Improving Student Performance by Addressing Student and Teacher Misconceptions about Learning

Stephen L. Chew, PhDDepartment of Psychology

Samford University

slchew@samford.edu Twitter: @SChewPsych

Palm Beach State CollegeMarch 26, 2015

Goals for this Session1) Discuss teacher and student

misconceptions about learning

2) Discuss development of a program to help students become more effective learners based on cognitive principles

3) Discuss what faculty should know about how people learn to improve pedagogy

4) Discuss cognitive basis of effective pedagogy

Three Kinds of Knowledge for Effective Teaching

EffectiveTeaching

Knowledge ofYour Field

Knowledge Of How People

Learn

Knowledge of How People Learn Your Field

Teacher Beliefs about How People Learn

• Teaching requires a mental model of how people learn. – Most teachers cannot articulate their model of

learning, but they have one.

• Determines which teaching methods are selected, how they are implemented and assessed, and how to adjust if there are problems.

• It determines teacher effectiveness

Student Beliefs about How People Learn

• Students also base their study behavior based on their models of how people (specifically themselves) learn.– Whether or not they go to class, – If and how well complete assignments, – How they study and when material is

mastered• It determines their learning effectiveness,

achievement, and success

A typical incoming college student…

• Has graduated from high school with an average GPA of 3.00 (NAEP, 2009)

• Has probably passed a high school exit or graduation exam

• Has been tested for scholastic achievement or aptitude many times

• Probably taken an entrance exam and was admitted to college

% of Students Deemed Ready for College by ACT (2013)

English Mathematics Reading Science All four areas

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44 44

36

26

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%

A typical college freshman is

• Inadequately prepared for college work• Unaware of the fact because it is contrary

to their successful high school experience• Likely overconfident in their preparation

and abilities for college-level work– Few students enter college believing they will

struggle

As a consequence• Many students will struggle academically in their

first year of college– Culture of access vs. culture of completion

• Overconfidence may hinder their recognition and willingness to try to make the necessary changes

• Even when willing to change, they do not know what changes to make (or not make)

• Some percentage of these students will not succeed in college even though they have the ability to do so– A larger percentage will perform poorly as they adjust

to college level study

Typical Student Messages

• “I came into the test really confident that I knew the material but it didn't show that on the test.”

• “The reason I have stuck with the course this long is because I believe I have put a lot of effort towards studying for the exams is just I haven't tested well.”

• “I felt prepared going in to the first two exams but scored much lower than I wanted to (and much lower than the class). To be completely honest, I have not wanted to come to class because I do not feel it is worth it if I am not going to do well anyways.”

The Primary Goal of Teaching

Either• To present information that students are

solely responsible for learning

Or• To develop a sophisticated, useful, and

generative level of understanding on the part of the students

Distinguish between teaching that makes it easy for students to learn vs. teaching that makes it easy to make a good grade

How to help students make a successful transition to college

• Remediation • Teach them to adjust through college

transition courses, advising, study skills centers, and other resources– Personal and social adjustment; study “tips”,

and time management

• Teach them how to be more effective learners by correcting misconceptions and teaching them cognitive principles of learning

Evolution of a Presentation• Given many workshops for teachers on

how to teach effectively• In 2006, I was asked to give a

presentation to Samford’s entire freshman class on how to study effectively in college

• Focus on what students need to know about how people learn in order to make them better learners

The Challenges• Overcome the negative preconceptions

– “I want you to succeed, and I have information that will help you meet the academic challenge.”

• Overcome student misconceptions about learning, e.g. mistaken beliefs and “magic bullets”

• Present cognitive principles and research to help students become more effective learners

• Make the presentation engaging, accessible, and memorable

• Do it in 45 minutes

Specific Goals of the Presentation

• Give students a coherent, research-based framework that would allow them to become effective learners in any situation– More than disconnected study tips, e.g. space

out learning; serial position; study in same place you will be tested

– Not a recipe for best way to study

• Show them how to apply the framework to their study

How to Study Long and Hard and Still Fail… Or How to Get the Most Out of

Your StudyingI. Beliefs about Learning that Make You

Stupid (common misconceptions)

II. Metacognition and its consequences

III. So how accurate are your beliefs about how people learn? (A quiz)

IV. A demonstration of Levels of Processing

V. Operationalizing Levels of Processing

VI. Applying Levels to studying, note taking, and highlighting and reading

Giving the Presentation(about 5 weeks into Fall Semester)

Beliefs about Learning that Make You Stupid

• Learning is fast• Being good at a subject is a matter of

inborn talent rather than hard work, • Knowledge is composed of isolated

facts• I’m really good at multi-tasking,

especially during class or studying

The Importance of Undivided Attention

• Good study strategies are effortful, and require full concentration

• Anything that distracts your attention will detract from your learning– Just resisting temptations is distracting

• Minimize distractions; Focus on one task

Metacognition

• A student’s awareness of his or her level of understanding of a topic

• Metacognition distinguishes between stronger and weaker students

• One of the major tasks for a freshman is developing good metacognition– In high school, students spent years

developing a metacognitive sense that is likely inadequate or even counterproductive for college.

Self-Rating

What is your best, most accurate judgment of the percentage of questions that you answered correctly on this exam? Your answer may range from 0 to 100%

 

 

_____________________% correct

Estimated and Actual Grades for 800 Students: Econ 101

The irony of poor metacognition

• Students who have the poorest metacognition have no clue how weak their understanding of a concept is.

• Part of being incompetent is not understanding just how incompetent you are.

• So the students who most need to listen closely to this talk are the ones who don’t believe they need to.

• (The same holds true for teachers)

So how accurate are your beliefs about how people learn?

Which of the following is the MOST important ingredient for successful learning?

1. The intention and desire to learn

2. Paying close attention to the material as you study

3. Learning in a way that matches your personal Learning Style?

4. The time you spend studying

5. What you think about while studying

Read the instructions for the demonstration to yourselves and do your best to follow

them.

Rate each word

• Does the word contain an E or G?

• Do you find the word Pleasant?

Levels of Processing

• Shallow processing focuses on spelling, appearance and sound. – Rote memorization of facts– Flashcards with isolated facts

• Deep processing focuses on subjective meaning. – Relating new information to prior knowledge

or other information– Making information personally meaningful

Rate each word

• Does the word contain an E or G?

• Do you find the word Pleasant?

These are orienting tasks that cause you to think in deep or shallow ways, regardless of your intention

Shallow processing: You are focusing on spelling.

Deep processing: You are relating the words to your own meaningful experiences.

Study Conditions

Group 2: ShallowWarned about Recall

Group 1: Shallow Not Warned

Group 4: DeepWarned about Recall

Group 3: DeepNot Warned

Be forewarnedyou will be asked torecall all the words

Front of Room

Back of Room

Predictions

Group 2: ShallowWarned about Recall

Group 1: Shallow Not Warned

Group 4: DeepWarned about Recall

Group 3: DeepNot Warned

1. If motivation to learn matters, then Groups 2 and 4 should recall best

2. If only deep processing matters, Then Groups 3 and 4 should recall best

3. If both deep processing and motivation matter, then Group 4should recall best

Intention vs. Level of Processing

Shallow: E Checking Deep: Pleasantness Control0

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43

6967

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Intentional Incidental

Level of Processing

% R

ec

all

Which of the following is the MOST important ingredient for successful learning?1. The intention and desire to learn

2. Paying close attention to the material as you study

3. Learning in a way that matches your personal Learning Style?

4. The time you spend studying

5. What you think about while studying

Implications for Learning• Intention and motivation to learn are not

important • Attention and amount of study is

necessary, but not sufficient for learning• Learning strategy has a huge impact on

learning– Shallow study strategies trump good

intentions• Deep level of processing is critical for

learning

Implications for Students

• Many students have highly practiced poor learning strategies– Studying more won’t help– Increase overconfidence without learning

• They need to unlearn highly practiced old

strategies and develop new, more effective

ones• Consider study skills in terms of orienting

tasks and level or processing

These findings are strongly counterintuitive

• All study is effective, only amount, intensity, and desire matter

• Motivation automatically improves study effectiveness

• Effort equals learning– Learning is hard work, but not all hard work leads

to learning

Implications for Teachers

• Teaching skill matters, and matters greatly

• Pedagogy has a significant impact on

learning, for better or worse

• Consider pedagogy in terms of orienting

tasks and level of processing

– Design assignments, problem sets, questions,

examples to induce deep processing

Achieving Deep Processing while Studying

As you study, follow these principles: • Elaboration: How does this concept relate to

other concepts? Can I make a story?• Distinctiveness: How is this concept

different from other concepts?• Personal: How can I relate this information to

my personal experience?• Appropriate to Retrieval and Application:

How am I expected to use or apply this concept?

These are principles for deep processing, but not a recipe

• There is no set recipe for effective studying or effective teaching

• What constitutes effective study will depend on the student, the subject, and the assessment

• What constitutes effective teaching will depend on the teacher, the students, their mindset, the subject, and the learning goal

The aftermath

• The presentation was a huge success• After two years, I was asked to give a

follow up presentation for “at risk” students• But just how successful was it?

– 2009 Assessment

MethodThe assessment employed a two pronged approach: • Study 1 involved three sections of Foundations, a

course intended to help freshmen adjust to college– For these sections, I attended their class, gave a

pretest, gave my presentation, gave an immediate posttest, then gave a follow-up survey two weeks later.

• Study 2 involved other Foundations sections. – I asked instructors to give a pretest before the

presentation, the students attended my presentation, then I gave a follow-up survey several weeks after the presentation.

Results• Students rated the presentation highly for interest and

value in helping them study (Figure 1)• In both studies, the presentation had a significant

impact on student understanding that the key factor in learning is deep processing (Figures 2 & 3)– But 43% of students maintained a misconception and

correct understanding lowered slightly over time.

• The presentation seemed particularly effective in reducing rote memorization as a study strategy and increasing deep processing. (Figure 4)– “As I study, my main strategy is to memorize the key facts and

the definitions of key terms.” (F(1, 61)=12.49, p=.001)– “As I study, I try to think about how I might use this information

either on an exam or in my future experience.” (F(1, 67)=4.43, p=0.039

Fig. 1: Presentation Assessment (Study 2)

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Fig. 2: Rated Most Important (Study 1)

Desire Attention Learning Style Time Deep Processing0

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Fig 3: Rated Most Important (Study 2)

Desire Attention Learning Style Time Deep Processing0

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Fig. 4: Impact on Study Strategies

Memorize Deep Processing0

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Conclusions

• The presentation is interesting and effective at significantly altering student understanding of learning and their practice.

• It decreases rote memorization and increases deep processing strategies

• A significant portion of students still maintain misconceptions about learning

• Any positive impact may lessen with time. • To address these issues, I created

videotaped modules of the presentation

Development of Video Series• Have the same helpful tone as presentation• Contain the same information as my two

presentations• Serve as a resource for students and teachers

on how to study effectively• Be as flexible as possible for different uses,

such as online learning– Five brief modules

• Be worth the time invested in terms of information learned– 6-8 minutes each

Creating the Videos• I examined the videos on studying that already

exist– Most are either testimonials or selling products– A depressing, often boring, mix of some correct

information, misconceptions, and simple tips

• Nathan Troost—Ace Videographer– Visual sense of what works and what is interesting– A psych minor and former student of mine– A good editor for me

• All five filmed in four hours one summer morning

Video Series: How to Get the Most Out of Studyinghttp://www.samford.edu/how-to-study/

How to Get the Most Out of Studying

• Video 1: Beliefs That Make You Fail…Or Succeed

• Video 2: What Students Should Understand About How People Learn

• Video 3: Cognitive Principles for Optimizing Learning

• Video 4: Putting the Principles for Optimizing Learning into Practice

• Video 5: I Blew the Exam, Now What?

Videos posted in August, 2011

• Very well received: In wide use internationally; from high schools to medical schools

• Faculty appreciate them; Advanced students wish they had them sooner;

• But freshmen reaction is mixed– It isn’t what they want or expect to hear – Misconceptions are hard to change

So shouldn’t we design pedagogies that make students use deep processing all the time?

(What faculty need to know about learning)

What are the critical factors in student learning?

• Engagement• Active learning• Struggle

– Many faculty take pride in how hard they make students struggle

– Assumes struggle leads to better learning

Cognitive Load Theory(e.g. van Merrienboer & Sweller, 2005)

• Mental effort is the amount of concentration that a person has available to devote to tasks

• Mental effort is always a limited resource• Cognitive Load is the total amount of mental

effort a task requires to complete it • A person can do multiple tasks at once as long

as the total cognitive load does not exceed available mental effort

• If cognitive load exceeds available mental effort, then performance suffers

Student mental effort must meet the demands of instructional cognitive load

Teachers design instruction

Tasks and conceptspossess difficulty

Limited Resource

Germane Load

Extraneous Load

Cognitive Loadof Teaching

Intrinsic Load

AvailableMental Effort

Must beless than

Name the days of the week out loud and in order as fast as you can

About this Activity

• Were you engaged?• Were you engaged in active problem

solving?• Were you working hard and struggling? • What was the 4th day in the list?

Name the Days of the Week as Quickly as You Can

In Alphabetical Order1) Friday2) Monday3) Saturday4) Sunday5) Thursday6) Tuesday7) Wednesday

Implications of Cognitive Load Theory• If the cognitive load demanded of students

exceeds their available mental effort, then learning will not occur

• If the cognitive load demanded of students takes up most or all of available cognitive effort, then there will not be enough mental effort available for learning or schema formation

• Teachers must monitor, manage and minimize cognitive load to allow schema development as well as design activities to promote schema development

Deep Processing and Cognitive Load

• Deeper level of processing causes better learning (good) but also greater cognitive load (bad)– All “High Impact” practices have high cognitive load

Shallow Processing

Deep Processing

More Learning

Less Learning Less Cognitive Load

More Cognitive Load

Cognitive Load of Various Tasks(adapted from Piolat, Olive & Kellogg, 2004)

0 100 200 300 400

Text Copying

Incidental learning

Intentional learning

Reading sentences

Reading a text

Playing Chess (novices)

Playing Chess (experts)

Notetaking from a lecture

Composing a text

Translating

Revising

PlanningTas

k..

Cognitive effort (IRT in ms.)

How do we deal with cognitive load?

• Deliberate Practice leads to automatic thinking• Deliberate practice is intentional practice with

the goal of improving a skill. – Not mindless drill– The goal must be apparent to the student, or the

student must trust the teacher

• With large amounts of practice, a skill becomes automatic and no longer requires metal effort.

• Expertise is based on automatic processing

About Engagement, Active Learning, and Struggle

• Engagement, active learning, and mental struggle do not always lead to effective learning

• Neither does deep processing if cognitive load is too great

• Teachers must balance deep processing and cognitive load

The Complexity of Teaching• The number of teaching methods is large and

diverse• No teaching method is without limitations and

pitfalls• Teaching is a contextual interaction; Teaching

effectiveness involves the dynamic interaction of multiple factors: • the outcomes that are desired by• the characteristics of the students by• the characteristics of the instructor by• the curriculum and content

• No single best way to teach

An Effective Teacher• Must monitor, manage, and manipulate

multiple, conflicting factors, many of which are outside the teacher’s control, to achieve desired learning goals

• Must be knowledgeable about multiple teaching methods, select appropriately among them to achieve desired goals, and make adjustments during teaching. – There is no pedagogy that can’t go wrong– There is no pedagogy that a great teacher can’t

figure out how to make successful

Learning Science Resources

Take Home Message• Students and faculty have misconceptions

about learning that undermine effectiveness• Described a live and video presentation for

making students more effective learners • Presented a more sophisticated

understanding of how people learn • Teaching is a complex interaction of factors

that the teacher must manipulate, manage, and monitor– No single best teaching method– Requires constant monitoring and adjustments