-gp along with other
ABC transporters can significantly alter the availability of these drugs within brain parenchyma.
Currently, much interest has focused on studying intracellular signaling systems/ transcription
factors that regulate P-gp. For example, a recent study showed that the transcription factor NF-
кB regulates TNF-α-induced upregulation of mdr1b promoter activity in a rat brain endothelial
cell line (Yu et al., 2008). Although these studies provide insight on P-gp regulation in rodent or
murine astrocytes, regulation of P-gp in human astrocytes in the context of HIV-1 infection has
not yet been characterized. Therefore, this study aims to determine if gp120 can induce an
immune response in primary cultures of human fetal astrocytes and examines how P-gp protein
expression is regulated by viral isolates, gp120 and IL-6.
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7.3 Materials and Methods
7.3.1 Reagents
HIV-196ZM651 gp120 full-length protein (subtype C; R5-tropic), rabbit polyclonal anti-CCR5 and
anti-CXCR4 were obtained from the NIH AIDS Research and Reference Reagent program
(Bethesda, MD). HIV-1ADA gp120 (subtype B; R5-tropic) full-length protein was purchased from
Immunodiagnostics (Woburn, Ma). Murine monoclonal C219 antibody against P-gp was
purchased from ID labs (London, ON, Canada). Murine monoclonal AC-40 antibody against
actin, horseradish peroxidase conjugated anti-mouse, human IL-6, CXCR4 and CCR5
neutralizing antibody were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (Oakville, ON, Canada). IL-6-
neutralizing antibody was purchased from R&D systems (Minneapolis, MN). NF-κB inhibitory
peptide, SN50, was purchased from EMD Biosciences (La Jolla, CA). [3H]Digoxin (Specific
activity 23.5 Ci/mmol), a substrate for P-gp was purchased from PerkinElmer Life and analytical
Sciences (Boston, MA).
7.3.2 Primary Cultures of HFAs
Human fetal brain tissue samples were collected from consenting patients undergoing elective
pregnancy termination (between 12 to 14 weeks of gestation age). Ethics approval was obtained
from University Health Network (Toronto, ON, Canada). Primary cultures of HFAs were
established according to previously published protocol (Hammond et al., 2002) with few
modifications. Briefly, tissue was collected in ice-cold medium (DMEM supplemented with 5%
FBS and 5% penicillin/streptomycin). After removal of meninges, tissue was triturated until
disaggregated. The cell suspension was then centrifuged and re-suspended in initial growth
medium containing DMEM supplemented with 20% FBS and 0.025% penicillin/streptomycin.
Cells were distributed in 75 cm2 tissue culture flasks and incubated overnight at 37
oC under 5%
CO2 and 95% air so that viable cells can adhere to culture flasks. The medium was then replaced
with feeding medium (DMEM with 10% FBS and 0.025% penicillin/streptomycin) and cells
were grown as monolayer until confluency. HFAs were characterized by the detection of
vimentin, a biochemical marker for fetal astrocytes.
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7.3.3 Isolation of CCR5 HIV-1 ADA and CCR5/CXCR4 HIV-1 89.6 viral
isolates
HIV-1 89.6, a macrophage/T-lymphocyte dual-tropic (CCR5 and CXCR4-tropic) viral isolate,
was obtained from the AIDS Research and Reference Reagent program, National institute of
Allergy and infectious Diseases. HIV-1 ADA, a macrophage-tropic (CCR5-tropic) strain, was
isolated from PBMCs from an HIV-1 infected patient. Infected monocytes were cultured and
maintained following previously published protocols (Ricardo-Dukelow et al., 2007).
7.3.4 Treatment with HIV-1, HIV-1 gp120 and IL-6
Confluent HFA monolayers were treated with either CCR5 HIV-1 ADA or CCR5/CXCR4 HIV-
1 89.6 virus (100x concentrated stocks; reverse transcriptase activity 38.5 and 29.1 cpm/mlx105
day) for 24h. Similarly, HFAs were treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120 (1.0 nM) in the presence or
absence of CXCR4 or CCR5 neutralizing antibodies (1mg/ml) for 6h and 24h. Additionally,
cells were treated with IL-6 (0.5 ng/ml or 10 ng/ml) or HIV-196ZM651 gp120 (1.0 nM) for desired
time (6h, 12h and 24h) in the presence or absence of SN50 (1.0 µM), an NF-κB inhibitory
peptide.
7.3.5 ELISA analysis
IL6, IL-1β and TNF-α secretion from cultured HFAs in response to HIV-196ZM651 gp120 (1.0
nM) were measured using commercially available ultrasensitive ELISA kits according to the
manufacturers protocol (Pierce Biotechnology, IL). Standard curves for all three cytokines (0-
1000 pg/ml) were generated using the appropriate recombinant human cytokines. For the IL-6
and IL-1β kits, the detection level ranged from 10.2 to 400 pg/ml and for the TNF-α kit, it
ranged from 15.6 to 1,000 pg/ml.
7.3.6 Immunoblot analysis
Protein expression of P-gp, CXCR4 and CCR5 were determined by SDS-PAGE according to
previously published protocols (Ronaldson et al., 2004b). Briefly, whole cell lysates were
isolated using the RIPA buffer. Proteins (50μg) were resolved by SDS-PAGE and
electrotransferred onto PVDF membranes. The membranes were blocked overnight in TBS
containing 0.1% twin and 5% skim milk. Then blots were incubated with appropriate primary
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antibody followed by HRP-conjugated secondary antibody. C219 (1:500), AC40 (1:300), anti-
CXCR4 (1:1000) and anti-CCR5 (1:1000) antibodies were used to detect P-gp, actin, CXCR4
and CCR5, respectively. Finally, proteins bands were detected using enhanced
chemiluminescence kit. Densitometric analysis was performed using the software AlphaDigiDoc
RT2 to quantify relative protein expression.
7.3.7 Transport assay
Primary cultures of HFAs were seeded on 48-well plates and accumulation of [3H]digoxin was
measured following previously published protocols (Ronaldson et al., 2006). Briefly, cells were
washed and incubated at 37°C for 30 min in HBSS, pH 7.4, containing 10 mM HEPES and
0.01% bovine serum albumin. The cells were then incubated for the desired time with
[3H]digoxin (100nM; Specific activity 23.5 Ci/mmol). At the end of each time point, the
incubation medium was aspirated, and the reaction was terminated with 1000 μl of ice-cold PBS.
The cells were then solubilised with 200 μl of 1% Triton-X-100 for 30 min. Radioactivity was
measured by standard liquid scintillation counting. Cellular protein content was determined by
the Bradford colorimetric method using bovine serum albumin as a standard.
7.3.8 Data analysis
Each experiment was repeated at least three times on cultured astrocytes isolated from different
tissue. Student’s t-test was used to determine statistical significance between two groups.
Multiple comparisons were performed using ANOVA and Bonferroni’s post-hoc analysis. A p
value less than 0.05 was considered as statistically significant.
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7.4 Results
7.4.1 Interaction of viral protein gp120 (R5-tropic) with chemokine receptor
and pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion
To characterize the inflammatory response mediated by gp120 in human astrocytes, we exposed
HFAs to HIV-1 gp120 (R5-tropic strain) and observed a significant increase in the secretion of
various pro-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α) (Table 7-1). When primary HFA
cultures were exposed to gp120 in the presence of neutralizing antibodies directed against
CXCR4 and CCR5, the CCR5 neutralizing antibody significantly decreased gp120 induced
secretion of all three cytokines examined whether administered alone or in conjunction with
CXCR4 neutralizing antibody. In contrast, administration of HIV-1 gp120 and CXCR4
neutralizing antibody failed to affect gp120 mediated cytokine secretion.
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Table 7-1 Pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion in primary cultures of HFAs treated with HIV-196ZM651 gp120
Treatment IL-6 (pg/ml) TNF-α (pg/ml) IL-1β (pg/ml)
6h 24h 6h 24h 6h 24h
Untreated _ 182.36 ± 26.83 _ 11.35 ± 3.69 _ 2.64 ± 1.23
gp120 431.57 ± 73.09*** 336.33 ± 54.32*** 679.50 ± 31.80*** 401.37 ± 20.98*** 296.46 ± 19.59*** 211.81 ± 22.52***
CXCR4 Nab 452.40 ± 69.99*** 347.52 ± 65.75*** 735.85 ± 108.93*** 464.13 ± 15.21*** 274.07 ± 2.38*** 210.71 ± 11.76*** ± gp120
CCR5 Nab 204.90 ± 18.55*** 164.20 ± 10.59 12.09 ± 4.84 20.24 ± 16.82 6.81 ± 13.80 5.93 ± 8.46 ± gp120 CXCR4 & CCR5 Nab 189.65 ± 19.29*** 167.59 ± 17.32 19.91 ± 13.04 26.08 ± 26.96 1.73 ± 1.75 1.98± 1.00 ± gp120
*** p<0.001; Nab = neutralizing antibody; Data points are expressed as mean SD of 8 separate measurements obtained from different cultures. For the 24h treatments, statistical comparisons are made between untreated controls and treated groups. For the 6h treatments, all the values are compared to the minimal detection limit of the respective kit. For the IL-6 and IL-1β kits, the detection level ranged from 10.2 to 400 pg/ml and for the TNF-α kit, it ranged from 15.6 to 1,000 pg/ml.
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7.4.2 Effect of R5/X4 and R5-tropic viral isolates on P-gp protein expression
It is currently unknown whether interaction of intact HIV-1 virus with chemokine receptors in
astrocytes can modify functional expression of drug transporters such as P-gp. In intact HIV-1
viral isolates, gp120 is expressed at the viral envelope and mediates attachment to chemokine
receptors expressed at the surface of target cells. We detected protein expression of both CXCR4
and CCR5 in our HFA cultures (Figure 7-1).
Figure 7-1 Immunoblot analysis of CXCR4 and CCR5 in primary cultures of HFAs. Whole cell
lysates (50 µg) from primary cultures of HFAs, 3T3-CXCR4 and 3T3-CCR5 cells were resolved
on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and transferred to PVDF membrane. Cell lysates prepared
from 3T3-CXCR4 and 3T3-CCR5 cells were used as positive controls. CXCR4 and CCR5 were
detected using the appropriate polyclonal antibody (anti-CXCR4, 1:1000 dilution; anti-CCR5,
1:1000 dilution).
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In order to test if HIV-1 can alter P-p expression, primary cultures of HFAs were exposed to R5-
tropic and X4/R5-tropic viral isolates. Since R5-tropic viruses are known to predominate in the
brain, we used HIV-1 ADA isolates. We also utilized HIV-1 89.6, an X4/R5 viral isolate, to test
the effect of dual tropism on P-gp expression. Exposure to either X5-tropic or X4/R5-dual-tropic
viral isolates for 24h resulted in decreased (p<0.001) P-gp expression by up to 75% and 90%
respectively (Figure 7-2A).
7.4.3 Effect of gp120 and IL-6 on P-gp protein expression
We have previously shown that gp120 exposure can significantly decrease P-gp protein
expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes. However, it was unknown if gp120 had a similar
effect on P-gp expression in human astrocytes. Immunoblot analysis showed that HIV-1 gp120
treatment resulted in a time dependent decrease in P-gp protein expression (approximately 64%
or 2.8-fold after 24h) compared to untreated cells (Figure 7-2B). No significant change in protein
expression was observed after 6h or 12h of treatment.
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Figure 7-2 Immunoblot and densitometric analysis of P-gp in primary cultures of HFAs after
exposure to (A) either CCR5- tropic HIV-1 ADA or CCR5/CXCR4 dual-tropic HIV-1 89.6 viral
isolates, (B) 1.0 nM gp120 or (C) IL-6 (0.5 ng/ml or 10ng/ml). Whole cell lysates (50 µg) from
primary cultures of HFAs were resolved on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and transferred to a
PVDF membrane. MDR1 overexpressing cell lines (MDCK-MDR1 and MDA-MDR1) were
used as positive controls. P-gp was detected using the monoclonal antibody C219 (1:500 or
1:300 dilution) and actin was detected using AC40 antibody (1:500 dilution). Results are
expressed as mean ± SD of three separate experiments. Asterisks represent data points that are
significantly different from control (***p<0.001; *p<0.05).
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Decreased P-gp protein expression correlated with a reduction in P-gp mediated drug transport
activity. This was demonstrated by an increase in cellular [3H]digoxin accumulation, an
established substrate for P-gp, in gp120-treated HFA cultures as compared to untreated controls
(Figure 7-3).
Figure 7-3 Accumulation of [3H]digoxin by HFAs in the presence or absence of gp120.
[3H]digoxin (100 nM) accumulation was measured at 37C in cells treated with 1.0 nM gp120.
Results are expressed as mean ± SD of three separate experiments and each data point represents
quadruplicate measurements. Asterisks (*) represent data points that are significantly different
from control (p<0.05).
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Previously, we have demonstrated that IL-6 was a key regulator of P-gp expression in rat
astrocytes. Therefore, we investigated the effect of this cytokine in human astrocytes. IL-6 (0.5
ng/ml and 10 ng/ml) decreased P-gp expression up to 50% after 12h exposure (Figure 7-2C).
However, P-gp protein expression was not altered by longer exposure up to 48h (Data not
shown). In the presence of IL-6-neutralizing antibody, P-gp protein expression was not
significantly decreased by HIV-1 gp120 as compared to HFAs treated with only HIV-1 gp120
(Figure 7-4).
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Figure 7-4 Immunoblot and densitometric analysis of P-gp in primary cultures of HFAs treated
with 1.0nM gp120 in the presence of 0.5µg/ml IL-6 neutralizing antibody (NAB). Whole cell
lysates (50 µg) from primary cultures of HFAs were resolved on a 10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel
and transferred to a PVDF membrane. An MDR1 overexpressing cell line (MDA-MDR1) was
used as positive control. P-gp was detected using the monoclonal antibody C219 (1:300 dilution)
and actin was detected using AC40 antibody (1:500 dilution). Results are expressed as mean ±
SD of three separate experiments. Asterisks (*) represent data points that are significantly
different from control (p<0.05).
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7.4.4 Involvement of NF-кB in the regulation of P-gp expression
NF-κB signaling has been reported to play a role in inflammation-mediated regulation of P-gp.
However, the role of this pathway in regulating P-gp expression in human astrocytes has not
been demonstrated. Using immunoblot analysis, we investigated whether NF-κB can regulate P-
gp protein expression in HFAs exposed to gp120 or IL-6. Treatment with gp120 or IL-6 resulted
in a significant decrease in P-gp expression (64% and 50%, respectively). However, in the
presence of SN50, a peptidic inhibitor of NF-κB nuclear translocation, P-gp protein expression
remained unchanged when exposed to gp120 or IL-6 in HFAs, suggesting a role for this
transcription factor in P-gp downregulation (Figure 7-5).
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Figure 7-5 Immunoblot and densitometric analysis of P-gp in primary cultures of HFAs treated
with (A) 1.0nM gp120 or (B) IL-6 (0.5 or 10ng/ml) in the presence of NF-κB inhibitory peptide,
SN50 (1.0 μM). Whole cell lysates (50 µg) from primary cultures of HFAs were resolved on a
10% SDS-polyacrylamide gel and transferred to a PVDF membrane. An MDR1 overexpressing
cell line (MDCK-MDR1) was used as positive control. P-gp was detected using the monoclonal
antibody C219 (1:500 dilution) and actin was detected using AC40 antibody (1:500 dilution).
Results are expressed as mean ± SD of three separate experiments. Asterisks (*) represent data
points that are significantly different from control (p<0.05).
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7.5 Discussion
Pharmacotherapy of HIV-1 brain infection is limited. This, in part, is attributed to functional
expression of ABC drug transporters such as P-gp actively pumping several xenobitotics
including antiretroviral drugs out of several cellular compartments. Since astrocytes in brain
parenchyma are able to harbour latent HIV-1 infection (Gorry et al., 2003), expression of P-gp in
these cells is a major determinant of successful antiretroviral drug cellular permeability and
suppression of viral infection. Since the regulation of P-gp expression by HIV-1 in human
astrocytes had not been investigated prior to the present study, we investigated the effect of HIV-
1 isolates on P-gp protein expression in an in vitro model of HFAs. In our primary cultures of
HFAs, we observed a significant decrease in P-gp protein expression in the presence of R5-tropic
and R5/X4-tropic HIV-1 viral isolates suggesting a downregulatory effect of HIV- 1 on P-gp
expression. Previously, Gollapudi and Gupta reported altered expression of P-gp in a HIV-1
infected T- cell line and in a monocytic cell line. In contrast to our findings, they reported
upregulation of P-gp expression in their leukocytic cell systems when subjected to HIV-1
infection (Gollapudi and Gupta, 1990). Compared with T-cells or monocytes, astrocytes do not
harbour productive HIV-1 infection and utilize different mechanisms of HIV-1 viral entry and
sequestration (Boutet et al., 2001;Liu et al., 2004;Sabri et al., 1999).Therefore, it is possible that
regulation of P-gp expression by HIV-1 is also cell-type specific, which may account for the
apparent discrepancies between our present study and the work of Gollapudi and Gupta.
Shed viral proteins are also known to alter expression of ABC transporters. For example, viral
protein Tat-induced P-gp expression has been reported both in cultured brain microvessel
endothelial cells and in astrocytes (Hayashi et al., 2005), whereas, we have previously
demonstrated that gp120 exposure can significantly downregulate P-gp protein expression (4.7-
fold) resulting in increased accumulation of saquinavir, an antiretroviral drug, in primary cultures
of rat astrocytes (Ronaldson et a., 2006). HIV-1 Tat is an accessory protein that is critical for
viral replication, whereas, gp120 is a structural protein that is part of the viral envelope and is
essential for the viral binding to host cells that initiates HIV-1 cellular entry process. The
mechanism of action of both proteins are different. Tat is known to cross the cell membrane and
interact with transcription factors within a cell (Mahlknecht et al., 2008;Sune and Garcia-Blanco,
1995), whereas, gp120 is known to interact with chemokine receptors on the cell surface
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(Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006;Wu et al., 1997). Therefore, it is anticipated that these proteins
may activate signaling pathways differently and in turn, have different effects on P-gp
expression. In our present study, we further demonstrate that gp120 exposure results in a 2.8-fold
decrease in P-gp protein expression in human astrocytes. As expected, the magnitude of P-gp
downregulation is less profound in HFAs exposed to viral protein as compared to cells exposed
to R5-tropic and dual-tropic HIV-1 viral isolates. In our hands, exposure to gp120 also results in
a significant reduction in P-gp function as shown by increased accumulation of digoxin
(approximately 1.6-fold in gp120 treated cells compared to the control). Although the decrease in
P-gp protein expression is less profound in HFAs than in cultured rat astrocytes (2.8-fold versus
4.7-fold), the functional activity of P-gp was downregulated to a similar degree in both models
(1.5-fold increase in digoxin accumulation in rat astrocytes versus 1.6-fold increase in HFAs)
(Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). The comparable functional loss of P-gp in both human and rat
astrocytes in the presence of gp120 suggests that although the effect of this viral protein on the
P-gp expression is different between two models, the effect on drug transport activity remains
similar.
In this study, we have further characterized gp120 mediated cytokine secretion in HFAs. It is
known that during HIV-1 infection, secreted gp120 can interact with microglia/ macrophages as
well as astrocytes in the CNS and induce secretion of neurotoxic cytokines (Kaul and Lipton,
2006). Transgenic mice expressing gp120 show activation of glial cells and neuronal damage
suggesting a significant role for this viral protein in HIV-1 mediated neuroinflammation (Toggas
et al., 1994). Previously, gp120 triggered cytokine secretion (IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α) has been
characterized in primary cultures of rat astrocytes. Here, we have characterized cytokine
secretion by gp120 in human astrocytes. Our findings show that R5-tropic gp120 induced
secretion of IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α in HFAs indicating that an inflammatory response can be
triggered by gp120 in these cells. Neutralization of cell surface CCR5 chemokine receptor
significantly diminished gp120-mediated cytokine production suggesting that interaction of
gp120 with CCR5 is responsible for cytokine release in these cells. Our findings in HFAs are in
agreement with previously published findings in a rodent model and emphasize that the gp120-
CCR5 interaction is a critical event in neuroinflammatory signaling within human brain
parenchyma.
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Ample literature evidence suggests alteration of P-gp expression by pro-inflammatory cytokines.
In human hepatocytes, IL-6 exposure resulted in a reduced MDR1 gene expression and P-gp
activity (Lee and Piquette-Miller, 2001). Recently, an IL-6 mediated decrease in P-gp expression
has been reported in cultured human brain microvessel endothelial cells further supporting the
fact that P-gp expression can be altered by this cytokine (Poller et al., 2010). In rodent astrocytes,
IL-6 treatment resulted in a continuous and profound decrease in P-gp expression from 6h to 24h
(8.9-fold after 24h). Comparison of P-gp expression following IL-6 exposure in different cells
suggests that this cytokine may have a down-regulatory effect on P-gp expression. Accordingly,
treatment with IL-6 also results in a time-dependent decrease in P-gp protein expression in
cultured HFAs. P-gp protein expression is 50% (2-fold) downregulated after 12h of treatment
with either low or high concentration of IL-6. However, the downregulatory effect of IL-6 is lost
during longer exposure (24h) and P-gp protein expression returned to the control levels. Time
dependent regulation of P-gp by other cytokines has been reported previously. Bauer et al. have
shown that TNF-α induced regulation of P-gp is time-dependent where a transient exposure to
TNF-α caused a decrease in P-gp expression and a longer exposure increased the expression of
this transporter in rat brain capillaries (Bauer et al., 2007). Compared to the profound
downregulation (8.9-fold) previously reported in rodent astrocytes (Ronaldson and Bendayan,
2006), the IL-6 mediated decrease in P-gp expression in HFAs is modest (2-fold). This finding
may be explained by the difference in endogenous levels of IL-6 between the culture
supernatants of rat and human astrocytes. IL-6 was undetectable in primary cultures of rat
astrocytes. Although previous studies reported no evidence of IL-6 presence in untreated
cultured HFAs (Lee et al., 1993), we detect IL-6 in HFA culture supernatant (approximately
182.36 pg/ml). Astrocytes are known to be the primary source of IL-6 cytokine during
inflammation; however, elevated endogenous levels of IL-6 in HFAs may be related to the
prenatal phenotype of these cells. Previously, a beneficial role of IL-6 has been reported in
neuronal protection implying that endogenous IL-6 secreted from HFAs may have a
neuroprotective role during fetal brain development (Gadient and Otten, 1997). Since the HFAs
are continuously exposed to endogenous IL-6 levels, it is likely that the IL-6 mediated decrease
in P-gp expression may substantially differ between human and rat astrocytes.
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We have further examined the role of IL-6 in regulating P-gp expression by treating cultured
HFAs with HIV1 gp120, in the presence of IL-6-neutralizing antibody. Our results show that P-
gp protein expression was not significantly altered in these conditions confirming that IL-6
secretion is primarily responsible for the gp120-mediated downregulation observed in HFAs.
These findings further support our findings in rodent astrocytes where IL-6 was also the principal
cytokine responsible for P-gp downregulation (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006).
Viral proteins and/or cytokines are known to activate intracellular signaling pathways (Kaul et
al., 2005;Sluss et al., 1994). Few studies have reported the activation of NF-кB in response to
gp120 in various cell systems including astrocytes (Saha and Pahan, 2007). Furthermore, NF-кB
signaling is known to be involved in ABC drug transporters regulation. Using rat brain
capillaries, Bauer et al. demonstrated that alteration of P-gp expression by TNF-α is NF-κB
dependent. Previous work by our group showed that NF-κB is involved in the regulation of
Mrp1, another drug efflux transporter, in gp120 treated cultured rat astrocytes, by inducing TNF-
α secretion (Ronaldson et al., 2010). However, the role of NF-κB in P-gp regulation in HFAs
triggered with gp120 or IL-6 has not been elucidated. Therefore, we investigated the
involvement of NF-κB in our HFA model by inhibiting this transcription factor using the
inhibitory peptide, SN50. In HFAs, inhibition of NF-kB attenuated both gp120 and IL-6
mediated decreases in P-gp expression whereas inhibition of this transcription factor did not
affect endogenous P-gp expression. These findings demonstrate that NF-κB is involved in the
downregulation of P-gp by gp120 or IL-6 in HFAs.
To date, a limited number of studies have examined the expression of ABC transporters in adult
human brain and none of these studies have investigated P-gp expression in HIV-1 infected
treatment-naive patients. Due to the limitation in obtaining appropriate controls (i.e., treatment
naive, age-matched), it is still unclear how HIV-1 associated neuroinflammation affects the
functional expression of these transporters in adult human brain. Therefore, we have chosen to
use an in vitro system to determine the effect of viral proteins and cytokines in HFAs. Our
findings demonstrate for the first time that HIV-1 isolates, gp120 and/or IL-6 exposure can
downregulate P-gp protein expression in primary cultures of HFAs and that NF-κB signaling
pathway is involved in this regulation. The present study performed in human astrocytes
validates our previous data obtained in primary cultures of rat astrocytes by showing that gp120
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induced inflammatory response and loss of P-gp function exist and remain comparable in both
models. Furthermore, our results suggest that astrocytes may be involved in antiretroviral drug
sequestration within brain parenchyma during HIV-1 infection. The availability of antiretroviral
drugs in astrocytes, in turn, may aid in limiting brain viral infection by preventing the latent virus
from becoming infectious. However, in addition to P-gp, other transporters of the ABC family
are also known to be involved in antiretroviral drug transport. For example, MRP1 can transport
several HIV-PIs used in antiretroviral therapy (Dallas et al., 2004a;Ronaldson et al., 2008).
Using rodent astrocytes, we have previously demonstrated that gp120 exposure results in an
upregulation of Mrp1 expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes (Ronaldson et al., 2010).
Although we have not yet investigated the regulation of MRP1or other MRP isoforms involved
in antiretroviral drug transport in human astrocytes, the regulation of these transporters during
HIV-associated neuroinflammatory response will also contribute towards the overall
antiretroviral drug permeability in astrocytes. Further work is needed to clarify the effect of
downregulated P-gp in astrocytes on antiretroviral therapy efficacy. Overall, the results of our
work emphasize that rodent astrocytes can be used as an effective glial culture model for
understanding and elucidating mechanisms involved in inflammation and drug resistance in
HIV-1 infection of human astrocytes.
7.6 Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Michelle Farrugia (Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON) for her
remarkable assistance in obtaining human fetal brain tissue.
This work is supported by the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR, MOP-56976 to
RB), the Ontario HIV Treatment Network (OHTN to RB) and from the National Institute of
Health (RO1 MH65151, RO1 AA017398 to YP).
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Chapter 4
8 Role of anti-inflammatory compounds on HIV-1 gp120-
mediated brain inflammation
This work is published and reproduced in this thesis with permission from Biomed Central:
T Ashraf,W Jiang, T Hoque, J Henderson, C Wu and R Bendayan. Role of anti-inflammatory
compounds in human immunodeficiency virus-1 glycoprotein120 -mediated brain inflammation.
2014. Journal of Neuroinflammation. 11:91.
Author contributions:
Research design: T Ashraf (first author), W Jiang, T Hoque, J Henderson (collaborator), C Wu
and R Bendayan (principle investigator).
Conducted experiments and data analysis: T Ashraf (figures 8-1, 8-2, 8-3,8-4,8-5,8-6,8-7 except
animal surgery and qPCR); W Jiang (figures 8-1, 8-2,8-5,8-6); T Hoque (figures 8-3,8-4); J
Henderson (figure 8-3) and C Wu (figure 8-7, animal surgery).
Writing of the manuscript: T Ashraf (preparation of the manuscript drafts and responses to
reviewer’s comments); T Hoque (editorial review, submission and image resolution
improvement); J Henderson (editorial review) and R Bendayan (overall conceptual and editorial
review of several manuscript drafts and responses to reviewer’s comments)
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8.1 Abstract
Neuroinflammation is a common immune response associated with brain HIV-1 infection.
Identifying therapeutic compounds that exhibit better brain permeability and can target signaling
pathways involved in inflammation may benefit treatment of HIV-associated neurological
complications. The objective of this study was to implement an in vivo model of brain
inflammation by intracerebroventricular administration of the HIV-1 viral coat protein gp120 in
rats and to examine anti-inflammatory properties of HIV adjuvant therapies such as minocycline,
chloroquine and simvastatin.
Male Wistar rats were administered a single dose of gp120ADA (500 ng) daily for seven
consecutive days, intracerebroventricularly, with or without prior intraperitoneal administration
of minocycline, chloroquine or simvastatin. Maraviroc, a CCR5 antagonist, was administered
intracerebroventricularly prior to gp120 administration for seven days as control. Real-time
qPCR was used to assess gene expression of inflammatory markers in the frontal cortex,
hippocampus and striatum. IL-1β and TNF-α secretion in CSF was measured applying ELISA.
Protein expression of MAPKs (ERK1/2, JNKs and P38Ks) was detected using immunoblot
analysis. Student’s t-test and ANOVA were applied to determine statistical significance.
In gp120ADA-injected rats, mRNA transcripts of IL-1β and iNOS were significantly elevated in
the frontal cortex, striatum and hippocampus compared to saline or heat-inactivated gp120-
injected controls. In CSF, a significant increase in TNF-α and IL-1β was detected. Maraviroc
reduced upregulation of these markers suggesting that the interaction of R5-tropic gp120 to
CCR5 chemokine receptor is critical for induction of an inflammatory response. Minocycline,
chloroquine or simvastatin attenuated upregulation of IL-1β and iNOS transcripts in different
brain regions. In CSF, minocycline suppressed TNF-α and IL-1β secretion, whereas chloroquine
attenuated IL-1β secretion. In gp120-injected animals, activation of ERK1/2 and JNKs was
observed in the hippocampus and ERK1/2 activation was significantly reduced by the anti-
inflammatory agents.
Our data demonstrate that anti-inflammatory compounds can completely or partially reverse
gp120-associated brain inflammation through an interaction with MAPK signaling pathways and
125
suggest their potential role in contributing towards the prevention and treatment of HIV-
associated neurological complications.
8.2 Background
Neurocognitive impairment remains highly prevalent in HIV-1 infected individuals due to
persistence of viral replication and associated inflammation in the brain (Heaton et al., 2011) .
Since the initiation of HAART, the development of HAD in HIV-1 infected patients has
significantly decreased. However, milder forms of HAND are becoming more predominant in
the post-HAART era, in part due to the longer life expectancy of infected individuals on
treatment. Despite receiving treatment, up to 50% of HIV-1 infected patients continue to develop
cognitive impairment, psychiatric illness and persistent fatigue (Heaton et al., 2011).
In response to HIV-1, resident microglia in the brain become activated and release inflammatory
mediators that further trigger the activation of neighboring microglia and astrocytes and signal
recruitment of peripheral monocytes from the systemic circulation (Ronaldson et al., 2008).
Studies have demonstrated that virus-infected cells or glial cells can release various neurotoxic
factors (AA, platelet activating factor, quinolinic acid, ROS, NO and glutamate) and a number of
pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, IFNα, IFNγ) (Perrella et al.,
1992;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008;Ronaldson et al., 2008). Irreversible neuronal injury and
loss is often caused by inflammation and oxidative stress associated with these mediators present
in the systemic circulation that crosses the BBB and/or mediators secreted in the brain from glial
cells. Detectable amounts of these cytokines in the CSF of patients with HAND have been
reported (Perrella et al., 1992). In vitro studies in primary glial cell cultures also suggest that
shed viral proteins (such as gp120, Tat and vpr) can induce secretion of pro-inflammatory
cytokines. For example, previous work from our laboratory has demonstrated that R5-tropic
gp120 can mediate secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) by
interacting with CCR5 chemokine receptor in primary cultures of human or rodent astrocytes
(Ashraf et al., 2011;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). HIV-1 proteins (such as gp120 and Tat)
can also downregulate tight junction proteins expressed in brain microvessel endothelial cells
which may facilitate the entry of the virus into the brain parenchyma (Kanmogne et al., 2005).
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The treatment of brain HIV-1 infection remains challenging partly due to poor permeability of
antiretroviral drugs across the BBB and into glial cells. One possible mechanism for the low
brain permeability of these drugs is the functional expression of ATP-dependent, membrane-
associated efflux transporters known as ABC transporters (P-gp, MRPs and Bcrp) at the BBB
and in brain parenchyma (Bendayan et al., 2002). Several in vivo and in vitro studies have
examined the role of these transporters in reducing the permeability of antiretroviral drugs into
brain cellular compartments (Bendayan et al., 2002;Kaddoumi et al., 2007). For example,
administration of P-gp specific inhibitor zosuquidar in macaques resulted in significant brain
accumulation of nelfinavir (Kaddoumi et al., 2007). Evidence in the literature suggests that
functional expression of these transporters in the brain is altered during HIV-1 infection.
Langford et al. reported increased P-gp immunoreactivity in glial cells in brain autopsy tissues
from patients with HIVE (Langford et al., 2004), whereas, Persidsky et al. reported a decreased
P-gp expression in tissues obtained from HIVE patients and from the SCID mice model of HIVE
(Persidsky et al., 2000). Furthermore, shed viral proteins (such as gp120 and Tat) and secreted
pro-inflammatory cytokines during HIV-1 infection are also known to alter the expression of
drug efflux transporters. Our previous work in rodent and human astrocytes suggests that gp120
can significantly downregulate P-gp functional expression (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). We
have also observed an increase in Mrp1 functional expression in response to gp120 in primary
cultures of rat astrocytes (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008).
However, whether gp120 can modulate the expression of these transporters in vivo in a similar
manner is yet to be characterized.
Several classes of antiretrovirals have been reported to poorly permeate into the brain, whereas
better permeable antiretroviral drugs can be associated with adverse side effects including
neurotoxicity (Cavalcante et al., 2010). Due to the complexities associated with the treatment of
brain HIV-1 infection and HIV-associated chronic secretion of inflammatory mediators, much
interest has risen in identifying potential adjuvant therapies that can be used along with
antiretroviral drugs. For example, minocycline, a second generation tetracycline derivative, has
been considered as a potential candidate due to its versatile role in neuroprotection in different
brain disease models (Meulendyke et al., 2012;Szeto et al., 2010). Chloroquine, an antimalarial
drug and simvastatin, a 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitor, have also
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demonstrated an anti-inflammatory and anti-HIV effect at non-toxic concentrations in vitro or in
vivo (Andras et al., 2008;Hagihara et al., 2000;Naarding et al., 2007;Nabatov et al., 2007).
Furthermore, minocycline, chloroquine and simvastatin can inhibit MAPK signaling pathways
(ERK1/2, JNKs and P38Ks) involved in generating inflammatory responses (Nikodemova et al.,
2006). In a clinical trial minocycline treatment was found to be unsuccessful in improving the
neurocognitive outcome in patients with cognitive impairment (Sacktor et al., 2011). On the
contrary, in a SIV model early administration of minocycline was reported to be effective against
striatal dopaminergic system dysfunction, suggesting that timely treatment initiation may have an
effect on minocycline efficacy (Meulendyke et al., 2012). Based on these observations, we
propose that early administration of these anti-inflammatory compounds may have the potential
to reverse HIV-associated inflammatory response.
The objective of the present work was to implement an in vivo model of HIV-associated
inflammation by ICV administration of viral coat protein gp120 and to investigate the regulation
of drug transporters, tight junction proteins, signaling pathways and the potential anti-
inflammatory effects of chloroquine, minocycline and simvastatin.
8.3 Materials and methods
8.3.1 Materials
HIV-1ADA gp120 full-length protein (subtype B; R5-tropic) and maraviroc were obtained from
Immunodiagnostic Inc (Woburn, Massachusetts, United States) and the NIH AIDS Research and
Reference Reagent program (Bethesda, Maryland, United States), respectively. ERK1/2 inhibitor
U0126 and simvastatin were purchased from Cell Signaling (Whitby, Ontario, Canada) and
Toronto Research Chemicals (Toronto, Ontario, Canada), respectively. Chloroquine,
minocycline, JNK inhibitor SP600125, murine monoclonal AC-40 antibody against actin, rabbit
polyclonal antibody against GFAP and HRP conjugated secondary antibodies (anti-mouse, anti-
rabbit and anti-rat) were obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (Oakville, Ontario, Canada). Alexa fluor
488 donkey anti-rabbit, anti-occludin, anti-zo1 and anti-claudin5 antibody, TRIzol™, DNAse I
and Prolong gold anti-fade reagent with 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) were purchased
from Invitrogen (Carlsbad, California, United States). Tissue-Tek cryo-optimum cutting
temperature (OCT) formulation was purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham,
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Massachusetts, United States). ERK1/2, phospho-ERK1/2, JNK, phospho-JNK, P38K and
phospho-P38K antibodies were obtained from Cell Signaling (Whitby, Ontario, Canada). Murine
monoclonal C219 antibody against P-gp, rat monoclonal MRP1 antibody and anti-BCRP (rat
monoclonal) antibody were purchased from ID labs (London, Ontario, Canada), Kamiya
Biomedical Company (Seattle, Washington, United States) and Abcam Inc (Boston,
Massachusetts, United States), respectively. ELISA kits were obtained from R&D Systems
(Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States). Guide cannula, dummy cannula, screws and dental
cement for stereotaxic surgery were purchased from HRS Scientific (Montreal, Quebec, Canada).
High capacity reverse transcriptase cDNA synthesis kit and SYBR Green Fastmix were obtained
from Applied Biosystems (Foster City, California, United States) and Quanta Biosciences Inc
(Gaithersburg, Maryland, United States), respectively.
8.3.2 Animals
This study was approved by the University of Toronto Animal Care Committee, Toronto,
Ontario, Canada. Adult Wistar male rats (weighing approximately 250 grams; 12 weeks of age)
were purchased from Charles River Laboratories (St. Constant, Quebec, Canada). Animals were
housed with rodent chow and water ad libitum on a 12 hour light-dark cycle. All procedures
were carried out in accordance with the guidelines of University of Toronto Animal Care
Committee and the Canadian Council on Animal Care. The rats were randomly assigned to nine
different groups: (1) wild-type (no surgery), (2) control (saline), (3) heat-inactivated gp120, (4)
gp120, (5) maraviroc + gp120, (6) chloroquine + gp120, (7) minocycline + gp120, (8)
simvastatin + gp120, (8) JNK inhibitor SP600125 + gp120, and (9) ERK1/2 inhibitor U0126 +
gp120.
8.3.3 Animal surgery and ICV administration of gp120/maraviroc/signaling
pathway inhibitors
Animals were anaesthetized with isoflurane (2 to 3%). The implantation of the guide cannula
was performed according to previously published protocols using the following stereotaxic
coordinates: 1 mm posterior to bregma, 1.5 mm lateral from midline and 3.5 mm ventral from
the surface of the skull according to the Atlas of Paxinos and Watson (Bagetta et al.,
1996;Paxinos G and Watson, 2006). Ketoprofen (5 mg/kg) was administered subcutaneously
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during surgery for pain relief. Animals were allowed to recover for seven days after surgery.
Following recovery, animals were administered a single dose of (100 ng or 300 ng or 500 ng)
gp120ADA (R5-tropic; clade B) daily for seven consecutive days ICV using a 5 μl Hamilton
syringe. gp120 was diluted into a sterile normal saline solution and administered in a volume of
2 μl (such as 250 ng/μl) over 2 minute period. Control animals received equal amount of saline.
Heat-inactivated gp120 was also administered for seven days as an additional control group.
Maraviroc, a selective CCR5 antagonist, was administered 30 minutes prior to gp120
administration for seven days [4 μl/4 minutes; 250 ng/μl in 1% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)].
ERK1/2 inhibitor U0126 (7 μg) and JNK inhibitor SP600125 (10 μg) were administered ICV
prior to gp120 administration at the same rate (4 μl/4 minutes; dissolved in 1.5% DMSO).
8.3.4 Intraperitoneal administration of minocycline, chloroquine and
simvastatin
Minocycline (50 mg/kg loading dose followed by 25 mg/kg/day) or chloroquine (25 mg/kg/day)
or simvastatin (1 mg/kg) was administered daily for seven consecutive days by a single
intraperitoneal injection 30 minutes prior to ICV gp120 administration. Minocycline and
chloroquine were dissolved in sterile water and simvastatin was dissolved in a 1% DMSO
solution.
8.3.5 Brain tissue, brain capillary isolation and CSF collection
Twenty four hours after the last injection, animals were anaesthetized and CSF samples were
collected by cisterna magna puncture according to previously published protocol (Jiang et al.,
2009). Subsequently, anaesthetized animals were perfused through the left ventricle of the heart
with 200 ml of saline solution and whole rat brains were harvested. For real-time qPCR and
immunoblot analysis, brains were dissected on ice to isolate frontal cortex, hippocampus and
striatum from both hemispheres. Samples were flash frozen in liquid nitrogen and kept at -80°C.
Capillaries were also isolated from saline and gp120-injected rat brains following previously
published protocol (Chan et al., 2013c). For immunohistochemical analysis, saline perfusion was
followed by 180 ml of paraformaldehyde (4%) dissolved in PBS perfusion before collecting
whole brains. These samples were stored in 50 ml paraformaldehyde (4%) at 4°C.
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8.3.6 Quantitative real-time PCR
Real-time qPCR was applied to determine the gene expression of inflammatory markers
according to previously described protocols followed by our laboratory (Hoque et al., 2012).
Briefly, total RNA was extracted from brain regions using TRIzol™ (Invitrogen, Carlsbad,
California, United States) reagent and the high capacity cDNA reverse transcriptase kit (Applied
Biosystems, Foster City, California, United States) was used to synthesize first-strand cDNA.
Primer pairs for the rat IL-1β gene (5-CTCAACTGTGAAATAGCAGCTTTC–3 and 5
GGACAGCCCAAGTCAAGG–3), rat TNF-α (5-TCTTCTCATTCCTGCTCGTG–3 and 5-
GATGAGAGGGAGCCCATTT–3), rat iNOS (5-CCAAGGTGACCTGAAAGAGG–3 and 5
TTGATGCTTGTGACTCTTAGGG–3), rat IL-6 (5-CTTCACAAGTCGGAGGCTTAAT–3 and
5-ACAGTGCATCATCGCTGTTC–3) and the rat Cyclophilin B gene (housekeeping gene; 5-
GGAGATGGCACAGGAGGAA-3 and 5-GCCCGTAGTGCTTCAGCTT-3) were designed
using Primer Express 3 software (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, California, United States))
and were validated for specificity and efficacy using LPS-treated rat astrocyte samples.
Quantitative PCR was performed using SYBR Green Master Mix (Quanta Biosciences Inc,
Gaithersburg, Maryland, United States) using an Eppendorf Real-time PCR System (Eppendorf
Canada, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada). A relative quantification was performed by comparing
the threshold cycle values of samples with serially diluted standards. Expression levels were
normalized to housekeeping gene Cyclophilin B.
8.3.7 ELISA
Commercially available colorimetric sandwich ELISA kits for rat IL-1β and TNF-α were used to
detect the secretion of these cytokines in CSF in the presence or absence of maraviroc,
chloroquine, minocycline and simvastatin. CSF collected from control (no surgery) and ICV
heat-inactivated gp120-administered animals was analyzed as an additional control group. The
assays were performed according to the manufacturer’s instruction with slight modifications as
previously described in our laboratory. Standard curves were generated using appropriate rat
cytokines and absorbance read at 450 nm was converted to pg/ml. We confirmed the minimal
detection level to be 2.5 pg/ml and 1.5 pg/ml for IL-1β and TNF-α, respectively.
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8.3.8 Immunoblot Analysis
Immunoblotting was performed as described previously in our laboratory (Ronaldson and
Bendayan, 2006). Tissue and capillary homogenates were prepared using a lysis buffer (1% (v/v)
NP-40 in 20 mM tris, 150 mM NaCl, 5 mM EDTA at pH 7.5 containing 1 mM PMSF and 0.1%
(v/v) PI cocktail). Tissues were sonicated for 10 seconds and centrifuged at 20,000 g for 10
minutes at 4°C to remove cellular debris. Protein concentrations of tissue or capillary
homogenates were determined using Bradford’s protein assay (Bio-rad laboratories, California,
United States). Total protein (1 μg, 5 μg to 50 μg) were separated on 7 to 12% SDS-PAGE and
transferred onto a PVDF membrane. After blocking with 5% skim milk for one hour, the
membrane was probed for protein of interest with primary antibody [anti-P-gp (C219), 1:500;
Mrp1, 1:500; Bcrp, 1:500; β-actin, 1:2000; ZO-1, 1:500; occludin, 1:500; claudin5, 1:250;
GFAP, 1:1000; iNOS, 1:500; ERK1/2,1:250; phospho-ERK1/2, 1:100; JNK, 1:250; phospho-
JNK, 1:100; P38K, 1:250; phospho-P38K, 1:100]. β-Actin was used as loading control. HRP-
conjugated secondary antibody was added after washes in tris-buffered saline with Tween. After
further washing, bands were detected using enhanced chemiluminescent reagent (Thermo
Fischer Scientific, Ontario, Canada). Densitometric analysis was performed in AlphaDigiDoc
RT2 software (Alpha Innotech, San Leandro, California, United States) to quantify relative
protein expression. The graphs represent relative density of the bands of interest normalized to
corresponding β-actin.
8.3.9 Immunohistochemistry
Immunohistochemistry was performed according to previously published protocol (Hui et al.,
2010). Briefly, paraformaldehyde-fixed samples were transferred to a 30% sucrose solution and
kept overnight at 4°C before mounting with OCT compound. Coronal cryostat sections (25 μm)
were prepared at Murine Imaging and Histology Facility (Faculty of Pharmacy, University of
Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada). Sections were incubated in blocking buffer (5% goat serum
and 0.2% Triton X-100 in 0.1 M PBS) for one hour followed by overnight incubation with
primary antibody at 4°C (Anti-GFAP, 1:200). Following incubation, sections were washed
thoroughly in PBS and incubated for two hours in Alexa-Fluor conjugated secondary antibody
(1:200). After further washing, coverslips were mounted onto the specimen using a prolong gold
anti-fade mounting medium with DAPI. Specimens were examined using a Nikon E1000
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fluorescent microscope (Nikon Corp., Mississauga, Canada). Images were captured using the
software SimplePCI (Compix, Inc., Imaging Systems, Sewickley, Pennsylvania, United States).
8.3.10 Data analysis
Student’s t-test was used to determine statistical significance between two groups. Multiple
comparisons were performed using ANOVA and Bonferroni’s post-hoc analysis. A P value less
than 0.05 was considered to be statistically significant. Data were analyzed using GraphPad
Prism software (San Diego, California, United States). Samples collected from three to twelve
animals per group were used.
8.4 Results
8.4.1 Gp120-mediated inflammatory response in the brain
Previous studies have demonstrated that ICV or region-specific administration of different
strains of gp120 from 100 ng to 500 ng into rodents can induce an inflammatory response
(Bagetta et al., 1999;Louboutin et al., 2010b). In our hands, administration of 100 ng to 300 ng
HIV-1 gp120ADA daily for seven days in adult male Wistar rats did not induce a significant
inflammatory response in brain tissue (data not shown). Therefore, a dose of 500 ng was chosen.
At this dose, we observed a significant upregulation of IL-1β, iNOS and TNF-α in different brain
regions. Compared to saline-administered animals, in gp120 (500 ng)-injected rats, transcripts of
IL-1β, iNOS and TNF-α were significantly elevated in the frontal cortex, whereas, elevated IL-
1β and iNOS mRNA were observed in the hippocampus and striatum (Figure 8-1A-C). No
significant change was observed in IL-6 transcript levels (data not shown). Heat-inactivated
gp120 did not induce any changes in inflammatory markers and remained comparable to saline
treatment (Figure 8-1A-C). ANOVA analysis performed for different regions in Figure 8-1 did
not show a significant difference of IL-1β, iNOS and TNF-α transcripts between wild-type
animals (no surgery) and saline-treated animals (Figure 8-1A-C).
Our previous work in vitro suggested that R5-tropic gp120 could interact with CCR5 chemokine
receptors resulting in pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). In
order to demonstrate that the inflammatory response observed in gp120-administered animals is
mediated by the specific interaction of gp120 with CCR5 chemokine receptor in vivo, we
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administered maraviroc, a CCR5 antagonist ICV prior to gp120 administration in rodents.
Administration of maraviroc (1 μg) resulted in a downregulation of IL-1β, iNOS and TNF-α
transcript levels in different brain regions when compared to only gp120-treated animals (Figure
8-1A-C).
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Figure 8-1 Effect of gp120 on the mRNA levels of (A) IL-1β, (B) iNOS and (C) TNF-α in
different brain regions of ICV administered gp120 (500ng) rats along with a CCR5 antagonist,
maraviroc (MVC). Wildtype (no surgery), control (saline) and heat inactivated (HI) gp120
injected animals were also analyzed. Results are expressed as mean±standard error of mean
(SEM) (n=10 for saline and gp120 groups; n=3 for wildtype, HI gp120 and maraviroc treated
groups). Asterisk represent data point significantly different from saline administered animals
(*** p<0.001; ** p<0.01; *p<0.05).
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At the protein level, a significant increase in TNF-α and IL-1β was also detected in CSF samples
collected from gp120-administered animals (Figure 8-2A and 8-2B). Consistent with the qPCR
data, maraviroc treatment attenuated the gp120-mediated secretion of cytokines. Also, heat-
inactivated gp120-mediated secretion of IL-1β and TNF-α was found to not be significantly
different from saline-treated animals (Figure 8-2A and 8-2B).
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Figure 8-2 ELISA analysis of (A) IL-1β and (B) TNF-α secretion in the CSF of gp120 (500ng)
administered rats in the presence of Maraviroc (MVC). CSF collected from saline and heat
injected animals were used as control. Results are expressed as mean±SEM (n=10 for saline and
gp120 groups; n≥3 for wildtype, HI gp120 and maraviroc treated groups). Asterisk represent data
point significantly different from saline administered animals (***p<0.001; ** p<0.01).
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8.4.2 Gp120-mediated activation of astrocytes
ICV administration of gp120 has previously been shown to result in astrocyte activation in vivo
as demonstrated by an increase in GFAP expression, a cellular marker for astrocyte (Louboutin
et al., 2010b). Therefore, in our model we investigated expression of GFAP using
immunohistochemistry (Figure 8-3A). In gp120-administered animals, we observed an increase
in GFAP staining in the hippocampus. This was further confirmed by immunoblotting analysis
(Figure 8-3B).
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Figure 8-3 (A) Immunohistochemical and (B) immunoblotting (upper panel) and densitometric
analysis (lower panel) of GFAP in hippocampus of ICV administered gp120 rats compared to
saline treated animals. A representative blot is shown. Results are expressed as mean±SEM. For
immunoblotting, samples obtained from five different animals were used per group. Asterisk
represent data point significantly different from saline administered animals (*p<0.05).
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8.4.3 Effect of gp120 on tight junction proteins and drugs efflux transporters in
brain capillaries
Previous studies have reported a breakdown of the BBB in models of brain HIV-1 infection in
vitro and in vivo (Persidsky et al., 2000). In order to determine the integrity of the BBB in our in
vivo model, we examined the expression of tight junction proteins (occludin, ZO-1, claudin5) as
well as drug efflux transporters (P-gp, Mrp1 and Bcrp) in brain capillaries isolated from gp120-
treated animals. We did not observe any significant changes in ZO-1, occludin, claudin5, P-gp,
Mrp1 and Bcrp protein expression in brain capillaries isolated from saline or gp120-administered
rats (data not shown).
8.4.4 Effect of gp120 on drug efflux transporter brain expression in brain
regions
We have previously shown in vitro that gp120 exposure can significantly decrease P-gp protein
expression and increase Mrp1 protein expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes and/or
HFAs. However, it was unknown if gp120 could alter the expression of these transporters in
vivo. Applying immunoblot analysis, we detected significant changes in P-gp, Mrp1 and Bcrp
protein expression in different brain regions of gp120-treated animals (Figure 8-4). Gp120
administration resulted in a significant decrease in P-gp protein expression in the frontal cortex
and hippocampus (40 and 30%, respectively) (Figure 8-4A and 8-4B). In the striatum of gp120-
treated animals, we did not detect any significant changes in P-gp protein expression compared
to saline-administered animals (Figure 8-4C). A significant upregulation of Mrp1 was observed
in hippocampus and striatum (67 and 68%, respectively) (Figure 8-4B and 8-4C), whereas, no
significant change was detected in the frontal cortex (Figure 8-4A). Bcrp, another drug efflux
transporter, was found to be upregulated in the frontal cortex (118% compared to saline) (Figure
8-4A) but not in the hippocampus and striatum (Figure 8-4B and 8-4C).
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Figure 8-4 Immunoblot (upper panel) and densitometric analysis (lower panel) of drug efflux
transporters (P-gp, Mrp1 and Bcrp) in (A) frontal cortex, (B) hippocampus and (C) striatum of
ICV administered gp120 rats. Transporter over-expressing cell lines were used as positive
controls. Representative blots are shown. Results are expressed as mean±SEM. Samples
obtained from six different animals were used per group. Asterisk represent data point
significantly different from saline administered animals (**p<0.01; * p<0.05).
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8.4.5 Anti-inflammatory effects of chloroquine, minocycline and simvastatin
Animals were administered gp120 (500 ng) ICV with or without prior intraperitoneal
administration of minocycline or chloroquine or simvastatin in order to assess their potential
anti-inflammatory effect. Administration of minocycline or chloroquine partially or completely
suppressed the gp120-induced upregulation of the inflammatory markers examined (Figure 8-5).
In particular, administration of minocycline or chloroquine completely attenuated gp120-
mediated upregulation of IL-1β and iNOS transcripts in all three brain regions (Figure 8-5A-C).
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Figure 8-5 Effect of gp120 on the mRNA levels of (A) IL-1β, (B) iNOS and (C) TNF-α in
different brain regions of ICV administered gp120 rats receiving simultaneous intraperitoneal
injection of chloroquine or minocycline. Saline injected animals were used as control. Results
are expressed as mean±SEM. Samples obtained from at least ten different animals were used per
group. Asterisk represent data point significantly different from saline administered animals
(*** p<0.001; **p<0.01; * p<0.05). Diamonds represent data point significantly different from
gp120-treatment (♦♦♦ p<0.001; ♦♦p<0.01).
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Minocycline was also effective in suppressing TNF-α transcripts in brain tissues and both TNF-α
and IL-1β secretion in the CSF of gp120-administered animals, whereas chloroquine only
attenuated IL-1β secretion (Figure 8-6A and 8-6B). Simvastatin attenuated both IL-1β and iNOS
transcripts in the hippocampus and striatum (Figure 8-5A and 8-5B), but only suppressed iNOS
in the frontal cortex (Figure 8-5B). At the protein level, however, simvastatin could not
significantly suppress gp120-mediated IL-1β and TNF-α secretion in the CSF (Figure 8-6A and
8-6B).
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Figure 8-6 ELISA analysis of (A) IL-1β and (B) TNF-α secretion in the CSF of gp120 (500ng)
administered rats receiving simultaneous intraperitoneal injection of chloroquine or minocycline
or simvastatin. CSF collected from saline injected animals was used as control. Results are
expressed as mean±SEM. Samples obtained from at least ten different animals were used per
group. Asterisk represent data point significantly different from saline administered animals (***
p<0.001; **p<0.01). Diamonds represent data point significantly different from gp120-treatment
(♦♦♦ p<0.001).
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8.4.6 Gp120-mediated activation of signaling pathways
The three main subfamilies of the MAPK pathway (ERK1/2, JNK and P38K) are known to be
actively involved in regulating cytokine secretion (Kaminska, 2005). Therefore, we investigated
the activation of ERK1/2, JNK and P38K in different brain regions of gp120-administered
animals. In the hippocampus, we observed phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and JNKs (Figure 8-7A),
however, we did not detect significant changes in ERK1/2, JNK or P38K phosphorylation in the
frontal cortex and striatum (data not shown). Administration of minocycline and simvastatin
significantly reduced ERK1/2 phosphorylation, whereas the effect of chloroquine was not found
to be significant (Figure 8-7B). Gp120-mediated JNK phosphorylation was found to not be
affected despite treatment with anti-inflammatory compounds (data not shown). However, in our
in vitro model of primary cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with gp120, we detected attenuation
of both ERK1/2 and JNKs in the presence of minocycline, chloroquine and simvastatin (data not
shown). In order to further demonstrate that the gp120-mediated activation of these pathways can
be attenuated in our model, inhibitors of ERK1/2 (U0126) and JNK (SP600125) pathways were
administered ICV daily prior to gp120 administration and we confirmed significant inhibition of
ERK1/2 and JNK phosphorylation, respectively (Figure 8-7C and 8-7D).
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Figure 8-7 Protein (upper panel) and densitometric analysis (lower panel) of (A) ERK1/2 and
phospho-ERK1/2; JNK and phospho-JNK; P38K and phospho-P38K, (B) ERK1/2 and phospho-
ERK1/2 in the presence of chloroquine, minocycline and simvastatin, (C) ERK1/2 and phospho-
ERK1/2 in the presence of ERK1/2 inhibitor U0126; (D) JNK and phospho-JNK in the presence
of SP600125 in the hippocampal tissue of gp120 administered rats. Representative blots are
shown. Tissue collected from saline administered animals was used as control. Results are
expressed as mean±SEM. Samples obtained from three to six different animals were used per
group. Asterisk represent data point significantly different from saline administered animals (***
p<0.001; * p<0.05). Diamonds represent data point significantly different from gp120-treatment
(♦ p<0.05).
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8.5 Discussion
A number of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IFN-γ) and oxidative stress
markers (such as NO) are known to be elevated during brain HIV-1 infection. HIV-1 coat protein
gp120 has previously been shown to generate an inflammatory response and oxidative stress
both in vitro and in vivo (Bagetta et al., 1996;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006;Ronaldson and
Bendayan, 2008). This viral protein is shed during HIV-1 replication and circulating levels of
gp120 have been detected in plasma and in the CSF (Banks and Kastin, 1998;Banks et al.,
1997;Cashion et al., 1999;Dohgu et al., 2012;Oh et al., 1992). Our laboratory has extensively
investigated gp120-mediated release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress in
primary cultures of rodent astrocytes as well as in HFAs exposed to viral isolates in vitro (Ashraf
et al., 2011;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008). In this study, we
implemented an in vivo model of brain inflammation by ICV administration of gp120. In
different models, doses of gp120 ranging from 100 to 500 ng (administered intracerebrally) have
been shown to induce an inflammatory response (Louboutin et al., 2010b). In our model, ICV
administration of 500 ng of HIV-1 gp120ADA resulted in a significant upregulation of different
inflammatory markers in the frontal cortex, hippocampus and striatum. Heat-denatured gp120
failed to generate an inflammatory response, suggesting that a native gp120 structure is
necessary to interact with chemokine receptors to induce an inflammatory response. We
observed upregulation of IL-1β, iNOS and TNF-α in the frontal cortex of gp120-administered
animals. In the hippocampus and striatum, IL-1β and iNOS transcripts were found to be elevated
due to gp120 treatment. These markers are known to be upregulated during HIV-1 infection
(Bagetta et al., 1999;Perrella et al., 1992). We also observed enhanced secretion of cytokines IL-
1β and TNF-α in the CSF. Previously, increased GFAP expression has been observed in HIV-1
infected brain (Vanzani et al., 2006). In our model, we observed a significant increase in GFAP
expression in the hippocampus, indicating activation of astrocytes in this region.
Interaction of gp120 and chemokine receptors has previously been reported in vitro (Ashraf et
al., 2011;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). Previous work from our laboratory has detected
expression of CCR5 in both human and rat primary culture of astrocytes. Using neutralizing
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antibodies against CCR5 and CXCR4 receptors, we have demonstrated that R5-tropic gp120 can
interact with CCR5 chemokine receptors and result in pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6
and TNFα) secretion in vitro (Ashraf et al., 2011;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). Maraviroc is
a potent and specific inhibitor of CCR5 that is clinically used to treat HIV-1 infection. Consistent
with our in vitro findings, maraviroc attenuated the gp120-mediated increase in IL-1β, iNOS and
TNF-α in our in vivo model suggesting that the mechanism of gp120-associated inflammation is
CCR5-receptor dependent. These findings provide evidence of in vivo interaction of gp120 with
CCR5 receptor and emphasize the critical role of this interaction in generating a brain
inflammatory response.
Downregulation of tight junction proteins (such as occludin, ZO-1, claudin5) has been implicated
in the pathogenesis of brain HIV-1 infection (Persidsky et al., 2000). A compromised BBB can
facilitate entry of HIV-1 from the periphery, and can ultimately increase the spread of the virus
in brain parenchymal cellular compartments. Although in vitro and in vivo studies have
demonstrated that HIV-1 proteins (like gp120 and Tat) can downregulate tight junction proteins
expressed in brain microvessel endothelial cells (Kanmogne et al., 2005;Louboutin et al., 2010a),
we did not observe any significant change in tight junction proteins expression in our model.
This lack of effect may be due to the dose, duration and/or strain of the gp120 treatment we used.
Persidsky et al. reported that downregulation of tight junction proteins is associated with Rho
activation in brain microvessel endothelial cells and this activation was mediated by monocyte
migration across these cells (Persidsky et al., 2006a). Ricardo-Dukelow et al. demonstrated that
HIV-1 infected macrophages upregulate a number of proteins in brain microvessel endothelial
cells that may lead to BBB disruption (Ricardo-Dukelow et al., 2007). Therefore, lack of
immune cell infiltration could be another potential reason for lack of change in tight junction
protein expressions in our model. We also did not detect any significant changes in transporter
protein expression in the capillaries.
Tight junction proteins form a physiological barrier at the brain capillary level, whereas a
biochemical barrier also exists both at the BBB level and in brain parenchyma. This biochemical
barrier primarily consists in the expression of drug efflux transporters and several metabolizing
enzymes that restrict the bioavailability of a number of antiretroviral drugs into the brain.
Modulation of these transporters by pathological stimuli has been previously reported (Hayashi
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et al., 2006;Hayashi et al., 2005;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006;Ronaldson and Bendayan,
2008). Decreased P-gp expression at the gene and protein level has been reported in brain
autopsy samples from patients with HIVE as well as in brain tissue collected from a SCID mice
model of HIVE (Persidsky et al., 2000). In vitro, HIV-1 viral isolates or gp120-mediated
downregulation of P-gp has also been reported by our laboratory in both rodent and human
astrocytes (Ashraf et al., 2011;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). Consistent with these data, in
our in vivo model, we observed downregulation of this transport protein expression in the frontal
cortex and hippocampus further confirming that gp120 has a down-regulatory effect on P-gp
functional expression in brain parenchyma.
Altered functional expression of Mrp1 has also been reported in the context of HIV-1. Hayashi et
al. reported Tat-induced upregulation of Mrp1, both at the gene and protein level in cultured
astrocytes (Hayashi et al., 2006). In primary cultures of rat astrocytes triggered with gp120 or
TNF-α, we also detected an increase in Mrp1 functional expression (Ronaldson et al.,
2010;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008). In the present study, a significant upregulation of Mrp1 in
the hippocampus and striatum was detected, further suggesting that gp120 exerts an up-
regulatory effect on Mrp1 protein expression in vivo. In our hands, Bcrp was also found to be
upregulated in the frontal cortex of gp120-treated animals. In contrast, IL-1β and TNF-α-
mediated downregulation of Abcg2 has previously been reported in porcine brain microvessel
endothelial cells (von Wedel-Parlow et al., 2009). These results indicate that, similar to other
drug efflux transporters, Bcrp is susceptible to modulation by inflammatory cytokines. However,
cytokine-mediated regulation of this transporter could be species and/or cell specific. Our in vivo
data are consistent with previous in vitro findings in glial cells where exposure to gp120 resulted
in a significant production of pro-inflammatory cytokines along with a downregulation of P-gp
expression and an upregulation of Mrp1 expression (Ashraf et al., 2011;Ronaldson and
Bendayan, 2006;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008). Together, these observations provide evidence
that regulation of drug efflux transporters is highly complex during HIV-associated brain
inflammation. Since a number of antiretroviral drugs are known substrates for these transporters,
changes in the expression of these transporters in brain parenchyma may result in an altered
distribution of antiretroviral drugs at cellular targets of HIV-1 infection.
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To date, only a few studies have reported on the neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory potential
of different compounds (such as minocycline, curcumin, neurosteroids) in attenuating a HIV-
associated inflammatory response (Maingat et al., 2013;Meulendyke et al., 2012;Tang et al.,
2009). The limitations of currently used antiretroviral drugs include lack of anti-inflammatory
properties, poor brain permeability and neurotoxicity associated with better permeable drugs.
Since neurological disorders are becoming more prevalent in HIV-1 infected patients and
inflammation is a common immune response, identifying therapeutic compounds that can
effectively permeate the BBB, exhibit anti-inflammatory properties, and are well tolerated may
provide an additional option in preventing and/or treating HAND. For example, in a recent study,
Maingat et al. reported efficacy of neurosteroid, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, in preventing
inflammation and neurodegeneration as well as behavioral deficits in a FIV model (Maingat et
al., 2013). Minocycline, a second generation tetracycline derivative, has been reported by many
to have anti-inflammatory properties both in vitro and in vivo (Meulendyke et al., 2012;Ryu et
al., 2004). In an Aβ injected rat model, minocycline has shown to successfully reverse the
activation of glial cells (Ryu et al., 2004). In our study, minocycline also effectively inhibited
gp120-mediated upregulation of different inflammatory markers in the frontal cortex,
hippocampus and striatum and further prevented secretion of cytokines in the CSF. Recently,
minocycline has been tested in a clinical trial in HIV-infected patients with cognitive
impairment. Although this study reported that minocycline treatment was unsuccessful in
improving neurocognitive function in patients with cognitive impairment (Sacktor et al., 2011), it
is still inconclusive if administration of the drug at earlier stages of the infection could have a
better clinical outcome. Since minocycline has been reported to have a safe profile when
administered with antiretroviral drugs in HIV-infected individuals, it will be important to assess
if early administration of antiretroviral drugs along with minocycline has any beneficial effects
against HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Several clinical studies indicate earlier
administration of antiretroviral drugs can decrease the incidence of neurological disorders (Ellis
et al., 2011). In a SIV model, early administration of minocycline was reported to be effective
against striatal dopaminergic system dysfunction, suggesting that timely treatment initiation may
have an effect on minocycline efficacy (Meulendyke et al., 2012). Since antiretroviral drugs
(with the exception of maraviroc) do not have anti-inflammatory properties, a combination
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therapy including antiretroviral and anti-inflammatory compounds may prevent the development
of HIV-associated cognitive deficits.
We also tested chloroquine, an antimalarial drug which exhibits anti-inflammatory and anti-HIV
effects in vitro and in vivo. For example, chloroquine administration has been reported to reduce
T-cell activation in chronic HIV-infected patients (Murray et al., 2010). In a rodent model,
chloroquine prevented a bacterial toxin-induced intracerebral toxicity (Hagihara et al., 2000). In
our gp120-administered model, chloroquine was able to suppress IL-1β and iNOS mRNA levels
in the frontal cortex, hippocampus and striatum. Chloroquine was also effective in reversing
gp120-mediated IL-1β release in the CSF. However, chloroquine was not able to inhibit gp120-
mediated release of TNF-α. Clinical trials are necessary to determine whether chloroquine could
be beneficial in reducing HIV-associated cognitive impairments, particularly in populations
where malaria is also prevalent. Simvastatin, an HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor, is another
compound that has demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties and neuroprotective effects
(Andras et al., 2008;Tong et al., 2012). In a study by Andras et al., simvastatin prevented Aβ and
HIV-1 Tat-induced upregulation of inflammatory genes in human brain microvessel endothelial
cells (Andras et al., 2008). In another study, this drug attenuated oxidative stress and
inflammation and also restored short-term and long-term memory in a transgenic mice model of
Alzheimer’s disease (Tong et al., 2012). In our study, simvastatin was able to suppress IL-1β and
iNOS in the hippocampus and striatum, but had minimal effect on IL-1β and TNF-α transcript
levels in the frontal cortex. Also, the 1 mg/kg dose of simvastatin was not able to attenuate the
secretion of cytokines in the CSF. In contrast to several other statins, simvastatin is known to
have good permeability into the brain. However, in the periphery, simvastatin is highly
metabolized by cytochrome P450 enzymes which can result in adverse drug-drug interaction
with HIV-PIs making it a less ideal candidate for adjuvant therapy in HIV-infected individuals.
Anti-inflammatory properties of statins that are not substrate of CYPs (rosuvastatin or
pravastatin) or less potent inhibitors of CYPs (atorvastatin) should be considered in future
studies.
Experimental data from various in vitro models suggest the involvement of different signal
transduction pathways in the regulation of cytokine secretion and drug transporters during HIV-
associated inflammation (Ashraf et al., 2011;Hayashi et al., 2006;Ronaldson et al., 2010).
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Potential anti-inflammatory compounds are also known to target different signaling pathways to
attenuate the inflammatory response. In particular, MAPKs are widely known to be involved in
various pathological processes associated with HIV-1 infection (such as neurotoxicity,
macrophage activation, viral replication) (Gong et al., 2011). Studies have further demonstrated
that inhibition of these kinases can downregulate HIV-1 infection as well as decrease
transcellular transport of HIV-1 across BBB in vitro (Dohgu and Banks, 2008;Dohgu et al.,
2011;Gong et al., 2011). Therefore, we examined these pathways in our gp120-associated brain
inflammation model and observed activation of ERK1/2 and JNKs in the hippocampus. The
presence of minocycline or simvastatin decreased the gp120-mediated phosphorylation of
ERK1/2 but not JNKs in the hippocampus. Since a number of studies suggest that chloroquine,
simvastatin and minocycline can attenuate JNK activation in vitro or in vivo, we speculate that
the lack of effect of these compounds on JNK phosphorylation could be time-dependent and
could not be delineated in our in vivo model (Nikodemova et al., 2006). However, using specific
inhibitors of ERK1/2 and JNK pathway, we were able to attenuate the gp120-mediated activation
of these two pathways in vivo.
In summary, using a gp120-induced brain inflammation model in vivo, we have demonstrated
that compounds with anti-inflammatory properties have the potential to prevent or reduce brain
inflammation by interacting with signaling pathways. In our model, we have also observed
altered expression of drug transporters due to gp120-mediated brain inflammation in vivo. The
expression of ABC transporters expressed at the BBB, in part, regulate the permeability of
antiretroviral drugs into the brain. In addition, drug transporters localized at brain parenchymal
cellular compartments also contribute towards the drug disposition in CNS. Alteration of these
transporters due to HIV-associated pathogenesis and/or antiretroviral therapy may change the
therapeutic outcome. Many different factors determine the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy
in improving neurocognitive impairment. We propose that identification of compounds with anti-
inflammatory properties will significantly benefit patients with neurocognitive impairments.
8.6 Conclusions
The major findings from our work revealed that agents such as minocycline, chloroquine and
simvastatin which are known to display anti-inflammatory properties, are effective in reducing
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brain inflammation triggered by the HIV-1 viral envelope protein, gp120 in an in vivo rodent
model. Furthermore, we demonstrated that this effect is mediated, in part, through an interaction
with the MAPK signaling pathway. Future studies are needed to determine the efficacy of the
early administration of antiretroviral drugs along with adjuvant therapy against the progression
of HIV-associated brain inflammation as well as cognitive deficits.
8.7 Acknowledgements
The authors thank Dr. Min Rui and Blake Ziegler for their assistance in animal work and brain
capillary work, respectively. This work is supported by a grant from the Ontario HIV Treatment
Network (OHTN). Dr. Bendayan is a Career Scientist of the OHTN, Ministry of Health of
Ontario.
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Chapter 5 Discussion, limitations, future directions and conclusion
9 Overall discussion
HIV-1 associated neurocognitive disorders are becoming prevalent in the post-cART era,
whereas, the incidence of HAD has decreased (Heaton et al., 2011;Valcour, 2013;Vivithanaporn
et al., 2010). About 50% of people living with HIV-1 infection will develop HAND.
Neurological symptoms commonly experienced by infected individuals are problems with
learning efficiency, memory loss, poor concentration, chronic pain, depression, fatigue and
motor abnormalities. These neurological deficits significantly impact the quality of life of
infected individuals (Valcour, 2013;Vivithanaporn et al., 2010). The introduction of cART is
allowing people with HIV-1 to live longer, but it is not sufficient to prevent development of
neurological impairments. The sequestration of the virus in brain cellular reservoirs (i.e.,
astrocytes, microglia) allows the virus to evade antiretroviral therapy. Studies have demonstrated
that virus-infected cells or neighboring astrocytes release a number of pro-inflammatory
cytokines (i.e., TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β), chemokines, ROS, NO and other neurotoxins (Alexaki et
al., 2008;Persidsky and Gendelman, 2003). Elevated inflammatory mediators have been
detected in brain autopsy samples from HIV-1 infected individuals and tissue samples from HIV-
1 inoculated animal models (Persidsky et al., 1997;Persidsky et al., 1999). Shed viral proteins
(such as gp120, Tat and vpr) can also generate inflammatory response and oxidative stress in
brain macrophages, microglia and astrocytes (Guha et al., 2012;Mangino et al., 2012;Ronaldson
and Bendayan, 2008).
Brain HIV-1 infection is difficult to treat since poor penetration of antiretroviral drugs has been
reported across the BBB and BCSFB due to expression of drug efflux transporters. Expression of
efflux transporters has also been detected in brain parenchymal cells that can act as a secondary
barrier to drug permeability in HIV-1 cellular reservoirs (Bendayan et al., 2006;Dallas et al.,
2004a;Dallas et al., 2004b;Ronaldson et al., 2004a). A number of antiretroviral drugs have been
shown to be substrates of one or more ABC transporters. Our laboratory has previously
demonstrated P-gp and other ABC transporter-mediated efflux of antiretroviral drugs in astrocyte
and microglial cell systems (Dallas et al., 2004a;Dallas et al., 2004b;Ronaldson et al., 2004a).
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Altered expression of ABC transporters has been previously reported in literature due to HIV-1
associated pathologies. In order to determine the effect of HIV-1 gp120 associated
pathophysiological responses (i.e., inflammation, oxidative stress) in the regulation of drug
transporters, our laboratory has examined primary cultures of rat astrocytes exposed to viral
envelope protein gp120. During HIV-1 infection, gp120 is shed in the systemic circulation or
the extracellular fluid from cells infected with HIV-1(Oh et al., 1992). Our group has showed
that R5 tropic HIV-1 gp120 can induce secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL1-β and
TNF-α) by interacting with CCR5 chemokine receptors in primary cultures of rat astrocytes and
significantly decrease functional expression of P-gp (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). The effect
of different cytokines on P-gp expression was also examined and the results showed profound
decrease in P-gp expression due to IL-6 exposure, whereas, TNF-α or IL-1β exposure resulted in
a modest enhancement in this transporter expression (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006).
Another ABC transporter, Mrp1, was also found to be regulated by gp120. Previous work from
our laboratory has reported an increase in functional expression of this transporter in response
to gp120 treatment in primary cultures of rat astrocytes which correlated with an enhanced efflux
of GSH and GSSG, implying a potential role of Mrp1 in regulating oxidative stress in astrocytes
(Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008). Whether Mrp1 is regulated by gp120-associated
inflammation in astrocytes was not known. Therefore, we designed this part of our study to
primarily investigate the regulation of Mrp1 during HIV-1 gp120-associated inflammation and
identify which intracellular signaling pathways may be involved. TNF-α was the only cytokine
identified to alter Mrp1 protein expression in our in vitro model, whereas, IL-1β and IL-6 did not
have any significant effect. We observed that Mrp1 protein expression was increased in primary
cultures of rat astrocytes treated with TNF-α. Increased transcript levels of Mrp1 were also
detected after 6 hours of treatment with both gp120 and TNF-α (Ronaldson et al., 2010).
Previously, increased production of TNF-α and IL-6 as well as increased mRNA expression of
MRP1 has been reported in human monocyte derived macrophages infected with HIV-1 BAL, a
R5-tropic viral strain (Jorajuria et al., 2004). However, secretion of cytokines were found not to
be correlated to altered expression of MRP1 in their system (Jorajuria et al., 2004).
Inflammation-associated alteration of Mrp1 has been reported by other groups. Cherrington et al.
has reported upregulation of hepatic Mrp1in LPS administered Sprague-Dawley rats
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(Cherrington et al., 2002). Lee and Piquette-Miller have reported cytokine-mediated
upregulation of Mrp functional activity in hepatoma cell lines where exposure to IL-6 or IL-1β
resulted in significant increase in Mrp1 transcript levels as well as functional activity (Lee and
Piquette-Miller, 2001). However, IL-6 or IL-1β exposure did not alter Mrp1 expression in our
system of cultured astrocytes. Since transporter expression, localization, activity, and regulation
may vary between tissues, it is likely that the differences observed between our findings and the
study of Lee and Piquette-Miller is due to tissue-specific regulation.
We have also confirmed the involvement of the JNK and NF-κB pathways in the regulation of
Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes. In order to evaluate the involvement of NF-κB
signaling, we used two established inhibitors of this signaling pathway (i.e., SN50, BAY 11-
7082) (Ronaldson et al., 2010). Similarly, we studied the role of JNK signaling using SP600125,
an established and well-accepted inhibitor of this pathway (Ronaldson et al., 2010). We have
demonstrated that gp120-mediated upregulation of Mrp1 was attenuated in the presence of SN50
or Bay-117082, two NF-κB inhibitors, suggesting the involvement of this transcription factor in
Mrp1 regulation. However, the presence of SN50 did not block TNF-α-mediated Mrp1
upregulation indicating that this pathway does not directly regulate Mrp1 protein expression. In
contrast, pretreatment with SP600125, an inhibitor of the JNK pathway, attenuated the observed
TNF-α-mediated increase in Mrp1 protein expression. In addition, SP600125 treatment resulted
in the attenuation of BCECF efflux from astrocytes suggesting that JNKs directly participate in
the functional regulation of Mrp1 transporter during TNF-α exposure. Others have also
investigated the involvement of signaling pathways in the regulation of Mrp1 in the context of
HIV-1 infection. For example, Hayashi et al. demonstrated Tat induced upregulation of Mrp1 at
the mRNA and protein level in cultured astrocytes with an involvement of the MAPK pathway
(Hayashi et al., 2006). In summary, our results demonstrate the involvement of two intracellular
signaling cascades in the regulation of Mrp1 functional expression in cultured rat astrocytes. In
this study, we have demonstrated for the first time that NF-кB is not directly involved in the
regulation of Mrp1, but mediates its effect by activating JNK pathway which in turn results in
the release of TNF-α (Ronaldson et al., 2010).
We have also paralleled some of the key findings regarding cytokine secretion and functional
expression of P-gp in HFAs (Ashraf et al., 2011). We have demonstrated that similar to rat
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astrocytes, R5-tropic gp120 induces secretion of IL-6, IL-1β and TNF-α in HFAs. Pretreatment
with CCR5 neutralizing antibody attenuated cytokine secretion suggesting that cytokine
production was mediated via gp120-CCR5 interactions. The regulation of P-gp expression by
HIV-1 in human astrocytes was not known prior to the present study. Therefore, we investigated
the effect of HIV-1 isolates on P-gp protein expression in our in vitro model. Exposure to
macrophage (R5) or dual macrophage/T-lymphocyte (R5/X4)-tropic viral isolates decreased P-
gp expression suggesting a downregulatory effect of HIV- 1 on P-gp expression. A low numer of
astrocytes are known to be infected in vitro (3 to 19%). Therefore, the downregulation of P-gp
expression could be due to inflammatory mediators released by astrocytes during HIV-1
exposure. Li et al. previously reported that HIV-1 can induce cytokine secretion in HFAs
independent of infection. In their study, high levels of IL-6 were detected after astrocytes were
treated with HIV-1. We speculate that profound downregulation of P-gp expression in our
cultured HFAs could be due to HIV-associated cytokine release (Li et al., 2007). Previously,
Gollapudi and Gupta reported upregulation of P-gp expression in HIV-1 infected T- cell line and
in a monocytic cell line when subjected to HIV-1 infection (Gollapudi and Gupta, 1990). Since
T-cells or monocytes harbour productive HIV-1 infection and astrocytes harbor latent infection,
these discrepancies in the regulation of P-gp expression by HIV-1 could be due to different cell
types. In HFAs, treatment with gp120 also reduced P-gp expression by 64% and increased
cellular accumulation of digoxin, an established substrate of P-gp. Previously, decreased P-gp
protein expression has been reported in brain autopsy samples from patients with HIVE and in
brain tissue from SCID mice model of HIVE (Persidsky et al., 2000). Langford and colleagues
used post-mortem tissues from patients who were on antiretroviral therapy and examined P-gp
expression (Langford et al., 2004). An increased P-gp immunoreactivity in glial cells was
detected in these brain autopsy tissues from patients with HIVE. However, of the 26 patients
selected in this study, 16 were on antiretroviral therapy and for the remaining 10 patients,
treatment information was not available. There was no comparison of P-gp expression between
treatment-naive patients and patients on antiretroviral therapy (Langford et al., 2004). Data from
a number of published studies in the literature including work from our own laboratory suggest
that antiretroviral therapy can alter the expression of ABC transporters (Chandler et al.,
2003;Zastre et al., 2009). Using HCMEC/D3 cell system, our group has demonstrated that in the
presence of atazanavir or ritonavir, two HIV-PIs, a significant upregulation in P-gp functional
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expression occurs (Zastre et al., 2009). Since antiretroviral drugs can modulate the expression of
transporters in vitro and in vivo, it is still inconclusive if this increased P-gp immunoreactivity is
due to therapy itself or due to HIV-associated pathogenesis. In both murine brain microvessel
endothelial cells and astrocytes, HIV-1 Tat exposure resulted in an upregulation of P-gp
expression (Hayashi et al., 2005). Since the role and mechanism of action of Tat and gp120 are
different, we propose that different viral proteins may activate signaling pathways differently and
in turn, have different effects on P-gp expression.
In HFAs, IL-6 treatment decreased P-gp expression by 50% after 12 hours of treatment. This
decrease was not found to be as profound as previously observed in primary cultures of rat
astrocytes (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). However, endogenous levels of IL-6 differed
between the culture supernatants of rat and human astrocytes. IL-6 was undetectable in primary
cultures of rat astrocytes, whereas, approximately182.36 pg/ml IL-6 was detected in the
untreated cultured HFAs. Therefore, it is likely that these cells are continuously exposed to
endogenous IL-6 levels and IL-6 mediated decrease in P-gp expression may differ between
human and rat astrocytes due to elevated basal IL-6 levels. We have also conducted longer
exposure and demonstrated that with prolonged exposure (36h and 48h) to IL-6, there was no
change in P-gp expression. Previously, downregulation of P-gp expression due to IL-6 exposure
have been reported in different cells or tissues suggesting that this cytokine may have a down-
regulatory effect on P-gp expression. Lee and Piquette-Miller have shown that IL-6 exposure
results in a reduced MDR1 gene expression and P-gp activity in human hepatocytes (Lee and
Piquette-Miller, 2001). Increase in IL-6 serum levels was also found to be correlated with
decrease P-gp protein expression in the intestine (Ogura et al., 2008). IL-6 induced
downregulation of P-gp expression has also been demonstrated in the human brain microvessel
endothelial cell line, HCMEC/D3 cells (Poller et al., 2010).
Results from our study in HFAs also demonstrated that gp120 or IL-6 mediated effect on P-gp
was attenuated by SN50 suggesting involvement of NF-кB signaling in P-gp downregulation.
Although, in primary cultures of HFAs, due to the limitation in obtaining human fetal brain
tissue, we have not investigated the secretion of cytokines in the presence of an NF-кB inhibitor,
we speculate that gp120 mediated secretion of IL-6 is regulated by NF-кB and therefore, by
inhibiting NF-кB, we can attenuate P-gp downregulation.
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Our results demonstrate that HIV-1 as well as the viral protein gp120 has a downregulatory
effect on P-gp expression suggesting that astrocytes may be involved in antiretroviral drug
sequestration within brain parenchyma during HIV-1 infection. Previous work done by our group
in rodent astrocytes also support these findings where an increased accumulation of the HIV-PI,
saquinavir, was observed in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with gp120 compared to
untreated astrocytes (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). The availability of antiretroviral drugs
within the astrocytes may aid in limiting brain viral infection by preventing the latent virus from
becoming infectious. However, increased sequestration of antiretroviral drugs into astrocytes
may also lead to reduced concentrations at sites of cytopathic infection (i.e., microglia) and may
contribute to the development of viral drug resistance. At present, it is not known whether these
transporters are altered in microglia. Besides, other transporters of the ABC family are also
known to be involved in antiretroviral drug transport. For example, MRP1 is also known to
transport several PIs used in antiretroviral therapy (Dallas et al., 2004a;Janneh et al., 2005).
Using rodent astrocytes, we have shown that gp120 exposure results in an upregulation of Mrp1
expression in primary cultures of rat astrocytes (Ronaldson et al., 2010;Ronaldson and
Bendayan, 2008). The regulation of these transporters during HIV-associated neuroinflammatory
response will also contribute towards the overall antiretroviral drug permeability in astrocytes
and microglia. Further in vivo studies are needed to clarify whether changes in transporter
expression in astrocytes and microglia will affect antiretroviral drug distribution in the
parenchyma in vivo. Overall, our data provide evidence that the regulation of ABC transporters is
highly complex in HIV-associated brain inflammation and may result in altered brain
permeability of antiretroviral drugs.
Our in vitro work suggest that gp120 can result in an inflammatory response in astrocytes and
alters functional expression of drug efflux transporters. However, whether gp120 can interact
with CCR5 receptor in a similar manner in vivo in order to generate an inflammatory response is
not known. In addition, it has not been examined if gp120-associated inflammation can alter the
expression of drug transporters in vivo. In order to address these questions, we implemented an
in vivo rodent model of HIV-associated brain inflammation by administering HIV-1 gp120 into
one of the lateral cerebral ventricles. In gp120-injected rats, transcripts of TNF-α, IL-1β and
iNOS were found to be significantly elevated in different brain regions. A significant increase in
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TNF-α and IL-1β secretion was also detected in the CSF (Ashraf et al., 2014). HIV-1 gp120 has
previously been shown to generate similar inflammatory response in vivo (Bagetta et al.,
1999;Corasaniti et al., 1998;Louboutin et al., 2010b). Previous studies have demonstrated gp120-
mediated induction of IL-1β and TNF-α mRNA in the hypothalamus of gp120 administered rats
(Ilyin and Plata-Salaman, 1997). Another study has reported IL-1β associated apoptotic cell
death in the cortex of rodent brain after ICV administration of gp120 (Bagetta et al., 1999).
Administration of maraviroc, a CCR5-specific antagonist, prior to gp120 treatment attenuated
upregulation of these inflammatory markers in our model. Previously, we have confirmed that
the interaction of R5-tropic gp120 to CCR5 receptor in primary cultures of rat and human
astrocytes is critical for induction of an inflammatory response (Ashraf et al., 2011;Ronaldson
and Bendayan, 2006). In our present study, for the first time, we have confirmed that similar
interaction takes place in vivo and is necessary for generating gp120-mediated inflammatory
response (Ashraf et al., 2014).
In our in vivo model, we have also observed an increase in GFAP expression in hippocampal
lysates isolated from gp120-treated animals indicating activation of astrocytes. However, no
significant change was observed in tight junction protein (ZO-1, occludin and claudin5) or drug
transporter expressions in brain capillaries isolated from gp120 administered rats (Ashraf et al.,
2014). A number of studies have previously shown downregulation of tight junction proteins in
brain microvessel endothelial cells or in vivo models of HIV-1 or gp120-associated brain
inflammation (Kanmogne et al., 2005). The lack of changes in tight junction proteins in our
model is possibly due to the dose and duration of gp120 administration.
Following gp120 administration, changes in drug transporters were observed in different brain
regions. Altered P-gp, Mrp1 and Bcrp were observed in different regions suggesting that gp120-
associated inflammation can modulate the expression of antiretroviral drug transporters in vivo.
In our previous work, we observed downregulation of P-gp and upregulation of Mrp1 in cultured
astrocytes triggered with gp120 (Ronaldson et al., 2010). In our animal model, we observed
downregulation of P-gp protein expression in frontal cortex and hippocampus confirming that
gp120 has a down-regulatory effect on P-gp functional expression in brain parenchyma.
Significant upregulation of Mrp1 in hippocampus and striatum was detected further suggesting
that gp120 exerts an up-regulatory effect on Mrp1 protein expression in vivo. Bcrp expression
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was also found to be upregulated in frontal cortex suggesting that similar to other drug efflux
transporters, this transporter is also susceptible to gp120-associated brain inflammation.
Since a number of antiretroviral drugs penetrate poorly in the brain and lack anti-inflammatory
properties, many different compounds are being investigated that can potentially be used as
adjuvant therapy to prevent the development of HIV-1-associated neurocognitive deficits. In
order to evaluate the potential efficacy of different anti-inflammatory compounds (minocycline,
chloroquine and simvastatin) against inflammation in this in vivo rodent model, the animals were
administered gp120 ICV with or without prior intraperitoneal administration of minocycline or
chloroquine or simvastatin. Minocycline, a second generation tetracycline derivative, showed the
most potency in reducing gp120-associated increase in inflammatory markers. Minocycline was
successful in suppressing both TNF-α and IL-1β secretion in the CSF of gp120 administered
animals. A number of other in vivo studies have shown protective effects of minocycline against
brain HIV-1 infection. Minocycline significantly reduced encephalitis in SIV-infected pigtailed
macaques (Zink et al., 2005). Suppressed CNS viral load and decreased CNS inflammatory
markers (e.g. macrophage marker CD68, major histocompatibility complex class II, T-cell
intracytoplasmic antigen 1, SIV glycoprotein 41,Aβ precursor protein, and activated p38) were
observed after minocycline treatment (Zink et al., 2005). Striatal dopamine deficiency was also
reversed by early administration of minocycline in SIV-infected macaques (Meulendyke et al.,
2012). Using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in vivo and biomarkers in post-mortem
tissues, it was reported that minocycline could attenuate a progressive decline in neuronal
integrity, decrease glial activation and both CSF and plasma viral loads (Ratai et al., 2010).
Decreased plasma virus and monocyte activation was also observed in SIV-infectd macaques
following minocycline administration (Campbell et al., 2011). However, in clinical trials,
minocycline was not successful in improving neurocognitive outcome in patients with advanced
cognitive impairments (Nakasujja et al., 2013;Sacktor et al., 2011). We speculate that
administering minocycline in early stage of the infection may prevent development of HAND. In
addition, it is still unclear if clinically prescribed doses of minocycline would achieve plasma
and cellular levels that would be effective in suppressing HIV-1 replication and associated
inflammation in the brain. Interaction with other antiretroviral drugs also has to be considered.
One study reported that administration of minocycline altered the plasma concentration of
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atazanavir, but did not have any significant effect on ritonavir plasma concentrations (DiCenzo et
al., 2008). However, this study was limited due to the small sample size, short study duration and
concomitant medications used by patients. It is yet to be examined whether long-term
administration of minocycline with atazanavir and other PIs can influence treatment response.
Other clinical trials with minocycline reported a safety profile for this drug when administered
along with other antiretroviral drugs for 24 weeks (Sacktor et al., 2011). Further studies are
needed to clarify the clinical role of early administration of minocycline in the treatment of HIV-
associated neurological disorder.
In our animal model, chloroquine, an anti-malarial drug, was able to suppress IL-1β and iNOS
mRNA levels in different brain regions and was also effective in reversing gp120-mediated IL-
1β release in the CSF. Chloroquine has been previously reported to inhibit in vitro replication of
HIV-1 by modulating glycosylation properties of gp120 (Savarino et al., 2004). In clinical trials,
hydroxychloroquine has decreased plasma viral load. Hydroxychloroquine treatment has also
been shown to decrease IL-1α and IL-6 secretion in human monocytes and T-cells (Sperber et
al., 1993). In later stage of SIV-infected macaques, chloroquine treatment decreased activation
of plasma dendritic cells and IFN-α secretion (Ma et al., 2012). In contrast, chloroquine
transiently increased IFN-related genes and did not provide any benefit against SIV infection in
acute SIV infected macaques (Vaccari et al., 2014). In addition, in several clinical studies,
chloroquine or hydroxychloroquine treatment failed to reduce viral load, CD4+ T-cell activation
and plasma inflammatory markers (Engchanil et al., 2006;Paton et al., 2012;Routy et al., 2014).
Therefore, it remains unclear whether chloroquine can confer anti-HIV effects and elicit a
therapeutic response. Further studies are needed to investigate the effect of chloroquine used in
conjunction with antiretroviral drugs against the development of HIV-1 associated
neurocognitive disorder. If proven beneficial, the cost and availability of chloroquine will make
it an ideal candidate for adjuvant therapy in resource-poor countries where both malaria and
HIV-1 are prevalent.
Simvastatin, an HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor known to possess anti-inflammatory properties,
administration did not demonstrate similar efficacy compared to minocycline or chloroquine.
Although simvastatin attenuated transcripts of IL-1β and iNOS in the brain regions, it could not
significantly suppress gp120-mediated IL-1β and TNF-α secretion in the CSF. This lack of effect
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could be attributed to the dose of simvastatin used in our study, since higher doses of simvastatin
have been reported to be successful in attenuating brain inflammation in other models of brain
injury (Li et al., 2009). Many HIV-1 infected patients have dyslipidemia that may require statin
treatment. However, a number of statins including simvastatin is metabolized by cytochrome
P450 enzymes in the periphery and administering them with PIs can result in adverse drug-drug
interactions. Statins that are not metabolized by cytochrome P450 enzymes (rosuvastatin or
pravastatin) are known not to permeate well in the brain. Further studies are required to
determine if statins can be beneficial in preventing HIV-1-associated cognitive deficits.
Our previous in vitro work demonstrated the involvement of MAPK pathway in the regulation of
drug efflux transporters. We have reported involvement of JNK signaling pathway in the
regulation of Mrp1 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes (Ronaldson et al., 2010). Previous work
from our group also reported involvement of ERK1/2, JNKs and P38Ks in gp120-mediated
downregulation of P-gp in cultured rodent astrocytes (unpublished work). Therefore, we
investigated the activation of MAPK signaling pathways in different brain regions of gp120-
administered animals. In our in vivo model, we observed activation of ERK1/2 and JNKs in the
hippocampus (Ashraf et al., 2014). Interestingly, the presence of minocycline or simvastatin
attenuated the gp120-mediated phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in the hippocampus. None of the
compounds tested were able to attenuate JNK activation observed in the hippocampus in the
gp120 treated animals. Although in primary cultures of rat astrocytes, we have shown attenuation
of JNKs as well as ERK1/2 phosphorylation in the presence of all three compounds (Appendix
C). Using specific inhibitors of ERK1/2 and JNK pathway, we were also able to attenuate the
gp120-mediated activation of these two pathways in vivo (Ashraf et al., 2014). These findings
further confirm that signaling pathways can be targeted by anti-inflammatory compounds or
inhibitors in order to reverse inflammatory response observed during brain HIV-1 infection.
Several studies have investigated the in vivo efficacy of MAPK pathway inhibitors in attenuating
brain inflammation (Eggert et al., 2010;Munoz et al., 2007). In addition to MAPK pathways,
other pathways have also been implicated. For example, treatment with statins has been reported
to reduce mRNA expression of LPS-induced TNF-α and MCP1 in macrophage cell line via a
PPARα and PPARγ dependent pathway (Yano et al., 2007). Therefore, the mechanisms of action
170
of these compounds need to be further assessed in cell culture models as well as in animal
models that will provide future opportunities of testing them in clinical trials.
In summary, our results suggest that interaction of R5-tropic gp120 to CCR5 chemokine receptor
in vitro or in vivo results in the activation of signaling pathways and secretion of cytokines.
These cytokines can further activate other signaling pathways that can result in alteration of drug
efflux transporters. Inhibitors of signaling pathways also prevented cytokine release and
cytokine-mediated regulation of drug transporters. Both JNK and NF-кB pathways were found to
be involved in gp120-mediated Mrp1 regulation in vitro. NF-кB pathway was involved in gp120-
mediated downregulation of P-gp in human astrocytes. Administration of maraviroc or anti-
inflammatory compounds prevented the release of these cytokines. In vivo, maraviroc,
minocycline and chloroquine attenuated gp120-mediated release of IL-1β in the CSF. Maraviroc
and minocycline also attenuated TNF-α release. The anti-inflammatory compounds also
interacted with MAPK pathways in vitro or in vivo. Minocycline, chloroquine and simvastatin
attenuated gp120-mediated activation of JNKs as well as ERK1/2 in vitro, whereas, minocycline
and simvastatin decreased gp120-induced EKR1/2 phosphorylation in vivo. Signaling pathway
inhibitors U0126 and SP600125 also prevented gp120-medated activation of ERK1/2 and JNKs
in vivo, respectively, indicating the potential of these inhibitors in reversing brain inflammation.
Figure 9-1 summarizes our findings in vitro and in vivo.
171
CCR5 receptor
Maraviroc
HIV-1 gp120 (R5 tropic)
Gene transcription
Nucleus
JNK
P-JNK
ERK
P-ERK
MinocyclineSimvastatinChloroquine
SP600125
TNF-α IL-1β
MaravirocMinocyclineChloroquine
MaravirocMinocycline
NF-кB
In vivo In vivo
In vivo
In vitro
In vivo
In vivo
In vitro
In vitro SN50
Cytokine secretion
MEK1/2
U0126
In vivo
MinocyclineSimvastatin
Chloroquine
CytokineReceptor
CytokineReceptor
Mrp
1
P-g
p
Figure 9-1 A schematic summarizing gp120-mediated regulation of cytokine secretion and drug
efflux transporters as well as effect of anti-inflammatory compounds in vitro or in vivo.
172
10 Limitations
The use of rodent cell culture systems (i.e., primary cultures of rat astrocytes) is well-accepted as
a useful model system for in vitro studies. A number of studies have examined the functional
expression of drug efflux transporters in rodent cell culture systems. However, species specific
differences may exist in the regulation of cytokine secretion or drug efflux transporters (Ashraf
et al., 2011;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006). We have paralleled some key findings in HFA
cultures to compare the regulation of P-gp by gp120-mediated cytokine secretion. However, due
to the difficulty in obtaining human fetal brain tissue in a regular basis, it became difficult to
perform a detailed investigation of the regulation of transporters and involvement of signaling
pathways in the context of HIV-1 gp120-associated inflammation in human astrocytes. In
addition, it is known that astrocytes in the adult brain are non-proliferative unless activated in
response to infection or injury. Therefore, our astrocyte cultures obtained from neonatal rat
brains or human fetal brain may not be reflective of adult astrocytes and in vivo studies may be
undertaken to complement the data obtained in these cultured systems. Several studies have
described techniques for isolation of primary cultures of human astrocytes from post-mortem or
surgically resected adult brain tissue (De Groot et al., 1997;Verwer et al., 2007). The problem
with the use of such protocols stems from the availability of brain tissue samples on a regular
basis from which to prepare the cultures. Therefore, rodent neonatal brain and to a lesser extent,
human fetal brain tissue still represent a widely used source for astrocytes due to their relative
ease of collection and maintenance.
In our recent work, we have determined the effect of an individual HIV-1 protein i.e., gp120 on
generating an inflammatory response in cultured astrocytes as well as in rodent brain. It is
important to understand the role of individual viral proteins in the regulation of pro-
inflammatory cytokines as well as drug efflux transporters. Our work with gp120 has allowed us
to understand part of the pathology associated with HIV-1 in the brain. However, an HIV-1
infected model is necessary to understand the activation of signaling pathways, secretion of
cytokines and regulation of transporters by the whole virus. Therefore, a better model to evaluate
the mechanisms involved in inflammation and drug resistance in HIV-1 infection of the brain
will be infectious animal models (i.e., SIV infected macaques).
173
Our in vitro model has allowed us to examine the secretion of cytokines and the regulation of
these transporters after short-term exposures (i.e., 24 hours) only. Therefore, we have
implemented a model to investigate these phenomena in vivo after 7-day exposure. We have
observed a significant increase in gene and protein expression of inflammatory markers as well
as alteration of transporter protein expression. However, we could not characterize the
distribution of gp120 in our model after ICV administration. In order to determine the brain
distribution of gp120, we have administered fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-gp120 ICV in a
volume of 2µl (250ng/ µl) or 2.5 µl (1 µg/ µl) or 5µl (1 µg/ µl) in Wistar rats. After FITC-gp120
administration, animals were sacrificed after 13 minutes, 30 minutes and 2 hours. The collected
brain tissue was processed for immunohistochemistry. We also collected different brain regions
(frontal cortex, hippocampus and striatum) after FITC-gp120 ICV administration and used tissue
homogenate to detect the presence of FITC using spectrophotometry compared to saline
administered animals. We were not able to demonstrate the brain distribution of gp120 at these
above mentioned doses. Previous studies with ICV administration of FITC conjugated proteins
used significantly higher concentration of proteins (40 to 100 µg) in order to demonstrate their
brain distribution (Frigerio et al., 2012). However, administration of gp120 in a higher
concentration may lead to significant damage to the BBB and brain parenchyma rendering it
difficult to determine the brain distribution of gp120.
11 Future directions
11.1 Regulation of ABC transporters at the BBB and in glial cells
Our work has demonstrated that P-gp is regulated by the NF-кB pathway in primary cultures of
HFAs and Mrp1 is regulated by NF- кB and JNK pathways (Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2006).
Our laboratory has also investigated the involvement of the MAPK pathway in the regulation of
P-gp in cultured astrocytes triggered with gp120 (unpublished work). It is still not known
whether gp120 can modulate the expression of these transporters in brain microvessel endothelial
cells. In addition, regulation of these transporters in microglia, the primary site of HIV-1 in the
brain, has not been examined. A number of other signaling pathways or transcription factors
have been implicated in the regulation of transporters. Nrf2, a sensor of oxidative stress, has been
174
reported to be involved in regulating Mrp1 expression in mouse embryo fibroblasts (Hayashi et
al., 2003). The Rho signaling has been reported to be involved in the regulation of P-gp (Zhong
et al., 2010). In endothelial cells, intact lipid rafts were found to be involved in HIV-1 Tat-
mediated activation of Rho signaling and upregulation of P-gp (Zhong et al., 2010). A number of
nuclear receptors have been implicated in the regulation of ABC transporters. In particular, PXR
and CAR are two well-known xenobiotic sensors that are capable of interacting with a wide
spectrum of pharmaceutical agents including PIs (Urquhart et al., 2007). Work published by
others and our laboratory show that PXR and CAR are actively involved in the regulation of drug
efflux transporters in different tissues including intestine, liver and brain (Bauer et al.,
2004;Bauer et al., 2008;Bauer et al., 2006;Chan et al., 2013a;Chan et al., 2011;Wang et al.,
2010b). Our group has shown that in the presence of atazanavir or ritonavir, two HIV-PIs, a PXR
dependent induction in P-gp functional expression occurs in HCMEC/D3 cells (Chan et al.,
2013b;Zastre et al., 2009). Several nuclear receptors (i.e., CAR, PPARγ, PPARα) have also been
implicated in ABCG2 regulation (Hartz et al., 2010a;Hirai et al., 2007;Szatmari et al., 2006).
Recent work from our laboratory also demonstrated that PPARα-selective agonists (i.e.,
clofibrate, GW7647) can significantly induce ABCG2 mRNA and protein expression in
HCMEC/D3 cells, whereas pharmacological inhibitors (i.e., MK886, GW6471) prevent this
induction (Hoque et al., 2012). The involvement of these nuclear receptors in the regulation of
ABC transporters in astrocytes and microglia are not understood and further studies are needed
to elucidate their role.
11.2 Effect of anti-inflammatory compounds on HIV-1 gp120
associated cognitive deficits
In order to demonstrate that early administration of anti-inflammatory compounds can prevent
the development of HIV-1 gp120 associated cognitive deficits, our laboratory has recently
implemented an in vivo model of HIV-1 gp120 associated cognitive deficits by ICV
administration of gp120 in Wistar male rats. The learning and memory components are currently
being characterized in this model using Morris water maze. Once characterized, the efficacy of
different anti-inflammatory compounds (i.e., minocycline, chloroquine) in the prevention of
cognitive impairments will be assessed in this model. Several other compounds have been
reported to have anti-inflammatory properties. For example neurosteroid,
175
dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate has been reported to successfully prevent inflammation and
behavioral deficits in a FIV model (Maingat et al., 2009). Another study reported that
administration of anthraquinone derivative from rhubarb, emodin, showed anti-inflammatory
properties by inhibiting NO and PGE2 production and downregulating COX-2 and iNOS
expression in caco-2 cells (Choi et al., 2013). Several signaling pathway inhibitors have also
been demonstrated to have neuroprotective properties. For example, CEP-1347, an inhibitor of
multilineage kinase, has shown to have reduced microgliosis and neuronal loss in a SCID mice
model of HIVE (Eggert et al., 2010). A brain penetrable inhibitor of P38α, MW01-2-069A-SRM,
has been demonstrated to suppress pro-inflammatory cytokine upregulation as well as behavioral
deficits in an Alzheimer’s disease mouse model (Munoz et al., 2007). In order to prevent or
delay the progression of HIV-1-associated neurological disorder, it is critical to identify
compounds that have anti-inflammatory properties and penetrate well into the brain.
11.3 Permeability of antiretroviral drugs during HIV-1 gp120-associated
brain inflammation in vivo
Our laboratory has previously demonstrated that gp120-mediated inflammation can alter the
functional expression of P-gp and Mrp1 in vitro (Ashraf et al., 2011;Ronaldson and Bendayan,
2006;Ronaldson and Bendayan, 2008). Recently, we have also demonstrated that administration
of gp120 in vivo resulted in altered P-gp, Mrp1 and Bcrp in different brain regions (Ashraf et al.,
2014). However, it is yet to be demonstrated whether the altered expression of these transporters
affect antiretroviral drug distribution in vivo. In our implemented gp120-associated brain
inflammation model, we did not detect changes in transporter expression at the level of brain
capillaries and anticipate that drug permeability will not be altered. Lack of changes at the brain
capillaries could be due to the moderate inflammatory response observed in our model. We
speculate that in the gp120-associated cognitive deficit model there will be significant damages
to the BBB which will allow investigating the permeability of antiretroviral drugs in vivo during
HIV-associated neuropathological condition.
176
12 Conclusion
Limited drug penetration in the brain remains a major obstacle to pharmacotherapy for brain
HIV-1 infection. The expression of ABC transporters at the BBB as well as in brain HIV-1
cellular targets (i.e., microglia, astrocytes) determines the permeability and disposition of
antiretroviral drugs in the brain. Our work has demonstrated that HIV-1 gp120-associated
inflammation can change the expression of P-gp and Mrp1 in astrocytes suggesting that
antiretroviral drug permeability may be significantly altered at brain parenchymal cellular
compartments during brain HIV-1 infection. Our current findings also suggest a role of different
signaling pathways in the regulation of cytokines and drug efflux transporters. We have shown
that agents such as minocycline, chloroquine and simvastatin are effective in reducing brain
inflammation triggered by HIV-1 gp120 in vivo and this effect is mediated, in part, through an
interaction with the MAPK signaling pathway. Future studies are needed to determine the
efficacy of the early administration of antiretroviral drugs along with adjuvant therapy against
the progression of HIV-associated brain inflammation as well as cognitive deficits. In order to
successfully treat brain HIV-1 infection, a more comprehensive understanding of antiretroviral
drug transporters and anti-inflammatory compounds as well as their regulatory mechanisms in
the context of HIV-1 infection is required both in vitro and in vivo.
177
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Zhu F, Zheng Y, Ding YQ, Liu Y, Zhang X, Wu R, Guo X and Zhao J (2014) Minocycline and
Risperidone Prevent Microglia Activation and Rescue Behavioral Deficits Induced by Neonatal
Intrahippocampal Injection of Lipopolysaccharide in Rats. PLoS One 9(4):e93966.
Zink MC, Uhrlaub J, DeWitt J, Voelker T, Bullock B, Mankowski J, Tarwater P, Clements J and
Barber S (2005) Neuroprotective and Anti-Human Immunodeficiency Virus Activity of
Minocycline. JAMA 293(16):2003-2011.
219
Appendices
Appendix A: Data not shown in chapter 2
Figure A 1: Immunoblot analysis of P-gp in primary cultures of HFAs treated with TNF-α (0.5
and 10ng/ml). MDR1 overexpressing MDCK-MDR1 cell lysate was used as positive control.
Whole cell lysates (50 µg) from primary cultures of HFAs were resolved on a 10% SDS-
polyacrylamide gel and transferred to a PVDF membrane. Results are expressed as mean ± SD of
three separate experiments. Asterisks represent data points that are significantly different from
control (*p<0.05).
220
Appendix B: Data not shown in chapter 5
Sal
ine
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g
Sal
ine
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g
Sal
ine
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g0
100
200
300
400
500
**
* *
Frontal cortex Hippocampus Striatum
A.
IL1b
rela
tive m
RN
A e
xp
ressio
n
(%
Co
ntr
ol)
(No
rmali
zed
to
cyclo
ph
ilin
)
Sal
ine
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g
Sal
ine
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g
Sal
ine
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g0
50
100
150
B.
Frontal cortex Hippocampus Striatum
IL6 r
ela
tive m
RN
A e
xp
ressio
n
(% c
on
tro
l)
No
rmali
zed
to
cyclo
ph
ilin
221
Sal
ine
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g
Sal
ine
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g
Sal
ine
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g0
200
400
600
800 **
*
*
Frontal cortex Hippocampus Striatum
C.
iNO
S r
ela
tive m
RN
A e
xp
ressio
n
(% C
on
tro
l)
(No
rmali
zed
to
cyclo
ph
ilin
) )
Salin
e
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g
Salin
e
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g
Salin
e
gp120_
300n
g
gp120_
500n
g0
50
100
150
200
*
D.
Frontal cortex Hippocampus Striatum
TN
Fa r
ela
tive m
RN
A e
xp
ressio
n
(% C
on
tro
l)
(No
rmali
zed
to
cyclo
ph
ilin
)
Figure B 1: Effect of two different doses of gp120 (300ng or 500 ng) on the mRNA levels of A)
IL-1β, B) IL-6, C) iNOS and D) TNF-α in different brain regions of Wistar rats after ICV
administration of gp120. Saline injected animals were used as control. Results are expressed as
mean±SEM. (*) represent data point significantly different from control (p<0.05). Samples
obtained from at least six different animals were analyzed per group.
222
A.
B.
223
saline gp120_500ng0
1
2
3
4 Serum
TN
F-a
(p
g/m
l)
Figure B 2: ELISA analysis of A) IL-1β, B) IL-6 and C) TNF- in the serum of gp120 (500ng)
administered rats. Serum collected from saline injected animals were used as control. Results are
expressed as mean±SEM. Samples obtained from at least eight different animals were used per
group.
C.
224
salin
e
gp120_
500n
g
0
10
20
30
40CSF
IL-6
(p
g/m
l)
Figure B 3: ELISA analysis of IL-6 secretion in the CSF of gp120 (500ng) administered rats.
CSF collected from saline injected animals were used as control. Results are expressed as
mean±SEM. Samples obtained from at least eight different animals were used per group.
225
Brain capillaries
Occ
ludin
ZO-1
Cla
udin5
0
50
100
150Saline
gp120
Pro
tein
exp
ressio
n o
f ti
gh
t
ju
ncti
on
pro
tein
s (
% c
on
tro
l)
Figure B 4: Immunoblot (upper panel) and densitometric analysis (lower panel) of ZO-1,
occludin and claudin 5 in rat brain capillaries isolated from HIV-1 gp120 or saline administered
rats. Caco-2 cell lysate was used as control. Results are expressed as mean±SEM. Samples
obtained from eight different animals were used per group.
226
Brain capillaries
P-g
p
Bcr
p
Mrp
1
0
50
100
150Saline
gp120_500ng
Pro
tein
exp
ressio
n o
f d
rug
eff
lux
tran
sp
ort
ers
(%
co
ntr
ol)
Figure B 5: Immunoblot (upper panel) and densitometric analysis (lower panel) of P-gp, Mrp1
and Bcrp in rat brain capillaries isolated from HIV-1 gp120 or saline administered rats.
Transporter overexpressing cell lines were used as positive controls. Results are expressed as
mean±SEM. Samples obtained from eight different animals were used per group.
227
Hippocampus
Sal
ine
gp120
SP60
0125
+gp12
0
0
50
100
150
200*
Mrp
1 p
rote
in e
xp
ressio
n
(%
co
ntr
ol)
Figure B 6: Immunoblot (upper panel) and densitometric analysis (lower panel) of Mrp1 in
hippocampus of ICV administered gp120 rats in the presence or absence of JNK inhibitor,
SP600125. Hela-MRP1 cell lysate was used as positive control. Representative blots are shown.
Results are expressed as mean±SEM. Samples obtained from six different animals were used per
group. Asterisk represent data point significantly different from saline administered animals
(*p<0.05). Diamonds represent data point significantly different from gp120-treatment (♦♦
p<0.01).
Saline gp120_500ng
SP600125+
gp120_500ng Hela-
MRP1
190 kDa
42 kDa
228
Figure B 7: Immunoblot (upper panel) and densitometric analysis (lower panel) of Mrp1 in
hippocampus of ICV administered gp120 rats with or without minocycline treatment. Hela-
MRP1 cell lysate was used as positive control. Representative blots are shown. Results are
expressed as mean±SEM. Samples obtained from six different animals were used per group.
Asterisk represent data point significantly different from saline administered animals (*p<0.05).
Diamonds represent data point significantly different from gp120-treatment (♦ p<0.05).
229
� 1
-� 1
-
1
1
1
1
Contr
ol
gp120_
6H
CQ_6
H
Min
o_6H
Sim
_6H
CQ+g
p120_
6H
Min
o+gp12
0_6H
Sim
+gp12
0_6H
0
100
200
300
400
*
Primary cultures of rat astrocytes
Ph
osp
ho
-ER
K1/2
pro
tein
exp
ressio
n (
% C
on
tro
l)
Figure B 8: Immunoblot (upper panel) and densitometric analysis (lower panel) of ERK1/2 and
phospho-ERK1/2 in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with gp120 (1nM) in the presence
or absence of 1 µM chloroquine, 100 nM simvastatin and 60 µM minocycline. Results are
expressed as mean±SEM. Samples obtained from three different experiments were used per
group. Asterisk represent data point significantly different from control (*p<0.05) (CQ=
chloroquine, mino= minocycline, sim=simvastatin).
230
Contr
ol
gp120_
6H
CQ_6
H
Min
o_6H
Sim
_6H
CQ+g
p120_
6H
Min
o+gp12
0_6H
Sim
+gp12
0_6H
0
100
200
300
400
*
Primary cultures of rat astrocytes
Pro
tein
exp
ressio
n o
f
ph
osp
ho
ryla
ted
JN
K
(%C
on
tro
l)
Figure B 9: Immunoblot (upper panel) and densitometric analysis (lower panel) of JNK and
phospho-JNK in primary cultures of rat astrocytes treated with gp120 (1nM) in the presence or
absence of 1 µM chloroquine, 100 nM simvastatin and 60 µM minocycline. Results are
expressed as mean±SEM. Samples obtained from three different experiments were used per
group. Asterisk represent data point significantly different from control (*p<0.05) (CQ=
chloroquine, mino= minocycline, sim=simvastatin).
231
List of publications
Ashraf T, Jiang W, Hoque T, Henderson J, Wu C and Reina Bendayan. Role of anti-inflammatory compounds in human immunodeficiency virus-1 glycoprotein120 -mediated brain inflammation. 2014. Journal of Neuroinflammation. 11:91.
Ashraf T, Kao A and Bendayan R. Functional expression of drug transporters in glial cells: potential role on drug delivery to the CNS. 2014. In Thomas P. Davis, editor: pharmacology of the blood-brain barrier: targeting CNS disorders, vol 71, APHA, UK: Academic press; 45-111.
Ashraf T, Ronaldson PT and Bendayan R. Drug transport in brain. 2014. Chapter 16 in Drug transporters: molecular characterization and role in drug disposition. Second edition. (Guofeng Y ed) Wiley series in drug discovery and development.
Ashraf T, Robillard K, Chan G and Bendayan R. Role of CNS Transporters in the Pharmacotherapy of HIV-1 Associated Neurological Disorders. 2013. Current Pharmaceutical Design. 20(10): 1543-1563.
Ashraf T, Kis O, Banerjee N and Bendayan R. Drug transporters at brain barriers: expression and regulation by neurological disorders. 2012. Chapter 2 in Biology and Regulation of Blood-Tissue Barriers. (Cheng CY ed) Landes Bioscience.
Ashraf T, Ronaldson PT, Persidsky Y and Bendayan R. Regulation of P-glycoprotein by HIV-1 in primary cultures of human fetal astrocytes. 2011. Journal of Neuroscience Research. 89: 1773-1782.
Ronaldson PT, Ashraf T and Reina Bendayan. Regulation of Multidrug Resistance Protein 1 (Mrp1) by Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha (TNF-α) in cultured glial cells: Involvement if Nuclear Factor- κB (NF- κB) and c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK) signaling pathways.2010. Molecular Pharmacology. 77(4):644-59.
232
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Title: Human Multidrug Resistance
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Homolya,Gergely
Szakács,András Váradi
Publication: Physiological Reviews
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Copyright clearance for chapter 4:
Manuscript: Role of anti-inflammatory compounds in human immunodeficiency virus-1
glycoprotein120-mediated brain inflammation
Authors: Tamima Ashraf, Wenlei Jiang, Md Tozammel Hoque, Jeffrey Henderson, Chiping Wu
and Reina Bendayan
Received: 7 March 2014
Accepted: 15 April 2014
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Published: 16 May 2014
© 2014 Ashraf et al.; licensee BioMed Central Ltd.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use,
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