Survival ManualEDS 596

Assessment Techniques in Counseling

by

Dean W. Owen, Ph.D., LPCC

Visiting Professor, Department of Educational Sciences

Faculty of Education

Middle East Technical University

Not to be taken internallyINTRODUCTION

Welcome to EDS 596, Assessment for Counselors. This is the class that a good many students refer to as that “*%#$@ testing course". A word of introduction may help dispel some of the apprehension (or maybe not..) but here goes. There is no question that testing is part of the educational process. You probably were introduced to testing shortly after you began school and it never stopped. You were tested throughout your schooling, when you got your driver's license, when you applied for college or university, as you tried to get through college and when you got out of college. For those of you who could not get enough of school and became teachers or counselors you were again confronted with the task of assessing the progress your students were making. Simply stated, testing is all around us and we just can't seem to get away from it. As someone once said, "You can run but you can't hide." Since this situation exists, one possible way of coping with it is to get involved with it in a more active way. Most of your past experience with testing has been as the one who was tested and you probably felt a bit vulnerable. Now is your chance to get even. Many of you may have felt as though you have been hammered unmercifully for years by tests. In this course the goal will be to teach you about that hammer, what it is, when it should be used, and how to use it as a productive tool to "build" learning and understanding and not as a weapon to do harm.

The vast majority of testing related topics will be plain common sense (sağduyu) and there is nothing difficult about it. Many of the topics will be new to you and not a boring recapitulation of stuff you had in undergraduate school but that doesn't make it difficult or something to be feared. There will be a little arithmetic but if you can add, subtract, multiply, and divide you have everything you need to do well in this course. You will notice that no text is required for this course beyond what is in this little document. Armed with nothing more than this you can still do very well indeed by reading the material in this survival manual, asking a few questions from time to time, and listening to the lectures which accompany the units.

This manual was prepared for distribution to the students as an alternative to traditional textbooks that have become increasingly, and obscenely, expensive. This manual is priced to cover the duplication costs (plus maybe a bit more which will go into a special fund for a retirement cottage in the south of France for the instructor.) This manual may not be duplicated without the expressed and written consent of the author. The penalty for unauthorized reproduction of any part of this manual will be not less than five years imprisonment and a fine of up to US$10,000 plus (and this is the biggie) a grade of "F" for the offending student.

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This space cheerfully provided for your doodling pleasure. (Sıkıldığınızda bir şeyler karalamanız için.)

Remember to study hard, play hard and never lose your perspective…In 500 years none of this will make any

difference to any of us anyway……Table of Contents

Course Syllabus page 3

Unit 1. Basic terms and definitions page 6

Unit 2. Legal and Ethical Issues page 8

Unit 3. Fundaments of Test Constructionpage 13

Unit 4. Fundamentals of Inventory Construction page 20

Study Guide for Quiz #1 page 25

Unit 5. Basic Statistics for Assessment page 26

Unit 6. Reliability and Validity page 34

Study Guide for Quiz #2 Page 37

Unit 7. Intellectual Assessment page 39

Unit 8. Personality Assessment page 54

Unit 9. Vocational Assessment page 58

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Study Guide for Quiz #3 page 70

EDS 596 (3-0) 3Assessment Techniques in CounselingWednesday, 0940:12:30This course is designed to provide advanced graduate students pursuing training in school and agency counseling with an introduction to individual clinical assessment techniques. Particular emphasis will be placed upon the development of fundamental skills necessary to select, administer, score, and interpret a wide variety of psychometric instruments commonly used in professional counseling. Students are expected to have successfully completed an introductory course of study in assessment before enrolling in this course

Student activities will build upon the conceptual framework giving them the opportunity for active learning, problem solving and authentic assessment. Students will have the opportunity to move from a superficial understanding of related measurement and assessment concepts and skills to a “constructed knowledge” that allows them to use their learning to become effective users of the skills in educational and clinical settings.

Instructor: Dean W. Owen, Jr., Ph.D. Phone: work (312) 210-4027 Faculty of Education 310 home (312) 210-6518METU, 06531 Ankara email: dowen@metu.edu.tr

vargapilot@yahoo.comOffice Hours: M-F, 08:30 to 16:30 or by appointment

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Objectives: By the end of this course, each of the students will be able to:1. Describe the role and function of individual assessment as a clinical skill;2. Define appropriate, proper, and ethical situations requiring the use of individual assessment;3. Evaluate commonly used instruments in light of validity and reliability standards to determine appropriate use in clinical settings;4. Select, administer, score, and interpret individual assessment instruments commonly used in counseling;5. Select a variety of non-standardized instruments for individual assessment;6. Construct, select, and use non-test evaluation techniques for individual assessment.7. Interpret the results of standardized psychometric instruments meaningfully;8. Describe the advantages and limitations inherent with psychological and educational assessment.

Text: Owen, D., (2010). Survival Manual for EDS 596. Recommended Text: Sax, G. (1989). Principles of Educational and Psychological Measurement and Evaluation. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing.

Course Requirements: As an introductory course in individual assessment a great deal of material will be covered during the semester. A course schedule containing reading assignments is presented below and should serve as a guide for you during the semester. You are encouraged to thoroughly prepare before each class since your active and gainful participation will be expected. Each student will be responsible for completing a basic tutorial on the topic of plagiarism by going to the following web site, https://www.indiana.edu/~istd/, and completing the necessary components and shall submit a signed completion certificate no later than the 3rd class meeting.

The course will be conducted as a graduate seminar/lecture class with laboratory experiences scheduled to assist in the development of essential clinical skills in the selection, administration, scoring, and interpretation of individually administered instruments. This course has been designed as a clinical training class and students will be expected to participate in seminar presentations as well as demonstration and simulated test administrations. In addition to participation in laboratory demonstrations, each student will successfully complete three examinations designed to assess mastery of fundamental course material. Each student will be expected to critically evaluate a common psycho/educational instrument, prepare a formal written evaluation of the instrument and present the findings (with appropriate demonstrations) to the class. Finally, each student will be expected to construct a psycho-educational instrument and demonstrate the administration, scoring, and interpretation to the class.

Course Evaluation: The course evaluation will be based upon the following components:Quiz #1 20%Quiz #2 20%Quiz #3 20%Written/Oral Critique 20%Instrument Project 20%

Total 100%

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Final grades will be determined by transforming total raw scores into Z-Scores which will be assigned letter grades according to the following scheme:Z>0.5 A Z= -2.0 to -1.0 CZ= -1.0 to +0.5 B Z= -3.0 to -2.0 D

Class Attendance Policy: As graduate students it will be your responsibility to attend and participate in this class. Role will not be taken but the lectures and class experiences have been designed to assist you in the master of the course material. It is strongly suggested that you make every attempt to attend class since missed classes can make passing the required examinations very difficult, indeed. Attendance will be considered mandatory on the dates of scheduled examinations. Make up examinations will be offered at the option of the professor and only in those cases where sufficient justification exits.

ADA Statement: Although this course will be conducted at METU in Ankara, Turkey, it will be conducted in compliance with the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). All qualified students enrolled in this course are entitled to “reasonable accommodations”. It is the student’s responsibility to inform the instructor of any special needs or accommodations by the second class meeting.

EDS 596 Assessment for CounselorsSpring Semester 2010

Tentative Class Schedule

Week Topic Unit

1 Course Introduction **

2 Fundamentals of Psycho-Educational Assessment 1

3 Legal, Social, and Ethical Issues in Testing 2

4 Fundamentals of Test Construction 3

5 Fundamentals of Inventory Construction 4

6 Quiz #1

7 Analysis of Assessment Data #1Vocational Self-Assessment Inventory

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8 Analysis of Assessment Data #2 5

9 Reliability/Validity 6

10 Quiz #2 **

11 Principles of Intellectual Assessment 7

12 Principles of Personality AssessmentMBTI

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13 Introduction to Vocational Preference Assessment 9

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14 Instrument Presentations.Vocational Maturity Scale

**

15 Final Exam **

Save the whales........collect the whole set.

Assessment Techniques for CounselorsEDS 596

TEST CRITIQUE FORM

Test Title: ____________________________________________________________Author(s): ____________________________________________________________Publisher: _____________________________________ Copyright: __________Domain: __________________________________ Forms:_______________Age (grade) Limits: _________________________ Admin. Time: _________Scoring Options: ___________________________ Available scores: (e.g. Raw scores, Mental Age, DIQ, Percentile Equivalent)

Description of the Test:Please describe the instruments in terms of its history, development, theoretical foundation and any significant revisions or improvements.

Description of test materials:In this section please describe materials including test booklets, stimulus materials, presentation forms, record forms, technical manuals, etc.

Administration Procedure(s):In this section please provide a brief description of the administration procedures. The purpose of this is to create a basic understanding of the process of administration. You need not reproduce everything from the administration manual.

Evidence of Validity: In this section please provide an overview of evidence for the validity of this instrument.

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Evidence of Reliability: Please provide a brief overview of the evidence for reliability for this instrument..

Standard Error(s) of Measurement: Please report SEm s for all major and minor scales.

Norms: Please provide a brief description of the norms reported for this instrument including the size, composition, method of selection and stratification used.

Practical Features: Please provide a brief description of advantages and practical features of this instrument. Summary Evaluation: In this section you are asked to provide and overall evaluation of this instrument. Please include strengths as well as weaknesses and you are encouraged to be critical in your comments.

Unit IThere are three fundamental definitions that must be understood, because they form the foundation of everything in the field of tests and measurements. These are:

a. Measurement: the process of quantifying (assigning a number to) a trait, quality, or characteristic according to some rules or using a standard.

b. Test: a task or series of tasks used to collect a sample of human behavior assumed to be representative of a larger domain.

c. Evaluation (Assessment): the process of collecting all available information for the purpose of enhancing the quality and confidence of a decision.

The Five Domains of TestingNearly any test (other than a blood test) can be categorized into one of the following domains.

a. Achievement: These tests purport to measure what one has learned in the past usually as the result of training or life experience. b. Aptitude: These tests purport to measure what can one learn in the future. Although they frequently look like an achievement test in terms of their form and content it is their use as a predictor that allows them to be placed in this category. c. Intelligence: These tests are in reality a special type of aptitude test and are used primarily to predict one's ability benefit from formal education and in that sense they are tests of academic or scholastic aptitude

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d. Personality: These tests purport to document typical patterns of behavior which are characteristic to the individual being tested. They can be further divided into two classes as follows: 1) Diagnostic tests of psychopathology which are used to diagnose various forms of maladaptive behavior or mental illness. 2) Trait tests of personality which purport to categorize fundamental personality traits which may predispose an individual to success in one field or another. These tests provide a view of the many colors of the rainbow of normal behavior. e. Vocational Preference Interest: These tests are frequently not tests at all in the sense of collecting correct or incorrect responses. Many of these tests are referred to as inventories since they are principally a way of collecting and categorizing expressed

preferences for activities, working environments, hobbies, school subjects, etc.

What appears below are situations in which tests are frequently used. a. Individual progress d. Diagnosis/remediation g. Research b. Selection e. Motivation c. Placement f. Program/curriculum evaluation

Classifications of test forms a. group/individual f. Power/speed b. paper-pencil/performance g. structured/unstructured c. norm-referenced/criterion referenced h. subjective/objective d. standardized/teacher-made I. Sign/sample e. screening/diagnostic

Scales of measurement a. Nominal: Derived from the Latin word meaning "to name", this is the weakest level of scaling and is useful only for categorical purposes. An example of nominal scaling usually occurs on application forms when one is asked to circle "1" for male and a "2" for female. b. Ordinal: This level of scaling first names (usually with numbers) then arranges in a systematic order. Tom placed first, Susan came in second followed by Holly who placed third. c. Interval: This level of scaling names, then orders, and finally establishes equal interval or equal size units on the scale. On the math test Linda scored 93 and Carl received an 87...a point is a point is a point. d. Ratio: This level names, orders, has equal units, and finally add a logical or absolute zero. Time and distance are examples of

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things which are scaled at the ratio level. Two feet is twice as long as one foot...thirty minutes is half as long as one hour.

A few more definitions…Qualitative vs Quantitative measurement.Qualitative assessment always involves a degree of subjectivity and involves a value judgment; “Ayhan is a very bright child.” Özgur is really tall for her age.

Quantitative assessment involves numbers; Ayhan’s measured full scale deviation IQ is 134. Özgur is 167cm tall which places her at the 95%ile for her age.

Formative vs Summative EvaluationFormative evaluation: relatively unimportant assessments made throughout a period of teaching or therapy to determine degree of progress and to plan subsequent actions.

Summative Evaluation: Relatively important assessments made at critical points (like mid-term exams or finals) to determine overall effectiveness or final degree of success in attaining a goal.

.......................I wonder how much deeper the sea would be without sponges?

Unit 2

Ethical Standards in Testing* SECTION E: EVALUATION, ASSESSMENT, AND INTERPRETATION

E.1. Generala. Appraisal Techniques. The primary purpose of educational and psychological testing is to provide descriptive measures that are objective and interpretable in either absolute or comparative terms. Counselors recognize the need to interpret the statements in this section as applying to the full range of appraisal techniques including test and non-test data.b. Client Welfare. Counselors promote the welfare and best interests of the client in the development, publication, and utilization of educational and psychological assessment techniques. They do not misuse assessment results and interpretations and take reasonable steps to prevent others for misusing the information these techniques provide. They respect the client’s right to know the results, the interpretations made, and the bases for their conclusions and recommendations.

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E.2. Competence to Use and Interpret Testsa. Limits of Competence. Counselors recognize the limits of their competence and perform only those testing and assessment services for which they have been trained. They are familiar with reliability, validity, related standardization, error of measurement and proper application of any technique utilized. Counselors using computer-based test interpretations are trained in the construct being measured and the specific instrument being used prior to using this type of computer application. Counselors take reasonable measures to ensure the proper use of psychological assessment techniques by persons under their supervision.b. Appropriate Use. Counselors are responsible for the appropriate application, scoring, interpretation and use of assessment instruments, whether they score and interpret such tests themselves or use computerized or other services.c. Decisions Based on Results. Counselors responsible for decisions involving individuals or policies that are based on assessment results have a thorough understanding of educational and psychological measurement, including validation criteria, test research, and guidelines for test development and use.d. Accurate Information. Counselors provide accurate information and avoid false claims or misconceptions when making statements about assessment instruments or techniques. Special efforts are made to avoid unwarranted connotations of such terms as IQ or grade equivalent scores.

E.3. Informed Consenta. Explanation to Clients. Prior to assessment, counselors explain the nature and purposes of assessment and the specific use of the results in language the client (or other legally authorized person on behalf of the client) can understand, unless the explicit exception to this right has been agreed upon in advance. Regardless of whether scoring and interpretation are completed by counselors, by assistants, or by computer or other outside services, counselors take responsible steps to ensure that appropriate explanations are given to the client.b. Recipients of Results. The examinee’s welfare, explicit understanding and prior agreement determine the recipients of test results. Counselors include accurate and appropriate interpretations of any release of individual or group test results.

E.4. Release of Information to Competent Professionalsa. Misuse of Results. Counselors do not misuse assessment results, including test results, and interpretations, and take reasonable steps to prevent the misuse by others.b. Release of Raw Data. Counselors ordinarily release data (e.g., protocols, counseling or interview notes, or questionnaires) in which the client is identified only with the consent of the client of the client’s legal representative. Such data are usually released only to persons recognized as competent to interpret the data.

E.5. Proper Diagnosis of Mental Disordersa. Proper Diagnosis. Counselors take special care to provide proper diagnosis of mental disorders. Assessment techniques (including personal interview) used to determine client care (e.g., locus of treatment, type of treatment, or recommended follow-up) are carefully selected and appropriately used.b. Cultural Sensitivity. Counselors recognize that culture affects the manner in which client’s problems are defined. Clients’ socio-metric and cultural experience is considered when diagnosing mental disorders.

E.6. Test Selectiona. Appropriateness of Instruments. Counselor carefully consider the validity, reliability, psychometric limitations and appropriateness of instruments when selecting tests for use in a given situation or with a particular client.b. Culturally diverse Populations. Counselors are cautious when selecting tests of culturally diverse populations to avoid inappropriateness of testing that may be outside of socialized behavioral or cognitive patters.

E.7. Condition of Test Administrationa. Administration Conditions. Counselors administer tests under the same conditions that were established in their standardization. When tests are not administered under standard conditions or when unusual behavior of irregularities occur during the testing session, those conditions are noted in interpretation, and results may be designated as invalid or of questionable validity.

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b. Computer Administration. Counselors are responsible for ensuring that administration programs function properly to provide client’s with accurate results when a computer or other electronic methods are used for test administration.c. Unsupervised Test Taking. Counselors do not permit unsupervised or inadequately supervised use of tests or assessments unless the tests or assessments are designed, intended, and validated for self-administration and/or scoring.d. Disclosure of Favorable Conditions. Prior to test administration, conditions that produce most favorable test results are made known to the examinee.

E.8. Diversity in TestingCounselors are cautious in using assessment techniques, making evaluation and interpreting the performance of populations not represented in the norm group on which the instrument was standardized. They recognize the effects of age, color, culture, disability, ethnic group, gender, race, religion, sexual orientation and socioeconomic status on test administration and interpretation and place test results in proper perspective with other relevant factors.

E.9. Test Scoring and Interpretationa. Reporting Reservations. In reporting assessment results, counselor indicate any reservations that exist regarding validity or reliability because of the circumstances of the assessment or the inappropriateness of the norms for the person tested.b. Research Instruments. Counselors exercise caution when interpreting the results of research instruments possessing insufficient technical data to support respondent results. The specific purposes for the use of such instruments are stated explicitly to the examinee.c. Testing Services. Counselors who provide test scoring and test interpretation services to support the assessment process confirm the validity of such interpretations. They accurately describe the purpose, norms, validity, reliability, and applications of the procedures and any special qualifications applicable to their use. The public offering of an automated test interpretations service is considered a professional-to-professional consultation. The formal responsibility of the consultant is to the consultee, but the ultimate and overriding responsibility is to the client.

E.10. Test SecurityCounselors maintain the integrity and security of tests and other assessment techniques consistent with legal and contractual obligations. Counselor do not appropriate, reproduce, or modify published tests of parts thereof without the acknowledgment and permission from the publisher.

E.11. Obsolete Tests and Outdated Test ResultsCounselors do not use data or test results that are obsolete or outdated for the current purpose. Counselor make every effort to prevent the misuse of obsolete measures and test data by others.

E.12. Test ConstructionCounselor use established scientific procedures, relevant standards, and current professional knowledge for test design in the development, publication, and utilization of educational and psychological assessment techniques.

The following tenants have been extracted from the Code of Ethics of the Turkish Psychological Counseling Association, 6th Edition, 2006.

3. Testing and evaluating These rules apply to test and other assessment techniques.

Counselors inform client about test, purpose to give test, and how it is used. They recognize the effects of age, culture, disability, gender, ethnic group, religion and SES on test interpretation.

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Counselors carefully consider the validity, reliability, and appropriateness of instruments when selecting test for use in a given situation.

Counselors are careful to give information about tests and its results to clients and public.If a counselor uses different instruments they prepare themselves about these instruments administration, scoring and interpretation.

During standardization of an instrument, counselor needs to provide appropriate condition.

Counselors need to be careful when they send tests to people by mail.

Counselors need to provide test security.

If instruments have some limitations, then counselor update them.

Interpretation is made according to client’s situation (needs).

If a counselor needs to make a decision after test, s/he has to have sufficiently knowledge and understanding about psychometric.

If a instrument does not have enough psychometric information then counselor have to be more careful to use and interpretation.

Counselors do not interpretation according to old test results.

Counselors do not appropriate, reproduce, or modify published tests or parts thereof without acknowledgment and permission from publisher.

Counselors are responsible for ensuring that administration programs function properly to provide clients with accurate results when a computer is used for test administration.

Essentials derived from the Code of Ethics in Testing

1. The member must provide specific orientation or information to the examinee(s) prior to and following the test administration so that the results may be placed in proper perspective with other factors such as SES, culture, ethnicity, etc.

2. The member must select the most valid, reliable and appropriate test for a given situation. 3. When making statements to the public about tests, the member must give accurate information and avoid

false or misleading claims, particularly with regard to such terms as IQ or grade equivalent scores. 4. The member must realize that different tests demand different levels of competence for administration,

scoring and interpretation. The member must utilize only those instruments for which he or she is qualified.

5. In situations utilizing computerized assessment, the member must insure that the computer hardware and software are functioning properly.

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6. Tests must be administered precisely according to standardization procedures. Deviations from standardized procedures must be reported.

7. The member must insure proper and appropriate test security for all test materials at all times. 8. The purpose of testing and the explicit use of the results must be made known to an examinee prior to

testing. 9. The client's welfare and explicit prior understanding must be the criteria for determining the recipients of

test results. The member is obligated to insure that proper interpretation accompanies the release of individual or group data.

10. Any member responsible for making decisions based upon test data must be competent in and have an understanding of educational and psychological measurement, validation criteria, and test research.

11. The member must exercise caution is interpreting results of experimental or research instruments lacking sufficient technical support.

12. The member must use extreme caution in evaluating the performance of minority group members not fully represented in normative samples.

13. When computer based test interpretations are developed the member must insure the validity of such interpretations is established prior to distribution.

14. The member must recognize that test results become obsolete and avoid or prevent the use of obsolete test results.

15. The member must guard against the appropriation, reproduction, or modification of published tests or parts thereof without the permission of the previous author.

There are three basic foundation stones upon which ethical principles are built. If you conduct your professional practice in concert with these principles you will reduce your chances of engaging in unethical behavior dramatically. These principles are:

1. Treat your client (student) with respect and do no harm.2. Don't do anything which would invalidate the test.3. Get and stay competent.

American Counseling Association Turkish Psychological Counseling Association

1.The member must provide specific orientation or information to the examinee(s) prior to and followingthe test administration so that the results may be placedin proper perspective with other factors such

as SES,culture, ethnicity, etc.

a. Counselors inform client about test, purpose to give test, and how it is used. They recognize the effects of age, culture, disability, gender, ethnic group, religion and SES on test interpretation.

2.The member must select the most valid, reliable and appropriate test for a given situation.

b. Counselors carefully consider the validity, reliability, and appropriateness of instruments when selecting test for use in a given situation.

3.When making statements to the public about tests, the c. Counselors are careful to give information

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member must give accurate information and avoid falseor misleading claims, particularly with regard to such terms as IQ or grade equivalent scores.

about tests and its results to clients and public.

4. The member must realize that different tests demanddifferent levels of competence for administration, scoring and interpretation. The member must utilizeonly those instruments for which he or she is qualified.

d. If a counselor uses different instruments they prepare themselves about these instruments administration, scoring and interpretation.

5.In situations utilizing computerized assessment, the member must insure that the computer hardware and software are functioning properly.

n. Counselors are responsible for ensuring that administration programs function properly to provide clients with accurate results when a computer is used for test administration.

6. Tests must be administered precisely according tostandardization procedures. Deviations from standardized procedures must be reported.

e. During standardization of an instrument, counselor needs to provide appropriate condition.

7.The member must insure proper and appropriate test security for all test materials at all times.

g. Counselors need to provide test security.

8. The purpose of testing and the explicit use of theresults must be made known to an examinee prior totesting.9. The client's welfare and explicit prior understanding must be the criteria for determining the recipients of test results. The member is obligated to insure that proper interpretation accompanies the release of individual or group data.

i. Interpretation is made according to client’s situation (needs).

10. Any member responsible for making decisionsbased upon test data must be competent in and have anunderstanding of educational and psychological measurement, validation criteria, and test research.

j. If a counselor needs to make a decision after test, s/he has to have sufficiently knowledge and understanding about psychometrics.

11. The member must exercise caution is interpreting results of experimental or research instruments lackingsufficient technical support.

k. If a instrument does not have enough psychometric information then counselor have to be more careful to use and interpretation.

12. The member must use extreme caution in evaluatingthe performance of minority group members not fullyrepresented in normative samples.13. When computer based test interpretations aredeveloped the member must insure the validity of suchinterpretations is established prior to distribution.14. The member must recognize that test results becomeobsolete and avoid or prevent the use of obsolete testresults.

l. Counselors do not interpretation according to old test results.

15. The member must guard against the appropriation, reproduction, or modification of published tests or parts thereof without the permission of the previous author.

m. Counselors do not appropriate, reproduce, or modify published tests or parts thereof without acknowledgment and permission from publisher.

Unit 3Fundamentals of Test Construction

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Purpose: The principle reason for this unit is to emphasize the fact that testing is something that one does WITH a client and not TO a client. This distinction is important for it must be understood that unlike testing in an education setting where the goal is to judge, classify, or grade a student, testing for a working counselor is less about judging than providing a meaningful way for a client to learn about himself or herself. If one believes that the goal of counseling is to facilitate change and that change is facilitated by self knowledge and insight then one must accept that any tool that can enhance self understanding and self knowledge is worthwhile. This unit will describe a few of the fundamental aspects of instrument development and the process may be of use to you as you plan, design, prepare and refine a counseling tool for your practice.

Tests: Although both terms are frequently used to refer to psychological and educational instruments there is one key difference. Tests are usually instruments on which there are correct and incorrect responses options. Essentially the task is rather simple. A task is presented to a client and the counselor/teacher/psychologist (whatever) observes and in some way records the response. A student or client may be asked to solve a mathematics problem for example. Consider this example. The teacher or psychologist wants to know whether the student of client can add the integers 5 and 4 and conjure up the correct sum of 9. Residing within the mind of a teacher or some other individual is the idea that there is but one CORRECT answer to this problem. The task is clear. That task is presented to the student in a way that is understandable and all that is necessary is for the tester to observe the response of the testee….so simple….or is it? There are clearly multiple options available in terms or presentation format….should the task be presented to the client orally? …..or in some written form…..What is the age of the client? Is the client literate? Does the client suffer from any types of learning or perceptual limitations, what about the clients sensory limitations (vision, hearing)…these and many other considerations must begin to intrude as you consider how to present this task in the best and most understandable fashion to your client or student….but that is only half of the process….what do I expect the client to do in responding to this task….do I expect the client to immediately know the answer and then say it or write it down…or am I expecting the client to choose the correct answer from among two or more possible answers that I will provide? There clearly are lots of options and although you’ve probably been introduced to some of these in the past the following is offered as a brief refresher….

Test Item Forms

Let’s begin simply…a question on a test or inventory is called an item and it represents usually just one in a series of items each of which acts like a

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link in a chain. There is an old idiom in English that says, “A chain is only as strong as its weakest link.” This means that each item or question in your test or inventory should be there for a purpose and be as strong as possible!

Recognition Type ItemsIntroduction: The items or questions on a test can generally be categorized into two large families based upon the task which the student must perform. The first of these families are generally referred to as recognition or objective type items since the student's principle task is to recognize the correct answer which is plainly presented on the test. It may seem a bit strange but in each of these item forms the correct as well as a number of incorrect responses are presented to the student who must simply choose the correct answer. As a group these items all tend to have a number of advantages as well as disadvantages which are described below.

Advantages:a. Excellent item samplingb. Items are easily, quickly, and objectively scoredc. Student writing is minimizedd. These items do a good job of measuring relatively simple outcomese. Scoring does not require special skills or trainingf. Use of these items permits rapid reporting of performance

Disadvantages:a. Since response freedom is limited bright students may be penalizedb. Guessing is always a possibilityc. The use of these items may over-emphasize rote learningd. Use of these item forms may lead to the measurement of trivial

information

Objective or Recognition Item Formsa. The alternative response item b. The matching exercise c. The multiple choice itemd. The Interpretive exercise

Guidelines for Writing Test Items in General

Before discussing each of these items in further detail a number of guidelines for writing test items in general would be useful and these include:

a. Test for important ideas, information, and skills--not trivial information.

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b. Write items as simply as possible, making the task clear for the student.

c. Make items appropriate for the age and ability level of the students.d. Make sure that there is one and only one correct or accepted best

answer.e. Avoid using interrelated items where missing one can cause further

errors.f. Avoid specific determiners or unintended clues and "give-away"

questions.g. Avoid using direct quotations from the text.h. Always have someone review your items before including them on a

test.i. Avoid "trick" questions.

The Alternative Response ItemForm: Typically a simple declarative sentence to which the student must make a dichotomous decision such as "right/wrong", "true/false", etc.

Advantages:a. Excellent item samplingb. Easy to write and scorec. Excellent choice when very simple learning outcomes are assessedd. Good items for young children and/or pupils who are poor readerse. Provide high reliability per unit of testing timef. Are adaptable to most content areas

Disadvantages:a. Ease of guessing (50%)b. Encourages rote learningc. Unable to assess any but the most simplistic outcomesd. May penalize the brightest and most achieving of studentse. Limited to dichotomous materialf. More susceptible to ambiguity and misinterpretation than other items formsg. Least discriminating of all items

Suggestions for writing good alternative response items.a. Ask questions about single ideas; avoid double barreled questions.

Poor: T F of dramatically increased levels of CO2 emissions from industrialized countries there has been a reduction in the size of the polar ice caps. Better: T F Recently there has been a reduction in the size of the polar ice caps.

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b. Avoid negative wording in false statements.

Poor: T F Tuberculosis is not a noncommunicable disease. Better: T F Tuberculosis is a communicable disease.

c. There should be approximately the same number of true and false answers.

Although generally true, it is more important that no perceptible pattern of T's and F's exist. Strive for a truly random placement of T's and F's which may not yield the same number of each. Flipping a coin is a good practice.

d. Avoid statements that require complex construction.e. Avoid specific determiners and words like always, never, and

usually.

Poor: T F It is always cold in Nome, Alaska. Better: T F The record high temperature for Nome, AK was 31C degrees in 1956.

f. Base items on material that is unequivocally true or false.

Poor: T F Penicillin is an effective drug for the treatment of pneumonia. Better: T F Penicillin is an effective drug for the treatment of streptococcal pneumonia.

g. Avoid trick questions

Matching ExerciseForm: The matching exercise generally takes the form of two columns of information. The first is referred to as the item list and the second column is referred to as the options list. The task for the student is to match each of the items with an appropriate option.

Advantages:a. Ease of constructionb. Excellent item samplingc. Ease of scoringd. Excellent item form for measuring simple paired-associations

Disadvantages:a. Encourages rote learning

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b. Unable to assess complex or advanced learning outcomesc. Guessing is possible

Suggestions for writing matching exercises:a. Lists to be matched should be relatively homogeneousb. Directions for matching should indicate how answers should be

markedc. Directions should indicate the basis for the matchingd. Directions should indicate how many times the options may be usede. Avoid matching exercises in which all options are used only oncef. Make sure all of the options are plausibleg. Matching exercises should be limited to no more than ten itemsh. Place all options and items on the same page of the testi. Options should be short phrases, words, or numbers

Directions: In the list of items appearing below you will find fundamental concepts from major counseling theories. The list of options contains the names of major theorists who are associated with the major counseling theories. Your task is to match the concept with the theorist by placing the letter of the theorist in the space next to each item. Each of the theorists may be used once, more than once or not at all.

(Items) Theory Concept (Options) Theorist_____ 1. The "Here and Now" a. Carl Rogers_____ 2. Life Scripts b. Fritz Perls_____ 3. The Core Facilitative Conditions c. Eric Berne_____ 4. The Irrational Beliefs d. Albert Ellis_____ 5. The Adult Ego State e. William Glasser_____ 6. Top Dog/Underdog_____ 7. Complementary Transaction_____ 8. Seeking “strokes”

The Multiple Choice ItemForm: The multiple choice item typically takes of the form of a stem and a list of answer options only one of which is considered to be correct or the best answer.

Advantages:a. Excellent item samplingb. Ease of scoringc. Versatile item which can measure simple to relatively complex

outcomesd. Student writing is minimizede. Permits writing of tests which can be reused

Disadvantages:a. Time consuming to writeb. Students sometimes complain that more than one correct answer

exists

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Suggestions for writing multiple choice items.a. The stem should be brief, concise, clear, and should set the task.b. The stem should be grammatically correctc. The options should be brief, clear, and concised. Only one of the options should be correct or the best answere. Distracters should be plausiblef. Avoid specific determinersg. Use all "all of the above" or "none of the above" sparinglyh. The correct answers should appear in a random position in the

option array

The Interpretive ExerciseForm: The interpretive exercise is basically nothing more than a series

of related multiple choice items the answers to which are to be found in some introductory material presented usually, but not always, at the top of the page of a test. This introductory material may take the form of written prose, a poem, a map, a chart or graph, a picture or any other piece of relevant material.

Advantages: In addition to the advantages listed for the multiple choice item, the interpretive exercise permits evaluation of the student's ability to make inferences, interpret complex material, and generally apply what has been learned to the solution of a novel problem.

Disadvantages: These are basically the same as for the multiple choice itemSuggestions for writing interpretive exercises.

a. All introductory material should be new to the student rather than familiar material which the student may have already memorized.b. The introductory material should be placed at the top of the page containing the related questions and all questions should be on the same page as that material.c. If the introductory material is to be presented "live" in class, then all students should have an equal chance of seeing or perceiving the material.

Dealing with Guessing: As you have seen, a common shortcoming of the recognition type of item is that a student can simply and randomly mark one of the options and get it correct. Guessing is really not a problem...what is a problem is that some will guess much more than others and therefore the contribution to the overall score can be quite different from one student to the next. The goal of any attempt is control guessing is to equalize the contribution made by guessing. There are two techniques which can be used to equalize the contribution made by guessing. One is to encourage

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guessing. Tell your students that you will only record the number of correct responses when you grade their test so they are to feel free to guess at any question of which they are unsure. Tell your students not to leave any questions blank. This is the procedure used my many standardized tests like the Graduate Record Exam (GRE).

A second technique is to attempt to discourage guessing and one technique is to penalize a student for any incorrect response. This would suggest that a student would only answer a question if he or she was relatively confident of the his or her choice. This procedure involves a process know as Correction for Guessing. It's a very simple mathematical technique designed to reduce wild guessing and involves subtracting from a student's score the likely contribution made by guessing to elevating that score. Three bits of information are necessary to correct a score for guessing. One must know the number of correct responses, the number of incorrect responses, and the number of options or alternatives each question had from which to choose. Consider the example depicted below.

Tom and Susie each took a 50 item, 4-choice multiple choice exam. Each correctly answered 38 questions. Tom attempted all 50 items so he missed 12 questions. Susie attempted only 41 questions and omitted 9 items of which she was very unsure. Both students scored 38 but let's correct each score for guessing and see what such a procedure would do in influencing their final corrected score. To do this we will simply apply the Correction for Guessing formula.

It looks like this where R= # of Correct responses, W= # of incorrect responses, and options = 4 (remember that each questions had 4 choices):Tom’s score corrected for guessing would then be: 38 - (12/3) = 38 - 4 = 34

Susie's score, corrected for guessing would then be: 38 - (3/3) = 38 - 1 = 37

In this example, two students began with exactly the same score (38) but after correcting for guessing, a real difference in performance was noted. Simply stated, with a 4-choice type of format a student would get a full point for each correct response but would lose 1/3 of a point for each incorrect response. Knowing this in advance (that's important) should tend to inhibit wild guessing on the part of a student and make test scores more meaningful. Unfortunately, it doesn't always work that way. There will always be some students who will guess blindly anyhow so it is generally better to try to encourage students to guess than to try to discourage guessing....and it also saves you a lot of math.

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Supply Type ItemsIntroduction: The second of the two families of test items are generally referred to as supply type items since that is the task the students/clients are to perform; they must supply the correct answer instead of simply recognizing the correct response from a list. Although this family can be used to measure simple to very complex material, they all can be regarded as somewhat more complex in that the student must recall material, and generally write the correct response which may require the ability to spell, punctuate, and organize responses which can vary in length from a number or word to quite long responses requiring many pages. It is important that one remember that not all tests of this type require writing. An oral presentation, a speech, or some other performance may be equally regarded as a supply type exercise. The three forms of this type of item include the completion item, the short answer, and the two forms of the essay or open-ended response item and each will be described below.

The Completion Item: Form: This item generally takes the form of a simple, declarative sentence in which an important part is missing. The task for the student is to insert the missing word, date, number, or some other piece of information in order to complete the sentence.

Advantages:a. Excellent item samplingb. Relatively quick and easy to scorec. Writing is minimizedd. These items do a good job of measuring simple outcomes

Disadvantages:a. Limited to relatively simple outcomesb. May encourage rote memorizationc. May often be use to measure trivial information

Suggestions for writing good completion items:a. Questions should be stated in such a way that only one specific and unique word or phrase can be the correct answer.b. Omit only significant words from the statement to be completed.c. Completion items should contain sufficient cues so that a person who has mastered the material can tell precisely what is being asked.d. For problems requiring numerical answers, specify the degree of precision required.

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The Short-Answer Item:

Form: This type of item differs from the completion item only in the length and complexity of the intended response. It typically takes the form of a complete interrogatory or imperative sentence to which the student must make a somewhat longer response.

The advantages and disadvantages are essentially the same as for the completion item as are the suggestions for writing good examples.

The Essay or Open-Ended Response Item

Form: This item typically takes the form of an imperative sentence in which the student is asked to provide a response which can vary in length from a paragraph or two to many pages. The difference between the extended and restricted response essay is one of length and complexity. Restricted response essays are best used to assess mastery of factual information. The extended response form is best used to assess writing skill, ability to organize, and express long and complex ideas as well as to assess a student's ability to integrate, synthesize, and evaluate. Despite claims to the contrary this item form generally elicits nothing more than a long list of memorized information since few writers will take the time necessary to write an essay question which requires complex thinking. Well thought out questions certainly can measure higher order learning outcomes but only if the questions are well written.

Advantages: a. Excellent for assessing complex and/or lengthy responses.b. May be used when other types of items are inappropriatec. May be used to assess other than factual information (e.g., writing

skill)d. Easy to constructe. Excellent when the number of students is small, grading is de-

emphasized, and the test will not be reused.

Disadvantages: a. Difficult and time consuming to grade quickly and objectivelyb. Students' writing style and skill may influence scoringc. Student papers may not be returned for some time.

Suggestions for writing and scoring essay items:

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a. Restrict the use of this item form to those objectives which cannot be effectively measured using more objective item forms.

b. Make sure the questions are focused and set the task for the student.

Poor: Why do birds migrate? Better: State three hypotheses that might explain why birds

migrate south in the Fall.

Poor: Compare the Democratic and Republican Parties.Better: Compare the current policies of the Democratic and Republican parties with regard to the role of the government in private business. Support you statements with examples when possible. (Your answer should be confined to two pages. It will be evaluated in terms of appropriateness of the facts and the examples presented and the skill with which it is organized.

c. Give guidelines as to time, content, or length limitations.d. Avoid the use of optional questionse. Before administering the test develop a clear grading systemf. Inform students how factors such as spelling, grammar, and punctuation will influence grading well before the test. g. Score test anonymously if at all possible.h. Score all students' responses to one item before scoring responses to the next item. i. Questions which ask students to draw a judgment or take a position should be evaluated on the strength of the response and not on the degree the response agrees with your positionj. Use the point scoring method for restricted types and sorting

for extended forms.k. Formulate questions that will satisfactorily call forth the behavior specified in the learning outcomes. l. Prepare a scoring key prior to considering examinee responses.m. Employ a larger number of questions that require relatively short answers rather than only a few questions that require long answers.

Examples of Essay Stems

1. ComparingDescribe the similarities and differences between...Compare the following two methods...

2. Relating Cause and Effect

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What are the major causes of...?What would be the most likely effects of...?

3. JustifyingWhich of the following alternatives would you favor and why?Explain why you agree of disagree with the following statement.

4. SummarizingState the main points included in...Briefly summarize the contents of ...

5. GeneralizingFormulate several valid generalizations from the following data.State a set of principles that can explain the following events.

6. InferringIn light of the facts presented, what is most likely to happen

when...?How would (Senator X) be likely to react to the following issue?

7. ClassifyingGroup the following items according to...What do the following items have in common?

8. CreatingList as many ways as you can think of for...Make up a story describing what would happen if...

9. ApplyingUsing the principle of .....as a guide, describe how you solve the following problem situation.Describe a situation that illustrates the principle of ...

10. SynthesizingDescribe a plan for proving that...Write a well-organized report that shows...

11. EvaluatingDescribe the strengths and weaknesses of the following...Using the criteria developed in class, write an evaluation of...

I just got lost in thought....it was unfamiliar territory.

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The way to enlightenment is long and hard so remember to bring along a snack.

Unit 4Fundamentals of Inventory Construction

This last chapter began with the idea that there were tests and there were inventories and what made them different was simple….Tests have right and wrong answers……They are graded….Someone usually is concerned about how many right you got and they usually tell you so!!!!!

Inventories also have answers but they are not “right” or “wrong”…just yours!!!! Inventories are not graded….they are scored….that is a number is generated that is neither “good” or “bad”…but just a number that reflects something about the individual who took the inventory….

InventoriesJust like other types of instruments, inventories represent an attempt to quantify some aspect of a client or student. Unlike the other types of items discussed earlier, inventories are made of items for which there are no “right” or “wrong” answers and so each represents an attempt to invite the client or student to reveal something about himself or herself. The aspect of asking someone to reveal something about oneself is a bit problematic. Most of us enjoy telling other about ourselves, especially if we are talking about our achievements or accomplishments. At the same time we are usually far less willing to reveal things about ourselves about which are ashamed or at least not very proud. The willingness of a client to take an

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inventory and even more importantly, to answer honestly and openly, will largely be determined by how you introduce and use such instruments with your clients.

Note: Unlike tests which are used to judge, categorize, and label individuals, inventories must be introduced as opportunities to learn about oneself….clients must be invited (never forced) to participate with full disclosure before and complete explanation and interpretation after!!!

Inventory Item forms.

Alternative Response ItemsThese items are frequently utilized on inventories and represent a form of “forced choice” item. The biggest difference rests in the way the exercise is introduced. Rather than beginning with a direction that says, “Choose which of the following options is CORRECT.”, the directions may say read each of the following pairs or adjectives or descriptors and indicate which of the two is most like you! Consider the following examples….

Are you more:1. Rigid or Flexible 2. Happy or Sad3. Tense or Relaxed

Would you ratherwork in a garden or solve a Sudoku puzzle orvisit a sick friend or work on a planning committee

make a book shelf or plan your day orread a book or just let the day happen

Consider the following which is extracted from a commonly used instrument to assess drinking patterns….Using a forced choice format (Yes or No) this form of alternative response item becomes a very efficient tool for eliciting responses from clients either individually or in groups.

Drinking Patterns Screening InventoryDirections: Please read each item below and if the statement is true for you put a check under "Yes" and if it is not true of you, put a check under "No". Please answer all of the questions.

Yes No1 Do you regard yourself as a normal drinker?2 Have you ever awakened the morning after an evening of drinking

and had difficulty recalling the events of the night before?

Multiple choice format

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Within the past 30 days, how often have you experienced:1. Sleep disturbance 2. A deep sense of loneliness

1 or 2 times 1 or 2 times3 or 4 times 3 or 4 times5 or 6 times 5 or 6 times7 or more times 7 or more times

Or consider this type of item….

DIRECTIONS: Read each group of statements and circle the statement that seems most true of you at this time.

1. 0 I do not feel sad. 1 I feel sad. 2 I am sad all the time and I can't snap out of it. 3 I am so sad or unhappy that I can't stand it.

2. 0 I am not particularly discouraged about the future. 1 I feel discourage about the future. 2 I feel that I have nothing to look forward to. 3 I feel the future is hopeless and things cannot improve.

Checklists

DIRECTIONS: The behaviors which a person learns determine to a large extent how well he or she gets along in life. Below is a list of behaviors which can be learned. Check the ones which you think you need to learn in order to function more effectively or be more comfortable.

I need to learn:___ 1. to stop drinking too much.___ 2. to stop smoking too much.___ 3. to stop eating too much.___ 4. to control my feelings of attraction to members of the opposite sex.___ 5. to control my feelings of attraction to members of my own sex.___ 6. to overcome my feelings of nausea when I'm nervous.___ 7. to stop thinking about things that depress me.___ 8. to stop thinking about things that make me anxious.___ 9. to feel less anxious in crowds.___ 10. to feel less anxious in high places.

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Completion Items.

Incomplete Sentences FormName:_______________________ Grade______ Date:________________

1. Today I feel________________________________________________________________ 2. When I have to read, I ________________________________________________________ 3. I get angry when____________________________________________________________ 4. To be grown up ____________________________________________________________ 5. My idea of a good time_______________________________________________________ 6. I wish my parents knew______________________________________________________ 7. School is__ ________________________________________________________________ 8. I can't understand why________________________________________________________ 9. I feel bad when______________________________________________________________10. I wish teachers______________________________________________________________

Obviously, employing such a tool to elicit responses will require a bit more subjectivity and thought if a meaningful analysis of the responses is to be made. Just as was the case for evaluating traditional test items using a supply type of form, there is likely to be far more subjectivity used in scoring such an inventory.

Completion items with longer and more complex required responses….The Projective Instrument.

A projective test, in psychology, is a personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hidden emotions and internal conflicts. This is different from an "objective test" in which responses are analyzed according to a universal standard (for example, a multiple choice exam) rather than an individual's judgement.

The general theoretical position behind such a practice is that whenever you ask a "question", all you get in response is an "answer"; and, according to those who advocate projective tests, these answers, whilst providing genuine information on the matters raised by the questions, may have nothing to do with what is really on the subject's mind (and, from this position, what ir really "the matter). Advocates of this approach stress that the ambiguity of the stimuli presented within the tests allow subjects to vent their inner thoughts. In many cases, however, this claim that it allows the subject to externalize whatever may be operating beneath their conscious awareness is often nullified by the testers' beliefs that certain responses have universally standard "meanings".

The best known projective test is the Rorschach inkblot test, in which a patient is shown irregular spot of ink, and asked to explain what they see; the response is then analyzed in various ways, noting not only what the patient said, but the time taken to respond, what aspect of the drawing was focused on, and how the response compared to other responses for the same drawing. If someone consistently sees the images as threatening and frightening, the psychiatrist may infer that he or she may suffer from paranoia.

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Another popular projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in which a patient views ambiguous scenes of people, and is asked to describe various aspects of the scene; for example, the patient may be asked to describe what led up to this scene, the emotions of the characters, and what might happen afterwards. The examiner then evaluates these descriptions, attempting to discover conflicts and hidden emotions within the patient, and work toward a successful psychoanalytic cure.

These tests have lost popularity as psychology has advanced. Many within the field no longer adhere to Freudian principles; the idea of repression that underlies the tests has been dismissed as false or outdated by many. Other criticisms concern the nature of the tests themselves. For example, it is observed that they can only be effective if the examiner interprets the responses correctly. Because they depend so heavily on the judgements of the examiner, some see projective tests as unscientific. However, a number of psychologists still use them as a way to get introduced to the patient in a nonthreatening manner.

Consider the Rorschach

A very commonly used psychological instrument developed by Swiss psychologist Hermann Rorschach in which a series of 10 cards are presented to a client who is then asked to respond by expressing what is seen. The cards contain only inkblots and based upon the projective hypothesis the client is assumed to project qualities of his/her personality into the task to find meaning or significance. Careful notes are taken and the responses are analyzed in terms of content, fluency, theme and many other characteristics. "Nobody agrees how to score Rorschach responses objectively. There is nothing to show what any particular response means to the person who gives it. And, there is nothing to show what it means if a number of people give the same response. The ink blots are scientifically useless." (Bartol, 1983).

"The only thing the inkblots do reveal is the secret world of the examiner who interprets them. These doctors are probably saying more about themselves than about the subjects." (Anastasi, 1982).

Consider the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

Similar to the Rorschach but the series of 31 cards each portray clearly identifiable by vague social content. The client is requested to create a story in which the events leading up to the scene are described as well as the scene and the aftermath are similarly woven into a story line. The client is asked not to describe the scene but to create a story based upon the scene, Again, the content is analyzed for persistent themes and material. The

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clinical validity of this instrument has long been questioned yet the instrument seems to have endured possibly for its ability to generate topics for conversation in therapy.

Perhaps the clearest example of eliciting prolonged responses from clients using a simple supply format is the Kinetic Family Drawing (KFD).

The Kinetic Family Drawing (KFD), in psychology and counseling, is a personality testing technique devised by Burns (1982) created for children. It involves the examiner instructing the child to draw a picture of themselves, and everyone in his or her family, doing something. The examiner may then ask the child questions about the drawing, dsuch as what is happening and who is in the picture. Certain characteristics of the drawing are noted upon analysis, such as the placement of family members; the absence of any members; whether the figures are relatively consistent with reality or altered by the child; the absence of particular body parts; erasures; elevated figures; and so on.

The KFD was created as an extension of the Family Drawing Test (Burns & Kaufman, 1972). The kinetic aspect refers to the instructions given to the child to draw his or her family members doing something.

The KFD is similar to other psychometric projective techniques such as the Draw-a-Person Test (D-A-P) developed by Machover, and the House-Tree-Person (HTP) technique developed by Buck.

A day without sunshine is like........night.

Whatever.......EDS 596

Study Guide and Objectives for Quiz #1By the end of the third class meeting, each student will be able to demonstrate, on 40 item a multiple choice examination, mastery of the following material which was presented in class. Specifically each student will be able to:

a. Define the following terms: a. measurement b. test c. evaluation

b. Describe the relationship among each of the terms above.

c. Identify common decisions required in education and reasons for giving tests including: Selection Placement

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Diagnosis/Remediation Motivation Feedback Individual Progress Research Curriculum/Program Evaluation

d. Identify situation requiring either norm-referenced or criterion-referenced testing

e. Recall the five domains of testing (Achievement, Aptitude, Intelligence, Preference and Personality.)

f. Categorize tests along the following dimensions: Group/Individual Subjective/Objective Norm/Criterion Referenced Paper-pencil/Performance Power/Speed Structured/Unstructured Teacher-made/Standardized Screening/Diagnostic

g. Identify ethical and unethical testing practices and situations.

i. Recall the item forms associated with the Recognition Type Family and be able to describe their form and use. j. Recall the item forms associated with the supply type family and be able to describe their forms and use.

k. Recognize examples of the four levels of scaling: Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio.

l. Be able to define each of the following terms/phrases: Likert scale, semantic differential, projective hypothesis, self-report inventory, test, inventory, checklist.

The space below is cheerfully provided for you note taking safety..............

Unit 5Basic Descriptive Statistics

Introduction: Let's begin with a few basic definitions. A group of test scores is called a distribution and the first step in making sense out of the distribution is to rearrange the scores in descending numeric order. This process will allow one to immediately determine the highest and the lowest score in the distribution as well as any scores which occur more than once. Having rearranged the scores we can now begin to determine some of the

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other characteristics of this group of scores. There are three characteristics with which we will concern ourselves and each will be described below.

a. Central Tendency: "Is there one score that best describes how the entire group performed?”

There are three measures of central tendency which answer this question with increasing

recision and these are:

1. Mode: The mode of a distribution is nothing more than the most frequently occurring score. It is the easiest of all of the measures of central tendency to determine but it is the crudest, least precise, and probably the least useful of all.

2. Median: First, pay attention to how this term is spelled. The word is MEDIAN not Medium. I'd hate for you to embarrass yourself later on in life by mispronouncing this word. The median is nothing more than that point on the distribution above and below which half of the scores fall. Nothing to say except that the median may be one of the scores ( if the distribution has an odd number of scores) or it may be a computed point between two adjacent scores (if the distribution has an even number of scores.) It is somewhat more precise than the mode but not by much.

3. Mean: Actually this term refers to the arithmetic mean or what you and I call the average. But why spend all that time going to graduate school if you are going to use the same words that all the rest of the good folks use. It is by far the most precise and sensitive of all of the measures of central tendency, In case it's been a while, the recipe for the mean of a distribution is shown below.

b. Skewness: This term refers to the shape of the distribution. Distributions which are symmetrical will be beautifully bell shaped and will be characterized by an absence of Skewness. Such distributions are easy to identify because the measures of central tendency will all be exactly the same. A group of scores of which the mode, median, and mean are all 36, for example, will NOT be skewed and will be symmetrical. On the other hand, distributions which are skewed will have measures of central tendency which are not the same. Consider the two curves portrayed below. They are

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both skewed with one demonstrating positive skew and the other is negative. The easiest way to determine if a distribution is positively or negatively skewed is to determine which side of the MODE the MEAN is on. If the mean is above the mode then the distribution is positively skewed and the if the mean is below the mode then the distribution is negatively skewed.

c. Dispersion or variability: This term refers to the "spread" of the scores. Consider the

following three distributions which are all symmetrical and have modes, medians, and means of 50. They are certainly different and the way they differ is with regard to how much spread or dispersion is apparent in the scores.

Group I Group II Group III X X X 53 65 80 52 60 70 51 55 60 50 50 50 50 50 50 49 45 40 48 40 30 47 35 20

The easiest of the measures of dispersion to understand is called the Range and refers to nothing more than the difference between the highest and the lowest score in the distribution. Range= XH-XLUsing this little formula we can see that the Range of Group I is 6 points (53-47) while the Range for Groups II and III is 30 and 60 points respectively. Hey, that was easy!!

42.7% of statistics are made up on the spot.

Variance and the "Dread Standard Deviation":

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These two more useful measures of dispersion are just as easy to understand but they do

require a bit more computation. The following steps are provided for your computational

safety and security.

1. Determine the Mean of the distribution.2. Subtract the Mean from each score in the distribution. This score is referred to as the "Deviation Score".3. Square each deviation score.4. Add up all of the squared deviation scores to get the sum of squared deviation scores.4. Divide the sum of the squared deviation scores by the number of scores in the distribution. The result of this is called the variance.5. One final step...take the square root of the variance to get the SD.

Consider the following distribution of 8 scores with a mean of 6.

X (X-M) (X-M)2

9 9-6=3 32 =9 Sum of (X-M)2 = 28

8 8-6=2 22=47 7-6=1 12=1 (X-M) 2 = 28 = 3.5=2

6 6-6=0 02=0 N 8

6 6-6=0 02=0 5 5-6=-1 -12=1

4 4-6=-2 -22=43 3-6=-3 -3 2 =9

28The Formula for the SD looks like this:

Whew! Really, that wasn't so bad...We'll work lots of examples in class so don't worry. But now that we have the standard deviation, that and $.50 will buy you a cup of coffee. What can we do with this information? The answer to that question is lots and that's what we'll do now. The SD gives us a new unit of measurement which will allow us to portray the performance of any student in relative terms compared with all of the other students in the group. The following normalized standard scales will be explained in class

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but it's important that you remember the characteristics of each scale including the mean and the SD.

Each of these scales will be described below.

a. The Z scale is the most basic of all standard scales and is nothing more than a portrayal of how far above or below the group mean a particular score is. The only trick is that the distance above or below the mean is expressed in standard deviation units (or fractions thereof). The Z scale transformation formula is depicted below.

Consider the score of 7 in the example above. We already know that the Mean (M) is 6 and the standard deviation is 1.87. If we transform the raw score of 7 into its associated Z-score it would look like this.

This tells us that a score of 7 is 1 point above the mean of 6 and with a SD=1.87 a person with a score of 7 is .53 standard deviations above the mean. Remember that positive Z scores refers to scores above the mean while negative Z scores refer to scores below the mean.

Once the Z score is computed a score can be changed into any of the other standard scales commonly used to portray performance on a test. One final transformation is necessary. Armed with the Z scale one can change the score into any of the other scales through the use of the following formula.

The commonly used scales include the following:a. The T-scale which has the following characteristics: M=50, =10b. The ETS (Educational Testing Service) scale: M=500, =100c. The Deviation IQ scale: M=100, =15d. The Stanine scale: M=5, =2

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e. The Normal Curve Equivalent: M=50, =21.06f. The Weschler Subscales: M=10, =3

Remember, half the people you know are below average.

Conversion to Scaled Scores......Now, this is about as difficult as pouring a cup of coffee.....but there are a couple of things that must be known.....The first is the Z score. This is calculated based upon the raw score, mean,

and standard deviation.....to refresh your memory.....

Once the Z-score has been determined then a conversion to any of the normally used scaled scores can be quickly made by using the following generic formula.......

Scale Score = SDscale (Z) + Meanscale

Now for you to do this conversion implies that you have ready access to the Mean and Standard Deviations of the most commonly used Scaled Scores which are as follows.

Scale Scale Mean Scale Standard Deviation

T-Scale 50 10

ETS 500 100

DIQ 100 15

Stanine 5 2

Example:

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Leonardo got a score of 41 on a test with a mean of 39 and a SD of 4 pts. What would hisT-score be?

Step 1. Find the Z-score.....This one is a no brainer.....

Step 2. Convert to the equivalent T-score.....once again this one is easy.....

Starting with the generic transformation formula we insert the information for the T-scale and the Z-score we just calculated.......

Scale Score = SDscale (Z) + Meanscale

This formula will require the SD for the T-Scale which is 10....and also the Mean for the T-scale which is 50.....so ....

T = 10 (.50) + 50, T = 5 + 50, T=55

It stands to reason that a Z-score of .50 means that the individual is ½ of a standard deviation above the mean. If Leonardo is ½ of a standard deviation above the mean on the Z-scale he will be ½ of a standard deviation above on any other scale as well. If the mean on the T-scale is 50 and the standard deviation of the T-scale is 10 then ½ of a T-scale standard deviation above the mean is 5pts above 50 or 55.

The same process can be followed to convert the Z-score into any other scaled score......how ‘bout converting to a stanine....ok....just as before.....remember that the SD for the Stanine scale is 2 and the mean for the stanine scale is 5.....Scale Score = SDscale (Z) + Meanscale

Stanine = 2(.5) + 5 Stanine = 1 + 5 Stanine = 6th

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Practice work sheet for EDS 596

The problem below is similar to one you will have to complete on your next quiz. Taking a little time to complete this worksheet will give you the practice you will need to smoothly and

confidently deal with the computation problem that will be part of your next quiz.

Name Score Z-Score T-Score ETS Score Stanine

Isabel 96

Juanita 94

Jose 89

Carlos 89

Maria 87

Roberto 84

Manuel 78

Pilar 74

Concha 63

N:_____ Show all of your work below

Mode:_____

Median:_____

Mean:_____

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Skewed: yes___/no___

If yes, then +___/-___

Range:_____

Variance:_____

SD:_____

Practice Problems for Unit 7

X (X-M) (X-M)2 N=____Sam 38 _____ _____ Mode=_____Glenda 37 _____ _____ Median=_____Paula 37 _____ _____ Mean=_____Linda 34 _____ _____ Skewed? Yes__/No__Nigel 31 _____ _____ If yes then +___ or -___Susan 28 _____ _____ Range=_____Mark 26 _____ _____ Variance=_____Rufus 19 _____ _____ SD=_____ Paula's Z score=_____

Mark's T score=_____Glenda's Stanine=_____

X (X-M) (X-M)2 N=____Paul 78 _____ _____ Mode=_____Rene' 77 _____ _____ Median=_____Barbara 76 _____ _____ Mean=_____Carl 72 _____ _____ Skewed? Yes__/No__Samuel 68 _____ _____ If yes then +__/-__Jon 56 _____ _____ Range=_____Tami 56 _____ _____ Variance=_____Rufus 51 _____ _____ SD=_____ Tami's Z score=_____

Rufus' T score=_____Rene's Stanine=_____

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Unit 6 Reliability and Validity

Forms of ReliabilityAs an important and highly desirable characteristic of any good test, reliability is a measure of the extent to which the results produced by a test are stable, predictable, and relatively unchanging. Obviously, if an instrument produced dramatically different scores each time it was administered to the same individual, it could not be depended upon to produce meaningful results..that is, it would not be reliable. Just like a good friend, a car, or a parachute...tests should be reliable and dependable.

The reliability of an instrument can be estimated in several ways each of which represents a slightly different component of reliability. Each of these reliabilities is represented as a correlation coefficient ( ) hereafter referred to as a reliability coefficient.

Type Method Stability (over time) Test/Retest Equivalence Alternate Forms Internal Consistency Split-Half, KR-20, Chronbach's Alpha

Stability is assessed through a Test/Retest procedure in which a test administered and the scores recorded. Typically a period of time is permitted to elapse (the ITI or inter-test interval) and the test is administered to the same group of individuals a second time. If the correlation between the two sets of scores is high then it is assumed that the test produces scores which are stable over time, at least for relatively short periods of time.

Equivalence is an important factor if more than one form of the test will be used. Clearly, it would not be good if one version of the test produced

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widely different patterns of scores from other versions of the same test. The procedure for assessing equivalence is known as alternate forms and it is nothing other than administering form A of a test and recording the scores. Immediately afterward form B of the instrument is administered and the two sets of scores are correlated. A high correlation indicates equivalence reliability.

Internal Consistency is yet another form of reliability which seeks to determine if all parts of the test contribute to the total score. Typically the split-half method is used. For this method the test is administered to a large group of subjects. The test is the scored twice. First only the odd numbered items are scored and a score is generated. Following this the test is scored again using only the even numbered items. This process results in two sets of scores which can then be correlated. If the scores from the odd numbered questions correlate highly with the scores from the even numbered questions then the test is said to possess a high degree of internal consistency and to have good split-half reliability.

Because the correlation of the two halves of the test (odds and evens) represents the reliability of a test that is only half-the normal length, an estimate of the reliability of the full length test can be made using the Spearman-Brown formula which allows one to estimate what the correlation of the two halves would be if each half had the length of the entire test…..

Where SBr is the Spearman-Brown reliability estimater=split-half reliability

In some cases using the Spearman-Brown formula is not always advisable. This is particularly true when the two halves of the test have unequal variances. In this case, Chronbach’s coefficientis a better choice.

is the variance for scores on the entire test are the variances for the two separate halves of the test.

Other methods for estimating the reliability of a test include purely statistical methods and include the Kuder-Richardson (KR-20) formula and the Alpha Coefficient. These methods typically involve the administration of the test and the application of a statistical analysis. Although not difficult, the actual computation is of little use for the purposes of this class and will not be described. What you should know is that these methods are alternate measures of internal consistency type reliability.

Standard Error of Measurement

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The standard error of measurement (SEm) represents an estimate of the amount of error associated with any single score. Since ALL test scores have some degree of error associated with them, knowledge of the SEm permits one to interpret any single score as being the midpoint of a band of score range. Obviously, if the SEm is large then the possibility exists that the obtained score could have a great deal of error and if the SEm is quite small, then the obtained score could be considered a much more accurate estimate of the True Score. A test with a large SEm would be about like the incompetent carnival worker who guesses weight on the midway. If he could guess a person's weight as being somewhere between 50 and 500 pounds, he would not have a job very long. If, however, that same carnival worker could consistently guess a patron's weight within a pound or two, such a person would be considered very good, indeed.

The SEm for a test or subtest is determined through knowledge the reliability of that test or subtest. As you will see in the material which follows, the relationship between reliability and the SEm is strongly negative since highly reliability test have small SEm's. The formula for determining the SEm is depicted below.

Consider the following example. The WISC-R (Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised) possesses a full scale reliability coefficient of r=.96. Now that's outstanding....but what is the SEm for the test. Using the formula above all we need to know is the standard deviation of IQ which we already know is 15 points on the Weschler Scales.

, ,The SEm may be thought of as the standard deviation of an individuals student's error scores. The distribution of the SEM around the obtained score is assumed to be normally distributed and, therefore, follows the same pattern as for any other normal distribution. In the case above let's assume that an individual obtained a WISC-R full scale DIQ of 103.

The following confidence intervals will occur.Score± 1SEm = 68% confidence interval 103±3 pts = 100 to 106Score± 2SEm = 95% confidence interval 103±6 pts = 97 to 109Score± 3SEm = 99.9 confidence interval 103±9 pts = 94 to 112

The meaning of all of this is quite simple. On the WISC-R, with a reliability of .96 and a SEm of 3 points, an individual who scored 103 should not be thought of as having an IQ of exactly 103. What should be said is that there is a 68% probability that the child's true IQ is between 100 and 106. Thus, the knowledge of the SEm provides a basis for interpreting a score as simply the middle of a range of probable scores.

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ValidityAn essential question that must be asked each time a test is administered is, "Is this test really measuring what I think it is?" How does one know if an IQ test really measures IQor not. How about an aptitude test...How does one really know how well it measures some aptitude. Well that question is a legitimate one and is usually addressed by the publisherof a test who must provide information to convince you of the test's validity. A valid test may not provide a valid measure for every person every time. The very best test designed will not yield valid results if a person cannot read, is too sick or upset to concentrate, or doesn't speak the language. It may be best to think of validity not as a quality of the test but as a quality of the test score produced by a test for a particular individual. e forms of validity, the ways the validity is established, and the types of test most effected by each type of validity are summarized below. Validity Form Type Most necessary for

Content Validity Logical/Rational Achievement TestsConstruct Validity Logical/Rational

or EmpiricalPersonality Tests

Criterion Related(a) Concurrent(b) Predictive

Empirical IQ and Aptitude Tests

Final Note: Valid tests will produce reliable results....but just because a test is reliable does not guarantee that it is valid. Too err is human...to moo,

bovine.

Study Guide for Quiz #2By the end of the third unit of instruction, each student will be able to demonstrate, on a multiple choice and completion type examination, mastery of the following material which was presented in class. Specifically, each student will be able to:

1. define, compute, and describe the relationship between the measures of central tendency including:a. Mode b. Median c. Mean

2. apply various techniques to determine if a distribution is skewed and if so, whether the distribution is positively or negatively skewed.

3. define, compute, and utilize the measures of dispersion or variability including:

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a. Range b. Variancec. Standard Deviation

4. reproduce the normal curve.

5. reproduce the following standardized scales:a. Z-Scale d. ETS-Scaleb. T-Scale e. DIQc. %ile-Scale

6. convert a raw score into any of the scales noted above.

7. define and interpret a correlational coefficient.

8. define reliability and recognize examples of the various form including:a. Test/Retest (Stability)b. Alternate Forms (Equivalence)c. Split-half (Internal consistency)

9. define validity and recognize its various forms and applications including:a. Content b. Construct c. Criterion Related (Concurrent/Predictive)

10. define standard error of measurement (SEm) as well as the various confidence levels associated with the SEm..

11. describe the relationship between reliability and SEm.

12. describe the relationship between reliability and validity.

Answers to Practice Problems for Unit 7 (page 33)

X (X-M) (X-M)2 N=8Sam 38 6.75 45.56 Mode=37Glenda 37 5.75 33.06 Median=32.50Paula 37 5.75 33.06 Mean=31.25Linda 34 2.75 7.56 Skewed? YesNigel 31 -.25 .06 If yes then +___ or -_X__ Susan 28 -3.25 10.56 Range=19Mark 26 -5.25 27.56 Variance=38.44Rufus 19 -12.25 150.06 SD=6.20 Paula's Z score=.93

Mark's T score=42Glenda's Stanine=7th

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X (X-M) (X-M)2 N=8Paul 78 11.25 126.56 Mode=56Rene' 77 10.25 105.06 Median=70.00Barbara 76 9.25 85.56 Mean=66.75Carl 72 5.25 27.56 Skewed? YesSamuel 68 1.25 1.56 If yes then +XX or -___Jon 56 -10.75 115.56 Range=27Tami 56 -10.75 115.56 Variance=103.19Rufus 51 -15.75 248.06 SD=10.16 Tami's Z score=-1.06

Rufus' T score=35Rene's Stanine=7th

Unit 7Intellectual Assessment

Greg Machek (fall 2003)

Revised: Summer 2006

Brief History of the Measurement of Intelligence

The pursuit of an efficient and accurate way to compare cognitive abilities in humans is not new. As long ago as 2200 B.C., Chinese emperors used large-scale "aptitude" testing for the selection of civil servants, and stories such as that of the Wild Boy of Averyon, in the 18th century, have captured our imagination regarding the relative difference between "normal" and "abnormal”

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intellectual growth. By the end of the 19th century, the foundation was laid for how we assess intelligence today. For example, Sir Francis Galton sought to predict individuals’ intellectual capacity through tests of sensory discrimination and motor coordination. Although his belief that such capacities were necessarily correlated with intelligence was eventually determined to be unfounded, he ushered in an age of individual psychology and the pursuit of measuring intelligence by quantifying traits assumed to be correlated.

Shortly thereafter, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon published what could be considered the precursor of most modern-day intelligence measures. Although their main purpose at the time was to diagnose mental retardation, the basic characteristics of their assessment are still used in today's intelligence tests. For example, the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scales (1905) presented items in order of difficulty, and took into consideration the typical developmental abilities of children at various ages. The test also had fairly standardized instructions for how it was to be administered.

Characteristics of Individually Administered IQ Tests

Intelligence tests are also sometimes called “potential-based assessments” because they provide an educated guess as to how well an individual may be expected to perform in school.  In fact, there is much statistical data evidencing the power of such tests to predict future scholastic achievement. Discussions about this data can often be confusing due to the technical wording and procedures that these tests use. It may help to briefly explain some basic characteristics common to most, if not all, potential-based assessments.StandardizationMost potential-based assessments are standardized. Standardized tests have a straightforward set of criteria that the examiner must follow. These criteria dictate the way that the test is administered as well as scored; the wording of questions, what responses are acceptable, etc. The goal of standardization is to control all of the elements involved in the testing process with the exception of the child's responses. The standardization can even extend to instructions about the testing environment, such as where the test should take place and who can be present.Many potential-based tests are also norm-referenced. When a standardized test is normed, it means that it was initially administered to a large number of children, usually in the thousands. Ideally, this norm group is characteristic of the children who ultimately will be taking the standardized instrument. When looking at results from such a test, there exists a degree of confidence in comparing an individual’s scores to the scores of other people of  the same age. In this way it is possible to say how well a person performed relative to his peers.ScoresIt is also useful to understand the way in which scores from common standardized measures are represented. On a norm-referenced test, scores show where an individual’s results fall in relation to all other results obtained. Standardized measures are designed so that the scores of the norm group, which is selected so that it has people of all types of abilities, are distributed like a bell or normal curve.  The curve is largest in the middle because most people perform somewhere near the average. The distribution is much smaller to the left and the right, signifying that fewer students have exceptionally low or high scores. Standardized tests use standard scores to report

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results.  IQ tests use the number 100 to designate average scores and tend to use a smaller range of numbers to represent the total range of possible scores on the measure.Fortunately, almost all scores are also given with their corresponding percentile ranks. This simplifies matters. For example, if you are told that a student obtains a score that falls at the 50th percentile, it means that his score is the same as the average score for all of the same-aged peers that also took that test. Hypothetically, percentiles tell you where an individual’s score ranks relative to other people who took the test. If a person’s score falls at the 99th percentile, it can be said that she would score as well or better than 99 out of 100 of her same-aged peers on that particular measure. Percentiles are unevenly distributed in the normal curve owing to the larger number of scores that are closer to the mean (average). Standard scores, however, are evenly spaced.

The Testing Process

The latest versions of the two most widely used tests are the Stanford-Binet-5 (SB5) and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edition® (WISC-IV®). Table 1 shows a list of some of the more commonly used intelligence measures. Note that some of these are "nonverbal" instruments. These tests rely on little or no verbal expression and are useful for a number of populations, such as non-native speakers, children with poor expressive abilities, or students with loss.

Table 1:

Test Age Range

Description

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale, Fifth Edition (SBIS-V)

2 – 90+ An update of the SB-IV. In addition to providing a Full Scale score, it assesses Fluid Reasoning, Knowledge, Quantitative Reasoning, Visual-Spatial Processing, and Working Memory as well as the ability to compare verbal and nonverbal performance.

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition (WISC-IV)

6 – 16-11 An update of the WISC-III, this test yields a Full Scale score and scores for Verbal Comprehension, Working Memory, Perceptual Reasoning, and Processing speed.

Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities

2 – 90+ This test gives a measure of general intellectual ability, as well as looking at working memory and executive function skills.

Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)

5 - 17 Based on the “PASS” theory, this test measures ‘Planning, ‘Attention, ‘Simultaneous, and ‘Successive cognitive processes.

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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

16 - 89 An IQ test for older children and adults, the WAIS provides a Verbal, Performance, and Full Scale score, as well as scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed.

Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Intelligence (CTONI)

6 – 18-11 Designed to assess children who may be disadvantaged by traditional tests that put a premium on language skills, the CTONI is made up of six subtests that measure different nonverbal intellectual abilities.

Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test (UNIT)

5 - 17 Designed to assess children who may be disadvantaged by traditional tests that put a premium on language skills, this test is entirely nonverbal in administration and response style.

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (KABC)

2-6 to 12-5 This test measures simultaneous and sequential processing skills, and has subscales that measure academic achievement as well.

Following is information that will help parents understand the process children go through when taking such tests.

Not an Ordinary "Test"Since IQ tests do not directly assess the same things that are taught in the classroom, it is difficult to "study" for them. Instead, preparation should probably consist of a good night's rest. In addition, it is sometimes necessary to put a child at ease as to the expectations of the session. Since children usually think of tests as something that they can do "well" or "poorly" on, it may be appropriate to explain that the test they will be taking is different. IQ tests can be described as ones that aren't concerned with "passing" and "failing." It should be explained that the test aims to get a better understanding of a child's unique abilities in a wide variety of areas.

Tasks InvolvedIn order to get a fuller understanding a child's abilities, intelligence tests require him to perform a number of tasks that vary widely in what they are asking. For example, one task, often referred to as a subtest, may ask the child to answer questions about everyday knowledge. Another subtest may ask him or her to construct specific patterns of colored beads or blocks. Other subtests may tap into the child's ability to recognize similarities between concepts or written symbols. The main idea is to measure many different abilities that may contribute to overall intelligence.

As Pleasant an Experience as PossibleIdeally, the actual testing session takes place in a room that is comfortable in environment and atmosphere.. The test administrator for most major intelligence tests is required to be a trained professional. This person is often a licensed school psychologist. The psychologist and the child

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are usually the only people in the room during testing. One of the most important aspects of the testing session is for a comfortable rapport to be established before testing takes place. If the student is rushed right into a novel, and possibly intimidating, task, her performance may suffer. The examiner must also be adept at dealing with a variety of different personalities and student characteristics, and be responsive to their needs during testing (e.g. allowing bathroom breaks, recognizing when fatigue has set in, etc.).

Probable Length of Testing The time it takes to complete an individually administered intelligence test can vary depending on a child's age, response style, and the amount of questions he answers acceptably. The questions on most subtests are designed to increase in complexity. For this reason, younger children will tend to "max" out more quickly than older students. In addition, more reticent or reflective students will tend to take longer. Whereas some subtests are timed, others allow ample time for the respondent to think through his answer before responding. On average, one should expect a single administration of such an instrument to take an hour and twenty minutes, give or take twenty minutes.

Reporting Irregularities Since these tests are standardized, the examiner is obligated to adhere to the strict training that accompanies them. Any time that there are circumstances or variables that may impinge on the results of a test, the examiner is required to report this in her report on the testing session. For example, if a student appears overly guarded and shy, and this behavior may have kept him from answering correctly or with confidence, this should be noted. Likewise, if for some reason the climate in the room is not acceptable (overly hot, cold, dark, etc.), there is an obligation to report these situations. The examiner may decide that the irregularities were such that the assessment results are invalid.

Final Thought (back to outline)

Standardized intelligence tests have incurred some criticism However, due to their long history, and the amount of work that has gone into them, they are a fairly reliable measure of expected school achievement. It is important to have some idea of their basic characteristics, as well as components of the testing process if you, or your children, will be coming in contact with such procedures.

For further reading:

Sattler, J. M. (1992). Assessment of children: Behavioral and clinical applications, Third Edition. Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc.: San Diego.Sattler, J. M. (2002). Assessment of children: Behavioral and clinical applications, Fourth Edition. Jerome M. Sattler, Publisher, Inc.: San Diego.

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Intelligence quotient.

IQ tests are designed to give approximately this Gaussian distribution. Colors delineate one standard deviation.

An intelligence quotient or IQ is a score derived from a set of standardized tests of intelligence. Intelligence tests come in many forms, and some tests use a single type of item or question. Most tests yield both an overall score and individual subtest scores. Regardless of design, all IQ tests attempt to measure the same general intelligence.[1] Component tests are generally designed and selected because they are found to be predictive of later intellectual development, such as educational achievement. IQ also correlates with job performance, socioeconomic advancement, and "social pathologies", but very weakly or not at all with accumulated wealth, especially inherited. Recent work has demonstrated links between IQ and health, longevity, and functional literacy.[2][3]

For people living in the prevailing conditions of the developed world, IQ is highly heritable, and by adulthood the influence of family environment on IQ is undetectable. That is, significant variation in IQ between adults can be attributed to genetic variation, with the remaining variation attributable to environmental sources that are not shared within families. In the United States, marked variation in IQ occurs within families, with siblings differing on average by around 12 points.

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The average IQ scores for many populations were rising rapidly during the 20th century: a phenomenon called the Flynn effect. It is not known whether these changes in scores reflect real changes in intellectual abilities (if not, then this raises questions about what IQ tests do measure). On average, IQ scores are stable over a person's lifetime, but some individuals undergo large

The definition of IQ

Originally, IQ was calculated with the formula

A 10-year-old who scored as high as the average 13-year-old, for example, would have an IQ of 130 (100*13/10).

Because this formula only worked for children, it was replaced by a projection of the measured rank on the Gaussian bell curve with a center value (average IQ) of 100, and a standard deviation of 15 or occasionally 16. Thus the modern version of the IQ is a mathematical transformation of a raw score (based on the rank of that score in a normalization sample; see quantile, percentile, percentile rank), which is the primary result of an IQ test. To differentiate the two scores, modern scores are sometimes referred to as "deviance IQ", while the age-specific scores are referred to as "ratio IQ".

History

In 1905, the French psychologist Alfred Binet published the first modern intelligence test, the Binet-Simon intelligence scale. His principal goal was to identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum. Along with his collaborator Theodore Simon, Binet published revisions of his intelligence scale in 1908 and 1911, the last appearing just before his untimely death. In 1912, the abbreviation of "intelligence quotient" or I.Q., a translation of the German Intelligenz-Quotient, was coined by the German psychologist William Stern.

A further refinement of the Binet-Simon scale was published in 1916 by Lewis M. Terman, from Stanford University, who incorporated Stern's proposal that an individual's intelligence level be measured as an intelligence quotient (I.Q.). Terman's test, which he named the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale formed the basis for one of the modern intelligence tests still commonly used today.

In 1939 David Wechsler published the first intelligence test explicitly designed for an adult population, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, or WAIS. Since publication of the WAIS, Wechsler extended his scale downward to create the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, or WISC, which is still in common usage. The Wechsler scales contained separate subscores for verbal and performance IQ, thus being less dependent on overall verbal ability than early versions of the Stanford-Binet scale, and was the first intelligence scale to base scores on a standardized normal distribution rather than an age-based quotient. Since the publication of the WAIS, almost all intelligence scales have adopted the normal distribution method of scoring. The use of the normal distribution scoring method makes the term "intelligence quotient" an

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inaccurate description of the intelligence measurement, but I.Q. still enjoys colloquial usage, and is used to describe all of the intelligence scales currently in use.

How an IQ test works

A typical IQ test requires the test subject to solve a fair number of problems (usually 30 to 60) in a set time under supervision. Some tests have a total time limit, others have a time limit for each group of problems, and there are a few untimed, unsupervised tests, typically geared to measuring high intelligence.

Typically the raw result is simply the number of solved problems. This number, along with the age of the subject, is looked up in a table by the test supervisor and yields the IQ. (The IQ is age-corrected.)

When an IQ test is designed, one method for the calibration of these tables is to try it on groups of testees and make sure the tables yield a Gaussian normal distribution when applied to groups that are representative of the entire population.

However, each IQ test is designed and valid only for a certain IQ range. Tests for extreme IQs, like above 145, are obviously difficult to calibrate, because it is impossible to establish representative groups for that range, and are therefore rare and less precise than tests discriminating around IQ 100.

IQ and general intelligence factorMain article: General intelligence factor

Modern IQ tests produce scores for different areas (e.g., language fluency, three-dimensional thinking, etc.), with the summary score calculated from subtest scores. The average score, according to the bell curve, is 100. Individual subtest scores tend to correlate with one another, even when seemingly disparate in content.

Analysis of individuals' scores on the subtests of a single IQ test or the scores from a variety of different IQ tests (e.g., Stanford-Binet, WISC-R, Raven's Progressive Matrices, Cattell Culture Fair III, Universal Nonverbal Intelligence Test, and others) reveal that they all measure a single common factor and various factors that are specific to each test. This kind of factor analysis has led to the theory that underlying these disparate cognitive tasks is a single factor, termed the general intelligence factor (or g), that corresponds with the common-sense concept of intelligence. In the normal population, g and IQ are roughly 90% correlated and are often used interchangeably.

Influences of genetics and environmentMain article: Inheritance of intelligence

The role of genes and environment (nature and nurture) in determining IQ is reviewed in Plomin et al. (2001, 2003). The degree to which genetic variation contributes to observed variation in a trait is measured by a statistic called heritability. Heritability scores range from 0 to 1, and can be

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interpreted as the percentage of variation (e.g. in IQ) that is due to variation in genes. Twins studies and adoption studies are commonly used to determine the heritability of a trait. Until recently heritability was mostly studied in children. Some studies find the heritability of IQ around 0.5 but the studies show ranges from 0.4 to 0.8;[5] that is, depending on the study, a little less than half to substantially more than half of the variation in IQ among the children studied was due to variation in their genes. The remainder was thus due to environmental variation and measurement error. A heritability in the range of 0.4 to 0.8 implies that IQ is "substantially" heritable. Studies with adults show that they have a higher heritability of IQ than children do and that heritability could be as high as 0.8. The American Psychological Association's 1995 task force on "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" concluded that within the white population the heritability of IQ is "around .75" (p. 85).[6] The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart, a multiyear study of 100 sets of reared apart twins which was started in 1979, concluded that about 70% of the variance in IQ was found to be associated with genetic variation.[7]

EnvironmentSee also: Health and intelligence

Environmental factors play a role in determining IQ in extreme situations. Proper childhood nutrition appears critical for cognitive development; malnutrition can lower IQ. Other research indicates environmental factors such as prenatal exposure to toxins, duration of breastfeeding, and micronutrient deficiency can affect IQ. In the developed world, there are some family effects on the IQ of children, accounting for up to a quarter of the variance.[8] However, by adulthood, this correlation disappears, such that adopted adult siblings are not more similar in IQ than strangers.[9]

Nearly all personality traits show that, contrary to expectations, environmental effects actually cause adoptive siblings raised in the same family to be as different as children raised in different families (Harris, 1998; Plomin & Daniels, 1987). Put another way, shared environmental variation for personality is zero, and all environmental effects would be nonshared. Conversely, IQ is actually an exception to this, at least among children. The IQs of adoptive siblings in childhood, who share no genetic relation but do share a common family environment, are correlated at .32.[citation needed] Despite attempts to isolate them, the factors that cause adoptive siblings to be similar have not been identified. However, as explained below, shared family effects on IQ disappear after adolescence.

Active genotype-environment correlation, also called the "nature of nurture", is observed for IQ. This phenomenon is measured similarly to heritability; but instead of measuring variation in IQ due to genes, variation in environment due to genes is determined. One study found that 40% of variation in measures of home environment are accounted for by genetic variation. This suggests that the way human beings craft their environment is due in part to genetic influences.

A study of French children adopted between the ages of 4 and 6 shows the continuing interplay of nature and nurture. The children came from poor backgrounds with I.Q.’s that initially averaged 77, putting them near retardation. Nine years later after adoption, they retook the I.Q. tests, and all of them did better. The amount they improved was directly related to the adopting family’s status. "Children adopted by farmers and laborers had average I.Q. scores of 85.5; those

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placed with middle-class families had average scores of 92. The average I.Q. scores of youngsters placed in well-to-do homes climbed more than 20 points, to 98."[10] This study suggests that IQ is not stable over the course of one's lifetime and that, even in later childhood, a change in environment can have a significant effect on IQ.

It is well known that it is possible to increase one's IQ score by training, for example by regularly playing puzzle games. Recent studies have shown that training in using one's working memory may increase IQ. (Klingberg et al., 2002)

Development

It is reasonable to expect that genetic influences on traits like IQ should become less important as one gains experiences with age. Surprisingly, the opposite occurs. Heritability measures in infancy are as low as 20%, around 40% in middle childhood, and as high as 80% in adulthood.[11]

Shared family effects also seem to disappear by adulthood. Adoption studies show that, after adolescence, adopted siblings are no more similar in IQ than strangers (IQ correlation near zero), while full siblings show an IQ correlation of 0.6. Twin studies reinforce this pattern: monozygotic (identical) twins raised separately are highly similar in IQ (0.86), more so than dizygotic (fraternal) twins raised together (0.6) and much more than adopted siblings (~0.0).[12]

Most of the IQ studies described above were conducted in developed countries, such as the United States, Japan, and Western Europe. Also, a few studies have been conducted in Moscow, East Germany, and India, and those studies have produced similar results. Any such investigation is limited to describing the genetic and environmental variation found within the populations studied. This is a caveat of any heritability study.[citation needed] Another caveat is that people with chromosomal abnormalities - such as Klinefelter's syndrome and Triple X syndrome, will score considerably higher than the normal population without the chromosomal abnormalities, when scored against visual IQ tests, not IQ tests that have been tailored to measure IQ against the normal population.[13]

Mental handicaps

About 75–80 percent of mental handicaps are familial (runs in the family), and 20–25 percent is due to biological problems, such as chromosomal abnormalities or brain damage.[14] Mild to severe mental disability is a symptom of several hundred single-gene disorders and many chromosomal abnormalities, including small deletions. Based on twin studies, moderate to severe mental disability does not appear to be familial, but mild mental disability does. That is, the relatives of the moderate to severely mentally handicapped have normal ranges of IQs, whereas the families of the mildly mentally handicapped have lower IQs.

IQ score ranges (from DSM-IV):

mild mental disability: IQ 50–55 to 70; children require mild support; formally called "Educable Mentally Retarded".

moderate disability: IQ 35–40 to 50–55; children require moderate supervision and assistance; formally called "Trainable Mentally Retarded".

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severe mental disability: IQ 20–25 to 35–40; can be taught basic life skills and simple tasks with supervision.

profound mental disability: IQ below 20–25; usually caused by a neurological condition; require constant care.

The rate of mental retardation is higher among males than females, according to a 1991 U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) study.[15] This is aggravated by the fact that males, unlike females, do not have a spare X chromosome to offset chromosomal defects.

Individuals with IQs below 70 have been essentially exempted from the death penalty in the U.S. since 2002, even though this cannot be definitely confirmed.[16]

IQ, education, and income

Tambs et al. (1989) found that occupational status, educational attainment, and IQ are individually heritable; and further found that "genetic variance influencing educational attainment … contributed approximately one-fourth of the genetic variance for occupational status and nearly half the genetic variance for IQ". In a sample of U.S. siblings, Rowe et al. (1997) report that the inequality in education and income was predominantly due to genes, with shared environmental factors playing a subordinate role.

Regression

The heritability of IQ measures the extent to which the IQ of children appears to be influenced by the IQ of parents. Because the heritability of IQ is less than 100%, the IQ of children tends to "regress" towards the mean IQ of the population. That is, high IQ parents tend to have children who are less bright than their parents, whereas low IQ parents tend to have children who are brighter than their parents. The effect can be quantified by the equation

where

is the predicted average IQ of the children; is the mean IQ of the population to which the parents belong; h2 is the heritability of IQ; m and f are the IQs of the mother and father, respectively.[17]

Thus, if the heritability of IQ is 50%, a couple averaging an IQ of 120 may have children that average around an IQ of 110, assuming that both parents come from a population with a median IQ of 100.

A caveat to this reasoning are those children who have chromosomal abnormalities, such as Klinefelter's syndrome and Triple X syndrome whose "normal" IQ is only one indicator; their visual IQ is another indicator. And so forth.

IQ and the brainMain article: Neuroscience and intelligence

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[edit] Brain size and IQ

Modern studies using MRI imaging have shown that brain size correlates with IQ (r = 0.4) among adults of the same sex (McDaniel, 2005). The correlation between brain size and IQ seems to hold for comparisons between and within families (Gignac et al. 2003; Jensen 1994; Jensen & Johnson 1994). However, one study found no familial correlation (Schoenemann et al. 2000). A study on twins (Thompson et al., 2001) showed that frontal gray matter volume was correlated with g and highly heritable. A related study has reported that the correlation between brain size (reported to have a heritability of 0.85) and g is 0.4, and that correlation is mediated entirely by genetic factors (Posthuma et al 2002).

In a study of the head growth of 633 term-born children from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children cohort, it was shown that prenatal growth and growth during infancy were associated with subsequent IQ. The study’s conclusion was that the brain volume a child achieves by the age of 1 year helps determine later intelligence. Growth in brain volume after infancy may not compensate for poorer earlier growth.[18]

Brain areas associated with IQ

Many different sources of information have converged on the view that the frontal lobes are critical for fluid intelligence. Patients with damage to the frontal lobe are impaired on fluid intelligence tests (Duncan et al 1995). The volume of frontal grey (Thompson et al 2001) and white matter (Schoenemann et al 2005) have also been associated with general intelligence. In addition, recent neuroimaging studies have limited this association to the lateral prefrontal cortex. Duncan and colleagues (2000) showed using Positron Emission Tomography that problem-solving tasks that correlated more highly with IQ also activate the lateral prefrontal cortex. More recently, Gray and colleagues (2003) used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to show that those individuals that were more adept at resisting distraction on a demanding working memory task had both a higher IQ and increased prefrontal activity. For an extensive review of this topic, see Gray and Thompson (2004).[19]

In 2004, Richard Haier, professor of psychology in the Department of Pediatrics and colleagues at University of California, Irvine and the University of New Mexico used MRI to obtain structural images of the brain in 47 normal adults who also took standard IQ tests. The study demonstrated that general human intelligence appears to be based on the volume and location of gray matter tissue in the brain. Regional distribution of gray matter in humans is highly heritable. The study also demonstrated that, of the brain's gray matter, only about 6 percent appeared to be related to IQ.[20]

The Flynn effect

The Flynn effect is named after James R. Flynn, a New Zealand based political scientist. He discovered that IQ scores worldwide appear to be slowly rising at a rate of around three IQ points per decade (Flynn, 1999). Attempted explanations have included improved nutrition, a trend towards smaller families, better education, greater environmental complexity, and heterosis (Mingroni, 2004). Tests are therefore renormalized occasionally to obtain mean scores of 100,

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for example WISC-R (1974), WISC-III (1991) and WISC-IV (2003). Hence it is difficult to compare IQ scores measured years apart, unless this is compensated for. There is recent evidence that the tendency for intelligence scores to rise has ended in some first world countries.

Sex and intelligence

Most studies show that despite sometimes significant differences in subtest scores, men and women have the same average IQ. Women perform better on tests of memory and verbal proficiency for example, while men perform better on tests of mathematical and spatial ability. Although gender-related differences in average IQ are insignificant, male scores display a higher variance: there are more men than women with both very high and very low IQs.

Practical validity

Linear correlations between 1000 pairs of numbers. The data are graphed on the lower left and their correlation coefficients listed on the upper right. Each set of points correlates maximally with itself, as shown on the diagonal (all correlations = +1).

Evidence for the practical validity of IQ comes from examining the correlation between IQ scores and life outcomes.

Economic and social correlates of IQ

Factor Correlation

School Grades and IQ .5

Number of years of school and IQ .55

IQ and parental socioeconomic status .33

IQ and job performance .84

Negative social outcomes and I! -.02

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IQ’s of identical twins .86

IQ’s of husbands and wives .4

Research shows that general intelligence plays an important role in many valued life outcomes. In addition to academic success, IQ correlates with job performance (see below), socioeconomic advancement (e.g., level of education, occupation, and income), and "social pathology" (e.g., adult criminality, poverty, unemployment, dependence on welfare, children outside of marriage). Recent work has demonstrated links between general intelligence and health, longevity, and functional literacy. Correlations between g and life outcomes are pervasive, though IQ and happiness do not correlate. IQ and g correlate highly with school performance and job performance, less so with occupational prestige, moderately with income, and to a small degree with law-abidingness.

General intelligence (in the literature typically called "cognitive ability") is the best predictor of job performance by the standard measure, validity. Validity is the correlation between score (in this case cognitive ability, as measured, typically, by a paper-and-pencil test) and outcome (in this case job performance, as measured by a range of factors including supervisor ratings, promotions, training success, and tenure), and ranges between −1.0 (the score is perfectly wrong in predicting outcome) and 1.0 (the score perfectly predicts the outcome). See validity (psychometric). The validity of cognitive ability for job performance tends to increase with job complexity and varies across different studies, ranging from 0.2 for unskilled jobs to 0.8 for the most complex jobs.

A meta-analysis (Hunter and Hunter, 1984) which pooled validity results across many studies encompassing thousands of workers (32,124 for cognitive ability), reports that the validity of cognitive ability for entry-level jobs is 0.54, larger than any other measure including job tryout (0.44), experience (0.18), interview (0.14), age (−0.01), education (0.10), and biographical inventory (0.37).

Because higher test validity allows more accurate prediction of job performance, companies have a strong incentive to use cognitive ability tests to select and promote employees. IQ thus has high practical validity in economic terms. The utility of using one measure over another is proportional to the difference in their validities, all else equal. This is one economic reason why companies use job interviews (validity 0.14) rather than randomly selecting employees (validity 0.0).

However, legal barriers, most prominently the U.S. Civil Rights Act, as interpreted in the 1971 United States Supreme Court decision Griggs v. Duke Power Co., have prevented American employers from using cognitive ability tests as a controlling factor in selecting employees where (1) the use of the test would have a disparate impact on hiring by race and (2) where the test is not shown to be directly relevant to the job or class of jobs at issue. Instead, where there is not direct relevance to the job or class of jobs at issue, tests have only been legally permitted to be used in conjunction with a subjective appraisal process. The U.S. military uses the Armed Forces Qualifying Test (AFQT), as higher scores correlate with significant increases in effectiveness of

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both individual soldiers and units,[23] and Microsoft is known for using non-illegal tests that correlate with IQ tests as part of the interview process, weighing the results even more than experience in many cases.[24]

Some researchers have echoed the popular claim that "in economic terms it appears that the IQ score measures something with decreasing marginal value. It is important to have enough of it, but having lots and lots does not buy you that much."[25][26]

However, some studies suggest IQ continues to confer significant benefits even at very high levels.[27] Ability and performance for jobs are linearly related, such that at all IQ levels, an increase in IQ translates into a concomitant increase in performance (Coward and Sackett, 1990). In an analysis of hundreds of siblings, it was found that IQ has a substantial effect on income independently of family background (Murray, 1998).

Other studies question the real-world importance of whatever is measured with IQ tests, especially for differences in accumulated wealth and general economic inequality in a nation. Indeed, while IQ correlates highly with school performance and job performance, it does not correlates much with income. It explains less than one sixth of the income variance.[28] Even for school grades, other factors explain most the variance. One study found that, controlling for IQ across the entire population, 90 to 95 percent of economic inequality would continue to exist.[29]

Another recent study (2002) found that wealth, race, and schooling are important to the inheritance of economic status, but IQ is not a major contributor and the genetic transmission of IQ is even less important.[30]

The book IQ and the Wealth of Nations claims to show that the wealth of a nation can in large part be explained by the average IQ score of its citizens. This claim has been both disputed and supported in peer-reviewed papers. The data used have also been questioned.

In addition, IQ and its correlation to health, violent crime, gross state product, and government effectiveness are the subject of a 2006 paper in the publication Intelligence. The paper breaks down IQ averages by U.S. states using the federal government's National Assessment of Educational Progress math and reading test scores as a source.[31]

Some argue that IQ scores are used as an excuse for not trying to reduce poverty or otherwise improve living standards for all. Claimed low intelligence has historically been used to justify the feudal system and unequal treatment of women (but note that many studies find identical average IQs among men and women; see sex and intelligence). In contrast, others claim that the refusal of "high-IQ elites" to take IQ seriously as a cause of inequality is itself immoral.[32]

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Unit 8

Personality Assessment

The assessment of personality is perhaps one of the most interesting areas for the working counselor. The term itself can be confusing. What is a personality…does everyone have one? Some personalities are said to be “pleasing” while others are thought to be boorish or “difficult”. Essentially the term personality refers to a relatively stable and persistent pattern of behavior that each of us develops as a fuction of genetic endowment and life experience. It’s what makes us unique in all the world and which may predispose us to great success, failure, or mediocrity! The entire topic is so large and complex that knowing where to start is difficult….but here goes!

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In psychology, personality is a description of consistent emotional, thought, and behavior patterns in a person. The several theoretical perspectives on personality involve different ideas

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about the relationship between personality and other psychological constructs as well as different ideas about the way personality develops

History

Hippocrates recorded the first known personality model, postulating that one's persona is based upon four separate temperaments. Another Greek physician, Galen, extended Hippocrates' theory by applying a body fluid to each temperament: blood, mucus, black bile and yellow bile, respectively. The fluid which was dominant was said to be the person's "humor".

The four humors theory was to become a prevalent medical theory for over a millennium after Galen's death. The theory experienced widespread popularity throughout the Middle Ages and was eventually termed humorism (also humoralism). Humoral practitioners actively used the theory to explain many illnesses of the time. Use of various remedies became commonplace, especially when a person was considered to have too much of a particular fluid. For example, blood letting from veins was performed when certain conditions were reported.

By the 18th century, medicine was advancing rapidly. The discoveries of the functions of the circulatory, respiratory and digestive systems served to discount the four humors theory as a realistic practice of medicine. However, it remained important in terms of designating personality. Swiss physiognomist Johann Kaspar Lavater used the four humors to advance four specific persona types as dictated by their respective facial structures, expressions and colorations. Lavater also assigned certain characteristics, such as jollity, generosity and kindness to some types, while brooding, introspection and contemplation were assigned to others. He referred to the four temperaments as the sanguine, choleric, melancholic and phlegmatic, preserving the etymology of these terms having their origins in antiquity.

German philosopher Immanuel Kant popularized these ideas by organizing the constructs along two axes: "feelings" and "activity". He also summed up the four types in his writings. For the sanguine type he noted:

"...the sanguine person is carefree and full of hope; attributes great importance to whatever he may be dealing with at the moment, but may have forgotten about it the next. He means to keep his promises but fails to do so because he never considered deeply enough beforehand whether he would be able to keep them. He is good natured enough to help others but is a bad debtor and

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constantly asks for time to pay. He is very sociable, given to pranks, contented, does not take anything very seriously and has many, many friends. He is not vicious but difficult to convert from his sins. He may repent but this contrition (which never becomes a feeling of guilt) is soon forgotten. He is easily fatigued and bored by work but is constantly engaged in mere games -- these carry with them constant change, and persistence is not his forte."

Late 19th/early 20th century physiologist Wilhelm Wundt expounded on the theory further in 1879. He was the first person to separate personality from human body functions. Further, he theorized that temperaments could not simply be limited to the bodily fluids. He believed that no individual was completely of one temperament; rather that everyone typically has varying proportions of two or more. He believed that all four temperaments were basic dimensions of the human personality and that the temperaments fell along axes of "changeability" and "emotionality".

The rapid growth of the field of psychology beginning in the early 20th century led to increased interest regarding individual personality. Notably, Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung categorized mental functioning into sensing, intuition, thinking, and feeling.

In the 1920s and 1930s German-American psychiatrist Karen Horney organized persons into personality types according to a theory of neurosis. In her theory the neurotic individual expresses a more refined form of persona by way of his or her individual needs. She described ten specific needs, and in turn split these into three distinct categories: the Compliant type, the Aggressive type, and the Withdrawing type. Horney noted that these characteristics could be expressed in ordinary, non-neurotic human beings, albeit in a less extreme fashion.

Some personality tests The first modern personality test was the Woodworth Personal data sheet, which was

first used in 1919. It was designed to help the United States Army screen out recruits who might be susceptible to shell shock.

The Rorschach inkblot test was introduced in 1921 as a way to determine personality by the interpretation of abstract inkblots.

The Thematic Apperception Test was commissioned by the Office of Strategic Services (O.S.S.) in the 1930s to identify personalities that might be susceptible to being turned by enemy intelligence.

The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory was published in 1942 as a way to aid in assessing psychopathology in a clinical setting.

The Insights Discovery Test based on Carl Jung's psychiatry and an update of Hippocrates' "four Humours".

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is a 16-type indicator of Carl Jung's Psychological Types, developed during World War II.

The 16 Personality Factors (16PF) test was developed in 1946 by Raymond Cattell and has become popular in business. In 1963 W.T. Norman suggested that only five factors would be sufficient. In 1981 a group reviewing available personality tests

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decided that most of the tests which held any promise seemed to measure a subset of five common factors, as Norman had previously claimed. These Big Five personality traits (commonly referred to as "Big Five" or "the five-factor model") are very common in business-oriented personality tests in use today.

Other personality tests include the Oxford Capacity Analysis, Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory, Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, and the Abika Test.

Criticism and controversy

One problem of a personality test is that the users of the test could only find it accurate because of the subjective validation involved. This is where the person only ackknowledge the information that applies to them. This is related to what is called in psychology as the Forer effect.

Critics have raised issues about the ethics of administering personality tests, especially for non-clinical uses. By the 1960s, tests like the MMPI were being given by companies to employees and applicants as often as to psychiatric patients. Sociologist William H. Whyte was among those who saw the tests as helping to create and perpetuate the oppressive groupthink of the "organization man" mid-20th century corporate capitalistic mentality.

Some cognitive psychologists have dismissed the whole idea of personality, considering much behaviour to be content specific. Theorists developed the concept of cognitive styles or Meta programs on this basis, leading to metaprogram tests such as iWAM.

Use of personality testing

Research published by David Dunning of Cornell University, Chip Heath of Stanford University and Jerry M. Suls of the University of Iowa reveals that observers who are not involved in any type of relationship with an individual are better judges of the individual's relationships and abilities. These workers have studied a large body of investigations into self-evaluation, indicating that individuals may have flawed views about themselves and their social relationships, sometimes leading to decisions that can impact negatively on other persons' lives and/or their own.

Psychological factors can also have an influence on the stock market. A person's perception of fundamental and technical factors can be influenced by many things including money. Some investors' perceptions are frequently adjusted by economic news, earnings reports, economic data, and political events. This perception of the details of the stock marker depends a great deal on the psychological profiles of investors, in particular their temperaments and their willingness to incur risk. Psychological testing could assist in the accumulation of a collective personal profiles of investors.

The how-to-get-rich strategies of Donald Trump include comments on the importance of personality in making business deals. He discusses how the knowledge of the personalities of people involved in his deals has contributed to his success. Despite dismissing the relevance of psychological factors in earlier life, he now regards Carl Jung's work as "important to financial

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success." He has stated that Jung had been a "help in my business as well as in my personal life ...reading Jung will give you insights into yourself and the ways in which you and other people operate."

A study by American Management Association reveals that 39 percent of companies surveyed use personality testing as part of their hiring process. More people are using personality testing to evaluate their business partners, their dates and their spouses. Salespeople are using personality testing to better understand the needs of their customers and to gain a competitive edge in the closing of deals. College students have started to use personality testing to evaluate their roommates. Lawyers are beginning to use personality testing for criminal behavior analysis, litigation profiling, witness examination and jury selection.

Some interesting Personality Testing sites for you to visit….

http://similarminds.com/personality_tests.htmlhttp://www.keirsey.com/

Unit 9

Measurement of Preference and Vocational InterestThe development of instruments to assess ones preferences or vocational interests began early in the last century. Any beginning student of Counseling has learned that Frank Parsons, the founder of the Vocational Bureau of Boston was one of the early pioneers in the field of career counseling. In 1908 Parsons delivered a speech in which he articulated a framework for conducting career guidance. This three part system is composed of the following:

A clear understanding of oneself including aptitudes, abilities, interests, resources, limitationsand other qualities.A knowledge of the requirements and conditions for success, advantages and disadvantages, compensations, opportunities, and prospects in different lines of work. True Reasoning about the relationship of these two groups of facts.

These ideas continued to influence career guidance work for decades and ultimately resulted in what has been called the trait-factor theory of career counseling. The process is basically one of assessing the traits of an individual and then, with knowledge of the factors needed in various occupations, matching the personal traits of an individual to the occupations where such traits are necessary or desirable. The foundation of all of this is the ability to assess those traits in an individual. One of most important of these traits is personal interest or preference. Clearly, each of us has developed a pattern of likes and dislikes which guide and direct nearly every facet of our lives from the cars we drive to the television shows we watch, the music to which we listen, and the jobs we hold.

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The writings and work of John Holland have influenced vocational guidance and assessment for decades perhaps as the result of having given us a remarkably simple and yet wonderfully workable scheme for understanding human traits and preferences and the factors and working environments for occupations in the national economy. Fundamental to the Vocational Theories of John Holland is the hexagonal pattern depicted below.

HOLLAND’S VOCATIONAL THEMES

Holland’s Vocational Personality TypesThe REALISTIC (R) type likes realistic jobs such as automobile mechanic, aircraft controller, surveyor, farmer, or electrician. The individuals have mechanical abilities but may lack social skills. The individuals are often described as:Conforming Humble Normal Frank

Practical Materialistic Persistent GenuineModest Thrifty

Hardheaded Natural Shy Honest

The INVESTIGATIVE (I) type likes investigative jobs such as biologist, chemist, physicist,

anthropologist, geologist, medical technologist. These individuals have mathematical and scientific ability but often lack leadership ability. They are described as:Analytical

IndependentModest

Cautious

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Pessimistic Complex Introverted PreciseCritical Methodical Rational CuriousReserved Intellectual

The ARTISTIC (A) type likes artistic jobs such as composer, musician, stage director, writer, interior decorator, actor/actress. These individuals have artistic abilities: writing, musical or artistic, but often lack clerical skills. They are described as:Complicated Imaginative Introspective Disorderly ImpracticalIntuitive Emotional Impulsive Nonconforming

ExpressiveIndependent Open Idealistic Original

The SOCIAL (S) type likes social jobs such as teacher, religious worker, counselor, clinical psychologist, psychiatric case worker, speech therapist. These individuals have social skills and talents, but often lack mechanical and scientific ability. They are described as:Convincing Idealistic Sympathetic Cooperative Kind Tactful FriendlyPatient Understanding Generous Responsible Warm HelpfulSocial

The ENTERPRISING (E) type likes enterprising jobs such as salesperson, manager, business executive, television producer, sports promoter, or buyer. These individuals have leadership and speaking abilities but often lack scientific ability. They are described as:Acquisitive Domineering Optimistic AdventurousEnergetic Pleasure-seeking Agreeable ExtrovertedPopular Ambitious Impulsive Self-confidentAttention-getting Sociable

The CONVENTIONAL (C) types like conventional jobs such as bookkeeper, stenographer, financial analyst, banker, cost estimator, tax expert. These individuals have clerical and arithmetic ability, but often lack artistic ability. They are described as:Conforming Inhibited Practical Conscientious Obedient thriftyCareful Orderly Unimaginative Efficient

Persistent

What Holland discovered after doing decades of research is that each of us possesses a unique pattern of traits which can be categorized into one or more of the themes depicted above. Jobs, too, can be classified into one or more of these same themes. Therefore Realistic jobs are most often performed by individuals with Realistic Type personalities. By studying and classifying occupations and then by assessing personality types, often a match can be made paring individuals to groups of potential occupations requiring those same traits. A brief listing of occupations and their theme classifications appears below.

Codes for Selected OccupationsCod

eOccupation Cod

eOccupation Code Occupation Code Occupation

RC Farmer IRC Optometrist SRC Lic. Pract. Nurse ERC Agribusiness Mgr

RC Instrument Assembler

I Mathematician S Social Worker ERC Purchasing Agent

RCE Voc AgricultureTeacher

I Physicist S. Priest ESR Chiropractor

REC Dietitian I Biologist S Dir. Christian Ed. CE Accountant

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RES Policeman I Veterinarian SE YMCA Staff CE Banker

RSE State Trooper I Optometrist SIE Minister CE Business Ed. Teacher

RE Army Officer I Physician SEA Elementary Teacher CSE Executive Housekeeper

RS Phys.Ed. Teacher I Social Scientist SCE School Superintendent

C Accountant

R Skilled Crafts IA College Professor SCE Public Administrator C Secretary

RI Forester IS Speech Pathologist

SCE Guidance Counselor CR Dental Assistant

RI X-Ray Tech IAS Psychologist SER Recreation Leader CRI Lic. Practical Nurse

RI Merchant Marine Officer

IA Language Interpreter

SEC Guidance Counselor CRE Beautician

RI Registered Nurse ARI Architect SEC Social Science Teacher

RI Veterinarian A Advertising Executive

SEC Personnel Director

RIC Cartographer A Artist ESC Dept. Store Manager

RIC Army Officer A Art Teacher ESC Home Econ Teacher

RIE Air Force Officer A Photographer ESA Flight Attendant

RIA OccupationalTherapist

A Musician ES Sales Manager

IR Engineer A Entertainer ES Life Ins Agent

IR Chemist AE Interior Decorator E Lawyer

IR Physical Scientist AE Advertising Executive

EI Computer Sales

IR Dentist A Language Teacher

EI Investment Fund Mgr

IR Dental Hygienist A Librarian EIC Pharmacist

IRS Physical Therapist A Reporter EC Buyer

IRS Physician AS English Teacher ECS Credit Manager

IRS Math Teacher SI Registered Nurse ECS Funeral Director

IRC Medical Tech SIR Physical Therapist ECR Realtor

Tests of Vocational Preference.

The methods used for gathering information from students and clients have all been remarkably similar and take the form of a self-report questionnaire. Perhaps the first of these was developed nearly a century ago when, in 1915, James Miner of the Carnegie Institute of Technology first developed such a

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questionnaire to assist students in making their vocational choices. Throughout most of the 20th Century many such tests were developed but the two which have dominated were developed by Kuder and Strong. The Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (KOIS) and the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) are now two of the most frequently used instruments in the field. The current version of the of the SCII merges male and female forms of the test and reports scores for the six General Occupational Themes based on Hollands theory as well as 23 Basic Interest Scales and 207 Occupational Scales. Because of the volumn of accumulated information about jobs one of the newest trends is to present the questionnaires interactively by use of computers. Students or clients can, in a relatively short time, respond to a series of questions presented by computer and have their responses recorded and compared to norms contained on the computer. At the conclusion of testing the student can then simply press a key and receive a multi-page printout describing how his unique pattern of responses matches with literally hundreds of occupations. The use of the computer, with its great storage capacity for information and processing speed, has been a great advance in preference testing by allowing students to record their responses and then have those responses analyzed in terms of vocational patterns and factors.

One thing that is often said by students who have taken a preference test and have looked at the vocational profile the test generated is, Gee, thats amazing.....this profile is really me.....its magic! Well, its certainly not magic and while we may be amazed at how closely a profile might match with our internal view of ourselves, the process is really quite simple. Each of us, throughout life, acquires an amazing amount of information about our likes and dislikes but it occurs in widely spaced and small moments. What preference tests do is to compress what may appear to be a host of unrelated bits and pieces of our own view of the world and then present that same information back to us in an organized and integrated form.

Consider this, if one were to ask you to look at the following three activities and indicate which of them you would most like to do and which you would least like to do you probably would have little difficulty doing it. So why not do it now: Read each of the following and place a M nest to the activity you would (M)ost like to do. Now, place an L next to the activity you would (L)east like to do.

___ Fix a broken lawnmower___ Visit a friend in the hospital___ Work in your garden all afternoon

Now your response to this simple exercise is not likely to reveal much about you...BUT if you were to answer several hundred of these triplets a unique and clear pattern to your responses could be detected and this pattern would

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then be a reflection of your pattern of interests. Thats how all of this works. Now try a simple and self-administered test on the following pages.

Typical Self Administered Vocational Assessment

(for classroom and instructional purposes only)

ActivitiesDirections: Check L for those activities you would like to do and D for those you would not like to do or would be indifferent to.

L D R__ __ Fix electrical things__ __ Repair cars __ __ Fix mechanical things__ __ Build things of wood __ __ Drive a tractor or truck__ __ Use metal working or machine tools__ __ Work on a hotrod or motorcycle__ __ Take a shop course __ __ Take a mechanical drawing course__ __ Take Auto Mechanics course

Total number of Ls _____

L D I__ __ Read scientific books or magazines__ __ Work in a laboratory __ __ Work on a scientific project__ __ Build model rockets __ __ Work with a chemistry set__ __ Read about topics on my own __ __ Solve math or chess puzzles __ __ Take a chemistry course__ __ Take a geometry course __ __ Take a biology course

Total number of Ls _____

L D A__ __ Sketch, draw or paint__ __ Attend plays __ __ Design furniture or buildings__ __ Play in a band or orchestra__ __ Practice a musical instrument__ __ Go to recitals or concerts __ __ Read popular fiction__ __ Create portraits or photographs__ __ Read plays __ __ Read or write poetry

__ __ Take an art course Total number of Ls _____

L D S__ __ Write letters to friends__ __ Attend religious services__ __ Belong to social clubs __ __ Help others with their problems__ __ Take care of children __ __ Go to parties __ __ Dance __ __ Read Psychology books __ __ Attend meetings or conferences __ __ Go to sports events

Total number of Ls _____

L D E__ __ Influence others __ __ Sell something __ __ Discuss politics __ __ Operate my own business __ __ Attend conferences __ __ Give talks __ __ Serve as a club officer__ __ Supervise the work of others __ __ Meet important people __ __ Lead a group or committee__ __ Participate in a political campaign Total number of Ls _____

L D C__ __ Keep your desk or room neat__ __ Type papers or letters__ __ Do bookkeeping or keep records__ __ Operate business machines __ __ Keep detailed records of expenses__ __ Take a keyboarding course

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__ __ Take a bookkeeping course__ __ Take a commercial math course __ __ File letters, reports, records, etc.__ __ Write business letters__ __ Take a business course

Total number of Ls _____

CompetenciesDirections: Check Y to each of the following activities you can do well or competently and N to those you have never performed or can do poorly.

Y N R__ __ I have used wood shop power tools such as a lathe or sander__ __ I know how to use a voltmeter__ __ I can adjust a carburetor __ __ I have operated power tools such as a drill press, grinder, or sewing machine__ __ I can finish varnished or stained furniture or woodwork __ __ I can read blueprints __ __ I can make simple electrical repairs__ __ I can repair furniture __ __ I can make mechanical drawings __ __ I can make simple repairs on a TV__ __ I can make simple plumbing repairs Total number of Ys _____

Y N I__ __ I understand how a vacuum tube works __ __ I can name three foods high in protein content__ __ I understand half-life of radioactive elements__ __ I can use logarithmic tables__ __ I can use a sliderule to multiply or divide __ __ I can use a microscope__ __ I can identify three constellations of stars__ __ I describe the function of white blood cells__ __ I can interpret simple chemical formulae__ __ I can understand why satellites do not fall__ __ I have participated in a science fair or contest Total number of Ys _____

Y N A__ __ I can play a musical instrument __ __ I can participate in two or four-part singing__ __ I can perform as a musical soloist__ __ I I can act in a play __ __ I can do interpretive reading __ __ I can do modern interpretive or ballet dance __ __ I can sketch people so that they can be recognized__ __ I can make pottery __ __ I can design clothing, posters, or furniture __ __ I write stories or poetry well Total number of Ys _____

Y N S__ __ I am good at explaining things to others__ __ I have participated in charity or benefit drives__ __ I cooperate and work well with others__ __ I am competent at entertaining people older than I am__ __ I can be a good host or hostess __ __ I can teach children easily __ __ I can plan entertainment for a party__ __ I am good at helping people who are upset or troubled__ __ I have worked as a volunteer aide in a hospital, clinic, or home __ __ I can plan school or church social affairs __ __ I am a good judge of personality

Total number of Ys _____

Y N E__ __ I have been elected to an office in high school or college__ __ I can supervise the work of others__ __ I have unusual energy and enthusiasm__ __ I am good at getting people to do things my way__ __ I am a good salesperson

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__ __ I have acted as a leader for a group presenting suggestions to others in authority __ __ I won a award for work as a salesperson or leader__ __ I have organized a club, group, or gang__ __ I have started my own business or service __ __ I know how to be a successful leader __ __ I am a good debater

Total number of Ys _____

Y N C__ __ I can type 40 words per minute__ __ I can operate a duplicating or adding machine __ __ I can take shorthand__ __ I can file correspondence or other papers__ __ I have held an office job __ __ I can use a bookkeeping machine__ __ I can do a lot of paper work in a short time__ __ I can use a calculating machine__ __ I can use a variety of computer software applications __ __ I can post debits and credits __ __ I can keep accurate records of payments or sales

Total number of Ys _____OccupationsDirections: This is an inventory of feelings and attitudes about many types of work. For each of the occupations listed below check Y for those that interest or appear to you. If the occupation is one you dislike or you find uninteresting check N.

Y N R__ __ Airplane Mechanic__ __ Fish and Wildlife Specialist __ __ Auto Mechanic__ __ Carpenter__ __ Power Shovel Operator __ __ Construction Inspector__ __ Surveyor__ __ Radio Operator__ __ Gas Station Worker __ __ Long Distance Bus Driver __ __ Machinist__ __ Electrician

Total number of Ys _____

Y N I__ __ Meteorologist__ __ Biologist __ __ Astronomer__ __ Medical Lab Technician __ __ Anthropologist__ __ Zoologist__ __ Chemist__ __ Research Scientist __ __ Editor of a Scientific Journal__ __ Geologist__ __ Botanist__ __ Physicist

Total number of Ys _____

Y N A__ __ Poet__ __ Musician __ __ Commercial Artist__ __ Free-Lance Writer __ __ Musical Arranger__ __ Journalist__ __ Portrait Artist__ __ Concert Singer __ __ Composer__ __ Sculptor__ __ Playwright__ __ CartoonistTotal number of Ys _____

Y N S__ __ Sociologist__ __ High School Teacher__ __ Speech Therapist__ __ Marriage Counselor __ __ School Principal__ __ Clinical Psychologist__ __ Social Science Teacher__ __ Director of Welfare Agency__ __ Youth Camp Director__ __ Personal Counselor__ __ Psychiatric Case Worker__ __ Vocational Counselor

Total number of Ys _____

Y N E

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__ __ Buyer__ __ Manufacturers Representative__ __ Advertising Executive__ __ Television Producer__ __ Hotel Manager __ __ Business Executive__ __ Restaurant Manager__ __ Salesperson__ __ Real Estate Salesperson__ __ Publicity Director__ __ Sports Promoter__ __ Sales Manager

Total number of Ys _____

Y N C__ __ Bookkeeper__ __ Business Teacher__ __ Budget Reviewer__ __ Certified Public Accountant __ __ Credit Investigator__ __ Court Reporter__ __ Bank Teller__ __ Tax Preparer__ __ Inventory Controller__ __ Financial Analyst__ __ Cost Estimator__ __ Bank Examiner

Total number of Ys _____Self EstimatesDirections: Rate yourself on each of the following traits as you really think you are when compared to others your own age. Please give the most accurate estimate of how you see yourself. Circle the appropriate number and avoid rating yourself the same in each category.

Number 1 R I A S E C

Mechanical Ability

Scientific Ability

Artistic Ability

Teaching Ability

SalesAbility

Clerical Ability

High 7 7 7 7 7 7

6 6 6 6 6 6

5 5 5 5 5 5

Average 4 4 4 4 4 4

3 3 3 3 3 3

2 2 2 2 2 2

Low 1 1 1 1 1 1 R I A S E C

Number 2 R I A S E C

ManualSkills

Math Ability

Musical Ability

Friendliness

Managerial Skills

Office Skills

High 7 7 7 7 7 7

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6 6 6 6 6 6

5 5 5 5 5 5

Average 4 4 4 4 4 4

3 3 3 3 3 3

2 2 2 2 2 2

Low 1 1 1 1 1 1 R I A S E C

Summary FormDirections: Return to the first page and record the number of Ls or Ys for each group of activities, Competencies, Occupations, etc.

R I A S E C

ACTIVITIES

COMPETENCIES

OCCUPATIONS

SELF-ESTIMATES #1

SELF-ESTIMATES #2

TOTAL SCORES (Add the five R

scores for example)

The letters of the three highest numbers represents your summary code. Write you summary code below. (If two scores are the same or tied, put both letters in the box.

Highest 2nd 3rd

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Interest Assessment. ERIC Digest.

The assessment of interests through the use of interest inventories is big business in the field of testing today. Although publishers closely guard their data on the number of inventories given, an estimate of 3,000,000 administrations per year probably is conservative. The first formal assessment of interests using a published inventory occurred in 1927 with the appearance of the "Strong Vocational Interest Blank." Since that time, the "Strong" has survived numerous revisions and continues to be a popular and widely used interest inventory.

Interests were assessed prior to 1927 using, basically, four techniques. The earliest of these techniques was "estimation", which simply involved asking an individual to indicate her or his feelings towards an activity. Because estimates were not always accurate, individuals often were encouraged to "try-out" activities as another method for assessing their interests. Obviously, try-outs could be quite time-consuming and costly, and "rating scales" and "checklists", precursors to interest inventories, were developed to identify interests more systematically. The interest inventories that we use today differ from early checklists and ratings in that they use statistical methods to summarize responses to pools of items representing various activities and occupations (Hansen, 1984).

DEFINITION OF INTERESTSThe definition of interests, as used by inventory developers, researchers, and counselors, typically reflects five components that may be characterized as determinants: personality, motivation or drive, expression of self-concept or identification, heritability, and environmental influences (e.g., learning and socialization; Hansen, 1990).

One of the most popular theories for describing interests and their relationship to jobs, people, and environments is that of John Holland. Holland (1985) states that both people and environments can be divided into six vocational personality types or some combination of the six types: Realistic (outdoors, mechanical), Investigative (science, math), Artistic (art, language, music), Social (helping, teaching), Enterprising (selling, business) and Conventional (details, clerical). Holland's theory has had a tremendous impact on the fields of career counseling and interest assessment, and many interest inventories include scales that measure interests related to Holland's six types.

PURPOSE OF INTEREST ASSESSMENTInterest assessment is used in a variety of applied and research settings for several different purposes. Career exploration, that leads to decisions such as choosing a major, selecting a career, or making mid-career changes, probably is the most popular and frequent use of interest assessment. Within this context, college and high school counseling services are the most typical providers of interest assessment and career counseling experiences. However, employment agencies, vocational rehabilitation services, social service agencies, corporations, consulting firms, and community agencies such as the YW or YMCA also provide career counseling opportunities that incorporate interest assessment.

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Researchers use objective assessments to operationalize the construct of interests in studies that investigate variables relevant to understanding the world of work. Current trends in vocational psychology research include analyses of (1) the structure of interest; (2) the relationship of interests to other psychological variables such as personality, satisfaction, and success; and (3) the role that interests play in career development.

To a lesser extent, interests are assessed for use in selection and classification evaluations. In some instances, assessed interests, which add valuable data to career choice predictions, are used even after selection to help an employee find the right position within a particular organization (Hansen, 1994).

CURRENT INTEREST ASSESSMENT INVENTORIESNumerous inventories designed to assess interests have been published. The available choices range from those inventories that measure a small number of relatively broad interests and are self-administered and hand-scored to those that report over 200 scores and must be scored by computers (Kapes & Mastie, 1994).

The "Self-Directed Search (SDS)" and the "Unisex Edition of the ACT Interest Inventory (UNIACT)" are based on John Holland's theory of vocational personalities and assess the six types that Holland hypothesizes. The "SDS" is self-administered, self-scored and self-interpreted while the "UNIACT" is computer scored and uses a computer-generated narrative report to relate the scores to a World-of-Work Map.

The "Vocational Interest Inventory" ("VII"; 8 scales), the "Career Occupational Preference System Interest Inventory" ("COPS"; 14 scales), the "Ohio Vocational Interest Survey" ("OVIS"; 23 scales), and the "Jackson Vocational Interest Survey" ("JVIS"; 34 scales) feature basic interest scales that are composed of homogeneous groupings of items often identified by cluster or factor analysis. With the exception of the "COPS-R" and the "JVIS", which can be hand or computer-scored, all of these inventories are scored by computer. Typically these inventories measure some configuration of basic interests such as mechanical activities, athletics, nature, science, military activities, mathematics, aesthetics, social service, teaching, clerical activities, religious activities, business management, persuading, selling, health, or language.

The "Campbell Interest and Skill Survey (CISS)", the "Kuder Occupational Interest Survey (KOIS)", the "Career Assessment Inventory (CAI)", and the "Strong Interest Inventory (SII)" all require computer scoring and include over 100 different measures of interests. The large number of scales allows these inventories to present profiles that include: (1) global measures of interests similar to those that represent Holland's six types; (2) basic interest scales composed of homogeneous groupings of items (e.g., scales that measure an interest in mechanical activities, medical service, or selling); and (3) scales that measure the interests of specific occupational groups such as engineers, physicians, journalists, guidance counselors, buyers, and accountants.

The choice of the appropriate inventory to use with a particular population depends on factors such as their age, the purpose of the interest assessment, the amount of time available for testing and interpretation, and the funding available to purchase materials and pay for scoring. Generally, the smaller the number of scales offered by the inventory, the less expensive the materials and scoring will be.

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COMPUTERS AND INTEREST ASSESSMENTThe option now exists to use personal computers for every phase of interest assessment, including administration of the inventory, in-house scoring of the scales, production of the profile, interpretation of the results, and integration of the assessed interests into computerized career counseling sequences (Hansen & Sackett, 1993). The most important advantage of using personal computers in interest assessment is in-house scoring that eliminates the need to mail answer sheets to a scoring service for processing, thus reducing the lag between inventory administration and interpretation of the results. A second advantage is the financial savings realized through the use of interactive computerized career guidance programs. Although these programs do not eliminate the need for counselors to work with clients, computers do provide an effective mechanism for identifying and conveying routine information and data to the client.

SUMMARYThe assessment of interests originally developed as an outgrowth of efforts in education and in industry to supplement special and general abilities information about individuals. However, the most powerful uses of interest assessment continue to be in the context of other data, such as values, reinforcers, abilities, personality, and biographical information, that captures the life experiences of an individual. As both education and industry have discovered, the integration of a variety of information, including the assessment of interests, can contribute effectively to improving individual and institutional decision-making.

REFERENCESHansen, J.C. (1990). Interest inventories. Chapter in S. Goldstein & M. Hersen (eds.). "Handbook of psychological assessment" (pp. 173-194). Elmsford, NY: Pergamon Press.

Hansen, J.C. (1994). The measurement of vocational interests. Chapter in M.G. Rumsey & J.H. Harris (eds.). "Personnel selection and classification" (pp. 293-316). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Hansen, J.C. (1984). The measurement of vocational interests: Issues and future directions. S.D. Brown & R.L. Lent (eds.). "Handbook of counseling psychology" (pp. 99-136). New York: Wiley.

Hansen, J.C. & Sackett, S.A. (1993). Applications of computer technology in career interventions. B. Schlosser & K.L. Moreland (eds.). "Taming technology: Issues, strategies and resources for the mental health practitioner" (pp. 79-81). Phoenix, AZ: Division of Independent Practice of the American Psychological Association.

Holland, J.L. (1985). "Making vocational decisions" (2nd edition). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Kapes, J.T., & Mastie, M.M. (1994). "A counselor's guide to career assessment instruments" (3rd edition). Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.

ERIC Identifier: ED389961 Publication Date: 1995-00-00

Author: Hansen, Jo-Ida C. Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling and Student Services Greensboro NC.

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