IN-DEPTH DISCUSSION ON COMMON PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS

Febby Kirstin L. Ibita

INTELLIGENCE Alfred Binet (1916) defined it as the capacity to judge well, to

reason well, and to comprehend well

Lewis Terman (1916) defined it as the capacity to form concepts and grasp their significance

Rudolf Pintner (1921) defined it as the ability of an individual to adapt well to new situations in life

Edward Thorndike (1921) defined it as the power of good responses from the point of view of truth or fact

L.L. Thurstone (1921) defined it as the capacity to inhibit instinctive response, imagine a different response, and realize the response modification into behavior

Charles Spearman (1923) defined it as a general ability involving mainly the ability to see relations and correlates

David Wechsler (1939) defined it as the global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment

Jean Piaget (1972) defined it as referring to the superior forms of organization or equilibrium of cognitive structuring used for adaptation to the to the physical and social environment

Robert Sternberg (1985) defined it as the mental capacity to automatize information processing and to emit contextually appropriate behavior in response to novelty

Howard Gardner (1986) defined it as the ability to solve problems or fashion products valued within some setting.

TermitesHumorous reference to gifted children who participated in Lewis M. Terman's study of intelligence initiated in 1916

Ceiling effectA phenomenon or consequence arising from the fact that the items at the high end or the more difficult end of a test are not "high enough" or difficult enough to accurately gauge the variable being measured in persons who are at the very High end of the variable being measured

Crystallized Intelligence In Cattell’s two-factor theory of intelligence,

acquired skills and knowledge that are very much dependent on formal and informal education

Culture-fair TestA test or assessment process designed to

minimize the influence of culture on various aspects of the evaluation procedures, such as the administration instructions, the item content, the responses required of the test-taker, and the interpretation

Fluid Intelligence nonverbal abilities, less dependent on

culture and formal instruction than crystallized intelligence

Two-factor theory of intelligence Spearman's theory of general intelligence,

whichpostulates the existence of a general

intellectual ability factor (g) that is partially tapped by all other mental abilities G factor

In Spearman's two-factor theory of intelligence, the general factor of intelligence; the factor that is measured to greater or lesser degrees by all tests

of intelligence; contrast with s and group factors

CHARACTERISTICS OF G- AND S- FACTORS Characteristics of ‘G’ Factor:

1. It is universal inborn ability.2. It is general mental energy.3. It is constant.4.The amount of ‘g’ differs from individual to

individual.5. It is used in every activity of life.6.Greater the ‘g’ in an individual, greater is

his success in life.

Characteristics of ‘S’ Factor:1.It is learned and acquired in the environment.

2.It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.

3.Individuals differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.

GUILFORD’S STRUCTURE OF INTELLIGENCE (SI Model) J.P. Guilford developed a model of intelligence

(1966) using factor analysis. He outlines topography of the structure of intellect, providing an integrated rationale for describing the many dimension of intellectual performance. He suggests that there are three basic parameters along which any intellectual activity takes place. These are:

1. Operations – the act of thinking2. Contents – the terms in which we think, and3. Products – the ideas we come up with.

1. Operations: It consists of five major groups of intellectual abilities.

Cognition: It refers to discovery, rediscovery or recognition.Memory: Simply remembering what was once known.Convergent Thinking: This type of thinking, by reasoning, results in useful solution to problems.Divergent Thinking: This is thinking in different directions, seeking and searching some variety and novelty.Evaluation: It is reaching decisions or making judgments about information.

2. Content: A Second way of classifying the intellectual factor is according to the kind of material or content involved. It involves five factors:

Visual Content: It is concrete material which is perceived through our senses, i.e. size, form, colour, etc.Auditory Content: It consists of language, speech, sounds, music and wordsSymbolic Content: It is composed of letters, digits, and other conventional signs.Semantic Content: It is in the forms of verbal meanings or ideas which we get from others.Behavioural Content: It means social behaviour in society.

3. Products: When a certain operation is applied to certain kind of content as many as six kinds of products may be involved.

Units: Understanding the meaning of words, visual, auditory and symbolic units.Classes: It means classification of words and ideas.Relations: It implies discovering relations of words and ideas.Systems: The ability to structure objects in space and to structure symbolic elements and to formulate problems.Transformation: The ability to look into the future lines of development or to suggest changes in the existing situations.Implications: The ability to utilize present information for future ends.

THURSTON’S GROUP FACTOR THEORY Louis Thurston came out with the group

factor theory (1937) saying that Intelligence is a cluster of abilities. These mental operations then constitute a group. A second group of mental operations has its own unifying Primary factor; a third group has a third Primary factor and so on. Each of them has its own primary factor. Each of these primary factors is said to be relatively independent of others. 

He pointed out that there were Seven Primary Mental Abilities and later on added two more. They are:

Verbal comprehension Factor. This factor involves a person’s ability to understand verbal material. It is measured by tests such as vocabulary and reading comprehension.

Verbal fluency Factor. This ability is involved in rapidly producing words, sentences, and other verbal material. It is measured by tests such as one that requires the examinee to produce as many words as possible beginning with a particular letter in a short amount of time.

Numerical Factor. This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic computation and in solving simple arithmetic word problems.

Perceptual speed Factor. This ability is involved in proofreading and in rapid recognition of letters and numbers. It is measured by tests such as those requiring the crossing out of As in a long string of letters or in tests requiring recognition of which of several pictures at the right is identical to the picture at the left.

Inductive reasoning Factor. This ability requires generalization—reasoning from the specific to the general. It is measured by tests, such as letter series, number series, and word classifications, in which the examinee must indicate which of several words does not belong with the others.

Spatial visualization Factor. This ability is involved in visualizing shapes, rotations of objects, and how pieces of a puzzle fit together. An example of a test would be the presentation of a geometric form followed by several other geometric forms. Each of the forms that follows the first is either the same rotated by some rigid transformation or the mirror image of the first form in rotation. The examinee has to indicate which of the forms at the right is a rotated version of the form at the left, rather than a mirror image.

Memory Factor. It means the ability to recall and associate previously learned items effectively or memorize quickly.

STERNBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE Componential — analytical subtheory[edit] Sternberg associated the componential

subtheory with analytical giftedness. This is one of three types of giftedness that Sternberg recognizes. Analytical giftedness is influential in being able to take apart problems and being able to see solutions not often seen. Unfortunately, individuals with only this type are not as adept at creating unique ideas of their own. This form of giftedness is the type that is tested most often (Sternberg, 1997).

Experiential — creative subtheory[edit] Sternberg’s 2nd stage of his theory is his experiential subtheory.

This stage deals mainly with how well a task is performed with regard to how familiar it is. Sternberg splits the role of experience into two parts: novelty and automation.

A novel situation is one that you have never experienced before. People that are adept at managing a novel situation can take the task and find new ways of solving it that the majority of people would not notice (Sternberg, 1997).

A process that has been automated has been performed multiple times and can now be done with little or no extra thought. Once a process is automatized, it can be run in parallel with the same or other processes. The problem with novelty and automation is that being skilled in one component does not ensure that you are skilled in the other (Sternberg, 1997).

Practical — contextual subtheory[edit] Sternberg’s third subtheory of intelligence,

called practical or contextual, “deals with the mental activity involved in attaining fit to context” (Sternberg, 1985, p. 45). Through the three processes of adaptation, shaping, and selection, individuals create an ideal fit between themselves and their environment. This type of intelligence is often referred to as "street smarts."

INTELLIGENCE: ISSUES AND CONTROVERSIES

FLYNN EFFECT In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risen steadily by an average of 27 points.

Measured Intelligence may vary dues to the following:

Author’s definition of intelligenceDiligence of test takerAmount of feedback the examiner gives the examinee

Amount of previous practiceCompetence of person interpreting the data

Family environmentGenderCulture

Common Intelligence Tests Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

Originally developed in 1916 Currently in the 5th edition

Wechsler Intelligence Scale (WISC) For children 6-16 years Currently in the 5th edition (2015)

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)

For children 3 years to 7 years, 3 months Ottis-Lenon School Ability Test (OLSAT) Ravens Progressive Matrices

TWO IMPORTANT TESTS

Standford-Binet Wechsler

asked to identifyintellectually limitedchildren so theycould be removedfrom the regularclassroom and putin specialeducation

Responded to perceivedshortcomings of the Binet test thirty years later

STANDFORD BINETAges 2 to 85 (or older)Now 5 main factors, each tested in verbal & nonverbal domains

Fluid ReasoningKnowledgeQuantitative ReasoningVisual-Spatial ProcessingWorking Memory

Employs “Adaptive Testing” technique Maximum amount of info Rapport Not to tire out test taker Most of the subtests are not timed to

Basal Level Ceiling Level Testing the Limit

Maximum amount of info Rapport Not to tire out test taker

WESCHLER TESTS Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale- III

Measure Intelligence of Adults 1930’s Bellevue; to measure

multilingual,multinational and multicultural clients Latest version WAIS-III updated and

coloredmaterials. Norms expanded including range 74-89

It’s been longer than we think…

1949: The Beginning of time (WISC)

1974: WISC-R

1991: WISC-III

WISC-IV (2003)

What is the Process Approach? How a child performs tasks is as important,

and often even more important, than the score obtained.

Understanding performance on individual items, including the kinds of errors a child makes, can provide rich clinical information.

Describing the strategies a child employs when performing tasks provides a basis of interpretation that resonates deeply with parents, teachers, and even with the child.

Processing Speed Subtests CODING (CD)

Individuals copy symbols that are paired with simplegeometric shapes or numbers within a specific time

limit. SYMBOL SEARCH (SS)

Individuals scan a search group (of abstract symbols) and

indicate if a target symbol/s matches any of the symbols in the search group within a specific time limit. CANCELLATION (CA) (Supplemental subtest)

Individuals scan both a random and structured arrangement of pictures and marks target pictures within

a specific time limit.

Remember that while instruments like the WISC-IV can be a source of valuable information about an individuals cognition and to a lesser extent learning style, IQ tests are not designed to identify dyslexia or diagnose general or specific learning difficulties. They are tests of cognitive functioning and any link between any part of a WISC-IV ‘result’ and a learning issue needs careful consideration.

Which is better? SB can assess much younger & older clients Both published in 2003 Both takes more or less an hour to admin SB has short form, WISC assessors make useof aftermarket publications Both have child-friendly materials Both have optional software for scoring andreport writing Norming for 6 to 16 y.o. was 2,200 people WISC included parent education as stratifyingvariable, SB none SB included SES & test taker education asstratifying variable, WISC none.

Concepts in Personality Testing

ACQUIESCENCEA test response style characterized by agreement with whatever is presented

CRITERIONThe standard against which a test or a test score is evaluated; this standard may take many forms, including a specific behaviour or set of behaviours

CRITERION GROUPA reference group of testtakers whoshare characteristics and whoseresponses to test items serve as astandard by which items will be includedor discarded from the final version of ascale; the shared characteristic of thecriterion group will vary as a function ofthe nature and scope of the test beingdeveloped

EMPIRICAL CRITERION KEYINGThe process of using criterion groups to

develop test items, wherein the scoringor keying of items has been demonstrated empirically to differentiate among groups of testtakers

FORCED-CHOICE FORMATA type of item sometimes used inpersonality tests wherein each of two ormore choices has been predeterminedto be equal in social desirability

GENEROSITY ERRORLess than accurate rating or evaluation

by a rater due to that rater's generaltendency to be lenient or insufficientlycritical; also referred to as leniencyerror; contrast with severity error

HALO EFFECTA type of rating error wherein the rater

views the object of the rating withextreme favor and tends to bestowratings inflated in a positive direction; aset of circumstances resulting in arater's tendency to be positivelydisposed and insufficiently critical

IDENTIFICATIONA process by which an individualassumes a pattern of behavior that ischaracteristic of other people; (2)thoughts, feelings, or behavior on thepart of one person that resonates insome familiar way with the experiencesof another person

WELSH CODEA shorthand summary of a testtaker's

scores on the MMPI clinical and validityscales

TRAITSPersonality Traits can be viewed as thedistinguishing characteristics or qualitiespossessed by the individual.

Traits are “dimensions” of individualdifferences in tendencies to showconsistent patterns of thoughts, feelingsand actions.

STATESPersonality States refer to a temporary

behavioural tendency.(Eg. A student may be described as being in an anxious state before finals.)

Whereas trait refers to an enduring personality characteristic, state usually refers to a temporary behavioural tendency.

RIASECJohn Holland - forwarded that people can be categorized as one of the following:

RealisticInvestigative ArtisticSocialEnterprisingConventional

TYPE A PERSONALITY In Friedman and Rosenman's typology,

a personality characterized by competitiveness, haste, restlessness,impatience, feelings of being time pressured, and strong needs for achievement and dominance

TYPE B PERSONALITY In Friedman and Rosenman's typology,

a personality characterized by traits thatare opposite of the Type A personality;"mellow" and "laid-back,"

WHO IS BEING ASSESSED?

– Self as primary referranta. Self Report b. Self Concept

– Another person as referranta. Leniency/Generosity Error &

Severity Errorb. Error of Central Tendencyc. Halo Effect

WHAT IS BEING ASSESSED?Insights, thoughts, traits.Response Style

– Social desirable responding– Acquisence– Non-Acquisence– Deviance– Extreme– Overly Positive

Two Main Personality Theories1. Trait theory: people differ based on stable attributes (called “traits”)– characteristics lie on a continuum– e.g., the Big Five

2. Type theory: people can be sorted into categories (either one type or the other)- There are many different personality inventories that measure traits or types

Personality Tests – Using Traits NEO – Personality Inventory Revised (NEO

PI-R, 1992)

– Unaware of the Big Five, Costa & McCrae built the NEO Inventory in 1978– Assessed Neuroticism, Extraversion, andOpenness to Experience– Added Agreeableness and Conscientiousness– Items are behavioral statements

Examples of Items:

Neuroticism - Frightening thoughts sometimes come into my head.Extroversion - I don’t get much pleasure from chatting with people.Openness - I have a very active imaginationAgreeableness - I believe that most people will takeadvantage of you if you let them.Conscientiousness - I pay my promptly and in full.

Personality Tests – Using TraitsCalifornia Psychological Inventory (CPI)

Gough (1957) “sane person’s MMPI” revised in 1987 based on 20 concepts to predict behavior in social/interpersonal

situations 13 special purpose scales (e.g., leadership, managerial potential)

CPI - one of the most popular personality inventoryMeasures: various facets of normal personality; helps to make predictions about behaviours Gough’s theory (3 assumptions): Important characteristics in all societies and cultures Understandable and useful for both sides Valid predictors of future behavior in similar social contexts

462 true-false items covers 20 scales:– Dominance, Social Presence, Sociability, Self- Acceptance, Self-Control, Responsibility, Well- Being, Achievement vs. Conformity, Achievement vs. Independence, Psychological Mindedness, Flexibility, Capacity for Status, Empathy, Tolerance, Femininity vs. Masculinity, Independence, Good Impression, Socialization, Communality

– 3 scales provide measures of test-taking attitudes

Advantages:1. Looks at interpersonal relating

well

2. Predicts underachieving, potential delinquency, job performance

3. Has good norming sample

16PF FACTORRaymond Cattell developed the Cattel Sixteen Personality Factor Test (1949)

Revised 4 times (1956, 1962, 1968, 1993)

Survey all words in the the English language that described personal characteristics (approx. 4000)

Designed to measure more personality traits and conflicts than psychopathology

185 items across 16 scales 3 Point Likert Scale

Suggests Personality is made up of 16 independent traits - Warmth, Reasoning, Emotional Stability,Dominance, Liveliness, Rule-Consciousness, Social Boldness, Sensitivity, Vigilance, Abstractedness, Privateness, Apprehension, Openness to Change, Self-Reliance, Perfectionism, Tension

Each item is scored a between 0,1, or 2 depending if

the item is scored correctly

Raw score are changed to standard scores know as

sten (out of 10). Standard scores are calculated inreference to the norm group.

Supports:1. Less time to give than MMPI-22. Has 5 global factors than correspond to

the BIG FIVE3. Reliability and Validity

Criticisms:1. Overeducated sample2. New version more complicated to score3. Converts raw scores to “stens”- hard for

people to understand

16PF ApplicationsResearch and Clinical Settings

Vocational Psychology

Personnel selection and placement

With adults or adolescents (16-yearolds) and 5th grade reading level

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Myers-Briggs: based on Jungian theory of

personality– Classifies individuals along 4 theoretically

independent dimensions. Uses:

– Career counseling– Team building– Family counseling

Criticisms:– Profiles generally positive– Barnum effect– Validation evidence is sticky– Factor analysis shows Big Five solution

MMPIMinnesota Multiphasic PersonalityInventory

MMPI-II – most widely usedpsychological test

10 clinical scales and severalAuxiliary

Items on the clinical scales of the original MMPI were selected on the basis of their ability to discriminate between normal and clinical groups.

Clinical groups were comprised of depressed, paranoid, schizophrenic, hypomanic, hypocrondriacal

Normal groups were comprised of University of Minnesota students

Initially items were selected from various sources – clinical cases, textbooks, and previous tests

MMPI-II was normed on a nationally representative sample – 1138 men and 1462 women

MMPI added several content and supplementary scales

A high score on a particular scale indicatesthe likelihood that the individual possessesthose characteristics

Appropriateness of the MMPI-2 For Adolescents persons 14 to 18

years old MMPI- A

It is not recommended that the MMPI – 2 be used with adolescents, although it may be more appropriate than MMPI-A for 18 year old living independently of their parents

Sources of Inaccuracy in Personality

TestingPersonality assessment largely depends on self-reportResponse sets may affect personality results

Social Desirability Some test takers choose socially

acceptable answers or present themselves in a favourable light

People often do not attend as much to the trait being measured as to the social acceptability of the statement

This represents unwanted variance

Example items:– Friends would call me

spontaneous.– People I know can count on me to

finish what I start.– I would rather work in a group than

by myself.– I often get stressed-out in many

situations.

FAKINGFaking -- some test takers may respond in a particular way to cause a desired outcome

– may “fake good” (e.g., in employment settings) tocreate a favourable impression

– may “fake bad” (e.g., in clinical or forensic settings)

as a cry for help or to appear mentally disturbed

– may use some subtle questions that are difficult tofake because they aren’t clearly face valid

FAKING BAD– People try to look worse than they

really areCommon problem in clinical

settings

– Reasons:Cry for helpWant to plea insanity in courtWant to avoid draft into militaryWant to show psychological

damage

– Most people who fake bad overdo it

Random Responding Random responding may occur when test

takers are unwilling or unable to respond accurately.

– likely to occur when test taker lacks the skills (e.g.,

reading), does not want to be evaluated, or lacks

attention to the task

– try to detect by embedding a scale that tends to

yield clear results from vast majority such that a

different result suggests the test taker wasn’t

cooperating

– Detection:Duplicate items:

“I love my mother.”“I hate my mother.”

Infrequency scales:“I’ve never had hair on my

head.”“I have not seen a car in 10

years.”

IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT– Mitigating IM:

Use positive and negative impression scales (endorsed by 10% of the population)

Use lie scales to “flag” those who score high (e.g., “I get angry sometime”).

Inconsistency scales (e.g., two different responses to two similar questions)

(Use multiple assessment methods (other than `` self-report)