implications of energy use for fishing fleet—taiwan example
TRANSCRIPT
Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–2668
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Energy Policy
0301-42
doi:10.1
n Corr
E-m
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enpol
Implications of energy use for fishing fleet—Taiwan example
Jian Hua a,n, Yihusan Wu b
a Department of Marine Engineering, National Taiwan Ocean University, Beining Road, Keelung, Taiwan, R.O.C.b Department of Accounting, Soochow University, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 29 September 2010
Accepted 4 February 2011Available online 21 March 2011
Keywords:
Fishing vessel
Air pollution
Energy use
15/$ - see front matter & 2011 Elsevier Ltd. A
016/j.enpol.2011.02.034
esponding author. Tel.: þ886 2 24622192x71
ail address: [email protected] (J. Hua
a b s t r a c t
Commercial fisheries rely heavily on fossil fuel combustion and contribute heavily to the emission of
atmospheric pollutants and greenhouse gases. Propulsion output of fishing vessels has continually
increased from 30 kW in 1959 to nearly 320 kW in 2000, indicating that the Taiwanese fishing fleet
tended to voyage farther and faster, and to adjust for the heavier loads demanded by more powerful
fishing gear. Daily emissions from Taiwanese fishing vessels were estimated using output method. The
marine fishery is unlikely to grow in the future as the government is implementing measures to ensure
the development of sustainable fishing practices. There has been a rising trend in pollution to
production ratios during the study period between 1959 and 2008. The ratio increased by 47% in the
first decade, followed by fluctuations within the range of 50%–58% for the remainder of the statistical
period. There is a need to investigate the possibility of reductions in all categories of fishing with regard
to energy use and emissions through the subsidization of fishing vessels to encourage operators to
switch to more energy efficient equipment and cleaner fuels.
& 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Taiwan has access to one of the most important fishingindustries in the world, with 269 ports of various sizes, and atotal of 13,470 fishing vessels in 2005 (FA, 2008). The productionof the Taiwanese fishery reached US$2.9 billion, employing nearly400,000 people in 2008 (FA, 2010). However, overexploitation ofresources and declining fish stocks are compounded by concernswith the environmental impact of air pollution from fishingvessels (Haward and Bergin, 2004).
1.1. Atmospheric emission from fishing vessel
The environmental impact of fishing goes well beyond thedirect effect on targeted stocks and the associated ecosystems,components, and functions (Wildman, 1993). The volume ofatmospheric emissions from ships is increasing rapidly (Corbettand Koehler, 2003; IMO, 2006), and dominates the internationalmaritime agenda regarding environmental protection (LR, 2010).Fuel combustion on ships releases mainly carbon dioxide (CO2),sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), particulate matter(PM), and hydrocarbons (HC) into the atmosphere. Several studiesconcerning marine diesel engines and their atmospheric emis-sions have led to the development of a first emission database
ll rights reserved.
06; fax: þ886 2 24633765.
).
(Foltescu et al., 1994). However, fishing vessels have been gen-erally overlooked with regard to their contribution to air pollutioneven though early studies have shown that air pollution fromships has a direct impact on local (Isakson et al., 1995; LR, 1995;Isakson et al., 2001; Saxe and Larsen, 2004; Schrooten et al., 2009;Kowalski and Tarelko, 2009; Tzannatos, 2010), regional (EU, 1999;EU, 2002), and global human populations and environment(Endresen et al., 2003; IMO 2006).
Following the ratification of Annex VI of the InternationalConvention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL73/78), the International Maritime Organization (IMO) enforcesregulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships, whichwent into force on May 19, 2005 (LR, 2010). In Taiwan, theExhaust Gas Standards of Air Pollutants from Mobile Vehicles(Article 33, Chapter 3) of the Air Pollution Control Act is the majorinstrument for the regulation of air pollution from ships (EPA,2009). However, it is complicated by the policies of fisheriessubsidization by the Taiwanese government, which exemptsfishing boat fuel oil (FBFO) from commodity taxes, business taxes,and air pollution control fees, and results in a nearly 50% lowerprice over premium diesel fuel (PDF) (Lin et al., 2006). To moveglobal fisheries towards sustainability, members of the WorldTrade Organization (WTO) have taken two extremes on this policy(Bailey and Solomon, 2004).
In Taiwan, SOx is the highest component of air pollutionattributed to shipping, followed by NOx, PM, and HC (Hua,2005). A percentage of the SOx and NOx emitted into the atmo-sphere is transformed into secondary inorganic aerosols, such as
J. Hua, Y. Wu / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–2668 2657
ozone (O3), which are major local pollutants (EPA, 2009). Forexample, the atmospheric concentration of O3 and HC increasedby 29% between 2001 and 2005 in one of the busiest internationalports, Keelung, located 30 km northeast of Taipei (EPA, 2009).
1.2. Reduce energy use and emission
In addition to typical air pollutants, greenhouse gases (GHGs)emitted from ships is another important issue under internationalscrutiny. The IMO estimated that approximately 2.7% of theworld’s total CO2 emissions in 2007 came from internationalshipping (Deniz and Durmus-oglu, 2008; LR, 2010). Taiwan in totalemitted 270 million metric tons (MT) of GHG in carbon equivalentin 2004, making it at number 22 in the world in terms of volume(Bureau of Energy, 2009). As of 2007, Taiwan’s per capita carbonemissions (3.18 MT) had more than tripled since 1980 rankingTaiwan second in East Asia (including Japan, Mongolia, NorthKorea, South Korea, China, Hong Kong, Macau, & Taiwan) forcarbon emissions.
Energy use has been of great concern within fisheries due toassociated energy costs and environmental impact (Schauer et al.,1996; Driscoll and Tyedmers, 2010). Results from recent researchindicate that management decisions can strongly influenceenergy use and the resulting emissions of fisheries vessels(Driscoll and Tyedmers, 2010). Because fishing crafts are knownto make up a significant portion of the marine vessels in Taiwan,their operations and emissions must be better understood beforeapproaches to the remediation of air quality and economics canbe effectively assessed.
Controlling the expansion of fishing capacity has been a majorchallenge for fisheries management in Taiwan, and around theworld. On the other hand, more effective fishing vessels and gearhave increased catch capacity and caused environmental pro-blems such as the overexploitation of fish stocks (Utne, 2008). Forenvironmental and economic efficiency, as well as marketingreasons, it is becoming increasingly important that food isproduced in an environmentally sustainable and transparentmanner (Ziegler et al., 2003). Despite focused attempts in recentyears to reduce overcapacity in various jurisdictions, the capacityof fishing vessels has continued expanding as a whole (Johnsen,2009). Taiwan has implemented a voluntary fishing vessel reduc-tion program, by offering fishing companies compensation toscrap their vessels (World Fishing and Aquaculture, 2009).
Due to a lack of data or methodology with which to addressfishery-specific environmental issues (such as emissions fromfishing vessels), major obstacles must be overcome in the assess-ment of the environmental impact of current fishing activities.This study examines the sustainability of fishing activities interms of energy use and environmental impact. We estimated thetrends of atmospheric emissions from Taiwanese fishing vesselsusing the engine output method. The study also explores thecharacteristics of the Taiwanese fishing fleet and production forthe period between 1959 and 2008.
2. Methods
2.1. Survey of fishing vessels
The Taiwan Fishery Agency (FA) registers all commercialfishing vessels, fisherpersons, fish businesses, and passengerfishing boats in Taiwan. The data from fisheries statistics (FA,2010) includes all fish landings reported to the FA between 1959and 2008. It provides complete information, including the namesof vessels, owners, and operator contact information. We usedthis database to identify categories of fishing vessels.
To explore details regarding fuel use and emissions for fishingvessels, we surveyed 358 members of fishery around Taiwan.A questionnaire was developed to permit an analysis of the keyplayers in Taiwan’s fishing industry. We designed the surveyinstrument to cover as many types of fishing vessels and activitiesas possible, to ensure that answers were based on professionaljudgment, and to enable statistical element analysis with regardto the operation of Taiwanese fishing craft.
To ensure a proper representation from different perspectives,the sample includes both owners and operators. We received 268usable responses (a response rate of 74.87%) of which 27 werefrom ‘‘owner only’’ and 241 from ‘‘owner and operator’’, repre-senting approximately 380 fishing vessels of various categories.Three trained graduate students distributed questionnairesbetween November 2007 and December 2008. Following theinitial distribution, a reminder letter and second copy of thequestionnaire were passed out one week after the initial requestto all samples that had not responded.
2.2. Fuel consumption
We determined fuel consumption by distributing a question-naire to randomly selected fishermen from various areas ofTaiwan, and by converting official energy statistics (Bureau ofEnergy, 2010). The questionnaire covered characteristic informa-tion including home port, type and age of vessel, primary use ofvessel (commercial or recreational), type of main and auxiliaryengines onboard, fuel storage, annual fuel use, and general vesseloperating area. It also included questions regarding vessel fuelconsumption during different modes of operation. We comparedsurvey results to available information in official energy statisticsand recent studies.
Total amount of fuel consumed annually (F) by fishing vesselscan be calculated using the following formula:
F ¼SSpij ¼SSCj trij
where p is the vessel category total of the annual fuel consump-tion of each fuel type, C is the vessel population in each category,tr is the average annual fuel consumption per fuel type per vessel,i is the fuel type (PDF or FBFO), and j is the vessel category.
2.3. Emission estimate
We used the engine output (kiloWatt, kW) method to estimateemissions for diesel engines associated with fishing vessels. Thesurvey collected information concerning propulsion and auxiliaryengines powering the vessels. Auxiliary engines generally supplypower for equipment, such as capstan systems for trawling,lighting systems for fish attraction, and freezer units for harvests.
Based on the survey, individual engine profiles were developedby combining specific information regarding engines. That infor-mation included engine use, engine type, make and model,horsepower, annual hours of operation, typical engine load,‘‘wet’’ or ‘‘dry’’ engine exhaust, and a number of engine-specificspecifications used for emission factor elements. The numbers ofpropulsion and auxiliary engines associated with each fleet ineach district were estimated by multiplying the numbers ofvessels in specific categories by the average numbers of enginesper vessel category. Average numbers of engines by engine typeand vessel category were estimated using the results from thesurvey.
For emission estimation purposes, two of the key inputsincluded the annual hours of operation (maneuvering and at sea)and the typical engine load. The survey collected engine-specificannual use values to estimate cumulative engine use. Cumulative
J. Hua, Y. Wu / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–26682658
engine use was further estimated by multiplying the annual use bythe age of the engine. Engine load under normal operating condi-tions was the second activity input. Information concerning oper-ating loads for fishing craft engines was limited. The primary sourceof marine engine load factors was the U.S. EPA’s Non-road Model(US EPA, 2003). Using this model, a load value of 43% was assignedto each fishing vessel and engine type. Load on the main enginesduring navigation and maneuvering in the harbor was assumed tobe between 20% and 45%, depending on the size and type of fishingcraft. For modeling purposes, an average size was determined andassumed equal for all types of fishing vessels within a particularsize category.
Briefly, the approach used to develop fishing vessel emissionsinventory estimates entailed the determination of average dailyemissions per engine. This was accomplished using the ARB’sHARBOR model (ARB, 2004) to estimate annual, or daily, emis-sions for each engine. This data was used to estimate averageemissions for each category of vessel. At cruising speed, thepropulsion engine speed is 82.5% in average. At higher loads, fuelconsumption and engine maintenance cost go up dramatically(Schau et al., 2009). The auxiliary engine load factor representsthe actual engine load used divided by the total installed auxiliaryengine power.
To estimated total emissions from Taiwanese fishing vessels,population of vessels and engines for each district was then
Table 1Emission factor of traditional pollutants in the exhaust of PDF and FBFO (g/kWh).
g/kWh
NOx SOx CO2 THC PM
Main Engine in port maneuveringPDFa 6.54 1.1 756 0.376 0.094
FBFOb 6.71 4.5 789 0.242 0.296
Main engine at seaPDFa 6.51 1.0 745 0.366 0.089
FBFOb 6.68 4.1 745 0.239 0.286
Auxiliary enginePDFa 4.22 1.1 778 0.342 0.085
FBFOb 4.58 4.2 789 0.245 0.302
a Premium diesel fuel.b Fishing boat fuel oil.
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
18000
1959
1963
1967
1971
1975
1979
No.
of V
esse
ls
> 1000 ton500-1000 ton200-500 ton100-200 ton50-100 ton< 50 ton
Fig. 1. Variations in the number of Taiwanese fishin
multiplied by average daily emissions per engine. The basicequation for the emissions estimates for a particular year (ARB,2004) was
Pt,i ¼SPopt,i Engt,i HP %Load EFi Hrsi
where P is the pollutant specific emissions (tons/kg of SOx, NOx, HC,PM, CO2, and diesel PM), Pop is the vessel population (in each), Engis the average number of engines per vessel (in each), HP is theaverage engine rated brake horsepower (in kW), and % Load is theaverage engine load (%). EF is the emission factor (kg/kWh), Hrs isthe average annual use (actual hours), t is the vessel category(fishing), and i is the engine type (propulsion or auxiliary).
In the calculations, the value of (HP %Load EFi Hrsi) was thesame regardless of the category. Note that the emission factor forNOx varied significantly among engine types, and even within asingle type of engine (Cooper and Ekstrom, 2005). The content ofSOx depended on the content of sulfur in the fuel. Table 1summarizes emission factors of pollutants in engine fuel exhaustused in this study.
3. Results
3.1. Fishing fleet operation
3.1.1. Population and tonnage
Figs. 1 and 2 present the historical growth and decline inpopulation and tonnage of Taiwanese fishing vessels between1959 and 2008. Although the number of Taiwanese fishing boatsof various sizes (Fig. 1) grew steadily to nearly 16 000 in the1980s, it has been declining since 1989.
Similar to population trends, the total tonnage (Fig. 2) ofTaiwanese fishing vessels grew steadily from less than 100 000in 1959 to more than 950 000 in 1990. Total tonnage declined bynearly 20% in the following two decades. Compared to the numberof vessels, the total tonnage of fishing vessels has decreasedsignificantly since 2005, which translates into a recent trend of areduction in the fishing fleet. Deep sea fishing has decreased underthe fishing vessel reduction program. Between 2005 and 2007,approximately 180 longline tuna vessels were scrapped (WorldFishing and Aquaculture, 2009). The average tonnage for eachfishing craft presents a similar trend to that of total tonnage.
Each fishing vessel corresponds to one record that takes intoaccount the wide range of information to characterize vessels andthe diversity of fishing craft. Characteristic information is
1983
1987
1991
1995
1999
2003
2007
Year
g vessels of different sizes from 1959 to 2008.
Total Tonnage
0
200,000
400,000
600,000
800,000
1,000,000
1,200,000
1959
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
Fig. 2. Variations in the total tonnage of Taiwanese fishing vessels from 1959 through 2008.
Age of ship1% 9%
31%
52%
6% 1%
< 4 yr 5-10 yr 11-15 yr 16-19 yr 20-24 > 25 yr
Berthing ports
57%18%
19%6%
Port within Taiwan only Port along Mainland China
Southeast Asia Other than above
Total HP of generators onboard
12%
48%
33%
6% 1%
50 or Less 51-100 101-150 151-200 201 and above
Average no. of Generators6%
23%
59%
11% 1%
None One Two Three Four
Fig. 3. Breakdown of age, berthing ports, power of generators, and numbers of generators onboard Taiwanese fishing vessels.
J. Hua, Y. Wu / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–2668 2659
assembled in major groups including age, general remarks, engine,generators, deck machinery, ownership, crew, home port/opera-tive port, fishing operation, and other auxiliary machineries usedfor transformation, preserving, safety, and so on. We were able toreconcile our survey result of fuel use of fishing vessels withofficial statistics data.
Fig. 3 illustrates the operating characteristics for Taiwanesefishing vessels. The age of vessels reported in the survey rangedfrom 31 years old to very new ones, with most vessels averaging15–19 years (52%). Most (83%) were in the range of 11–19 years.New boats (less than 4 years) made up only 1% of the total. Threequarters of the fishing vessels berthed in either Taiwan (57%) orChina (18%). For both propulsion and auxiliary engines, over 90%were 1986 or newer model years. Approximately 7% were pre-1986model years, and roughly 1% did not indicate engine age. Overall,analyses showed consistent annual increases in fishing power. Thefishery sector in Taiwan was influenced mostly by change in fleetprofiles, vessel power (engine rated power), and technology(sonar, global positioning systems and computer mapping) factors.
Of the vessels reported, 98% had one propulsive main engine.Reported horsepower for propulsion engines ranged from 30 to4400 kW with an average of 37 kW. Of the surveyed vessels, 94%reported having auxiliary engines. Among them, 23% reportedhaving one, approximately 59% had two, and 12% had three tofour auxiliary engines. Data provided on auxiliary (generator)engines included make and model, model year, horsepower data,and annual fuel usage. Horsepower for auxiliary engines rangedfrom 7 to 250 kW with an average of approximately 85 kW. Most(59%) fishing boats were equipped with two generator engines of51–100 kW horsepower.
FoltescuThe survey results provided information on the aver-age number of operating hours per year for propulsion andauxiliary engines by vessel type. With respect to the operationof propulsion engines, commercial fishing boats averagedapproximately 1752 h at sea annually. The survey in this studyalso requested that vessel owners provide the percentage of hoursoperated at various distances. The options were harbor opera-tions, 0–25, 26–50, 51–75, 76–100, or greater than 100 miles from
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
J. Hua, Y. Wu / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–26682660
the Taiwan shore. Overall, data demonstrated that most commer-cial fishing craft operated the majority of the time within 25 milesof the Taiwan coast.
3.1.2. Trend of output
Fig. 4 shows the trend of total horsepower of the Taiwanesefishing fleet since 1959. Prior to 1990, propulsion output ofTaiwanese fishing vessels increased rather sharply for threedecades, similar to the population and tonnage trends. Horse-power continuously increased at a relatively slow rate until 2005despite the decline in population and tonnage. This indicated astrong tendency of Taiwanese fishing vessels of all categories tobe more heavily equipped. In general, a normal voyage for afishing vessel consisted of a period with constant load with thepropulsion engine at 80–90% of maximum output.
Increases in horsepower were mainly related to improvementsin vessel engine power. According to survey results, the averageloads on the propulsion engine were 80%, 70%, and 40% for 40%,50%, and 10% of the operating duration, respectively. Taiwan’sdistant water fishermen cover the Pacific, Indian, and AtlanticOceans. Their main area of activity is the Indian Ocean, whereapproximately 250 tuna longliners operate currently. Many long-liners land their catch in foreign ports including Cape Town, PortLouis (Mauritius), Singapore, and Phuket, Thailand (World Fishingand Aquaculture, 2009).
Total HP
0
500,000
,000,000
,500,000
,000,000
,500,000
,000,000
,500,000
,000,000
,500,000
1959
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
Fig. 4. Variations in total horsepower of Taiwanese
Total Production, MT
-
200,000
400,000
600,000
800,000
1,000,000
1,200,000
1,400,000
1,600,000
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
Fig. 5. Variations in annual total production (in metric tons
3.2. Production
Fig. 5 shows the production trend of the fishery (in MT) recordedfrom 1959 through 2008. Taiwan’s fisheries production has fluctuatedduring much of the recent decade. Production grew around 3.5-foldduring the statistical period of 1965–1990, followed by fluctuationswithin the range of 1,200,000–1,500,000 MT until 2008. The Taiwa-nese offshore fishery (within 12–200 nautical miles), which is mainlydrag net (30–80 ton) and longline vessels (10–50 ton), account forapproximately 20% of total fisheries production.
Total fishery production in 2007 was 1 499 500 MT, 18.4% upfrom the previous year. The total value of fisheries production in2007 reached US$2878 million, an 11.2% increase over 2008 (WorldFishing and Aquaculture, 2009). Distant water fisheries productionaccounted for 66% of Taiwan’s total fisheries production, andshowed the largest increase in 2007. Squid jigging and tuna longlinefishing were the two most productive activities among distant waterfishing, followed by purse seining for tuna (FA, 2008).
One of the challenges for the Taiwanese fishery is to adhere tofishing fleet and fisheries quotas. A voluntary reduction schemereplaced the three-year compulsory vessel reduction program in2005, for which the government paid compensation (FA, 2008).The pressure to scale down fishing activities has encouragedleading fishing companies to pursue joint ventures and otheractivities in cooperation with Pacific island nations (WorldFishing and Aquaculture, 2009).
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
fishing vessels from 1959 through 2008.
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
) of Taiwanese fishing vessels from 1965 through 2008.
-
200,000
400,000
600,000
800,000
1,000,000
1,200,000
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Year
Ann
ual F
uel C
onsu
mpt
ion,
KL FBFO
Fig. 6. Variations in annual fuel consumption in kiloliter of Taiwanese fishing vessels from 1980 through 2008.
J. Hua, Y. Wu / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–2668 2661
3.3. Cost of production
3.3.1. Fuel use
The Taiwan Energy Balance Sheet provides the basic energystatistical data of Taiwan. The contents cover valid energy statisticaldata in the past decades (Bureau of Energy, 2010). Fig. 6 presents theofficial energy statistics regarding consumption of two fuel types inkiloliters (kL) by the Taiwanese fishery since 1980. Annual fuel usewas on average 858,742 kL (PDF 726,918 kL; FBFO 131,823 kL)throughout the statistical period between 1980 and 2008 (Bureauof Energy, 2010). Total annual fuel use varied between approxi-mately 600,000 and 1,150,000 kL before 2005. Since 2006, however,fuel consumption has dropped to less than half of the annualaverage in the previous 25 years (1980–2005). A major factorattributed to for this drastic decline of fuel consumption is Taiwa-nese government’s effort to scale down fishing activities in order toadhere to worldwide quota. The three-year compulsory vesselreduction program, followed by the subsidized voluntary reductionscheme gone into force since 2006, was in response to such policy.Taiwan’s fishing activities, especially those for vessels of largetonnage, started decreasing accordingly, even though the numberand total tonnage of the Taiwan’s fishing boats have not displacedan instant decrease by the same magnitude. Drastically climbingfuel prices has also induced fishing industry to save fuel or seekimprovement in fuel efficiency. This provided additional reason forthe decrease in total annual fuel consumption by the fishing vessels.Furthermore, fuel consumption was sometimes underestimatedcompared to practical operations (Endresen et al., 2003). For thecase of Taiwan, fishing vessels were sometimes refueled at portsoutside Taiwan.
With regard to annual fuel use, the ratio of PDF grew throughoutthe study period from 66% to 98%. Inversely, FBFO tended to take asmaller portion (Bureau of Energy, 2010). In addition to the operationof the vessel, fuel consumption depends on many factors associatedwith the engine and fuel type beyond the everyday control of thefisherman (Lin et al., 2006).
Fig. 7 shows a breakdown of fuel type, fuel storage, unit fuelconsumption, and voyage duration of Taiwanese fishing crafts.Onboard Taiwanese fishing vessels, 52% ran on PDF only, 38% usedboth PDF and FBFO, and 10% ran on FBFO only. Nearly half of thefishing boats stored less than 10,000 L of fuel onboard with unit fuelconsumption of 301–500 L per kWh. With regard to fuel consump-tion, the results of questionnaires indicated that approximately 0.3 Lof fuel was used per kilogram (kg) of fish landed. In each case, fueluse was the combined usage for propulsion and auxiliary engines.Nearly half (46%) of the respondents used less than 100 L per kWh.
3.3.2. Fuel use efficiency
To discuss the sustainability of the Taiwanese fishery, it isimportant to get an idea of how efficient it is in production. In thisstudy, we used fish production (in MT) and value (in TaiwanDollars) per kL of fuel use as an indicator of fishing efficiency.Fig. 8 shows the trend of fuel use efficiency in terms of production(MT/KL) and value (Taiwan Dollars/KL) during the period between1980 and 2008, which demonstrated a marked difference inpattern throughout the statistical period. In terms of production,fuel consumption efficiency remained at approximately1.1 between 1980 and 1985, followed by fluctuations between1.2 and 2 for the subsequent two decades.
The pattern was relatively clear in terms of value, which grewcontinually from approximately 50 to nearly 100 in 1998, fol-lowed by a relatively steady decline to approximately 65 in 2005.This tendency flattened out throughout the remainder of thestudy period (1990–2008), despite a marked reduction in popula-tion and vessel size.
3.3.3. Atmospheric emission
Before and after sailing at sea, atmospheric emissions fromfishing vessels in harbor originate from two sources—
maneuvering and docking. With change in loads, maneuveringconsumes more energy than navigating the same distance at anear-constant speed. Fridell et al. (2008) suspect a notableincrease in the impact on air quality in port cities over the shortperiod as reduced speed takes effect. In general, docking requireshigher output from an auxiliary engine. It supplies electricity forlight, the operation of fishing gear, ventilation, freezing andprocessing, and deck machineries for loading and unloading.
Fig. 8 presents the estimated results of aerial emissions fromfishing vessel engines during 1959 through 2008. Daily engineemissions were estimated on average as 93.8 ton of NOx, 38.9 tonof SOx, 17,000 ton of CO2, 4.8 ton of HC, and 2.8 ton of PM. Whencalculating for various fishing categories, size distribution wasused to weigh the emissions.
Pacific-based fishing operations using diesel oil resulted in thehighest emissions across all impact categories modeled (Corbettand Koehler, 2003). Johnsen (2009) demonstrated that throughchanges in technology and policy, choosing the allocation wasimportant for decreasing fuel consumption and emissions pro-duced in cod fisheries. Taiwanese fisheries have an integral role toplay in both livelihoods and economies. However, the activitiescould also lead to unsustainable results. Results from this studysuggest policy instruments such as subsidies that can have
Furel type used onboard
52%
10%
38%
PDF only FBFO only Both DF and FBFO
Fuel store onboard, liter
48%
17%
13%
9%
11% 2%
10,000 and less 10,000-50,000 50,000-100,000
100,000-150,000 150,000-200,000 200,000 and above
Unit fuel consumption, l/kW-hr
46%
23%
7%
12%
12%
100 and less 101-300 301-500
501-700 701 and above
Voyage duration
11%
23%
18%
47%
1%
< 1 day 2-9 days 10-30 days 31-90 days >91 days
Fig. 7. Breakdown of fuel type, fuel storage, fuel consumption rate, and duration of voyage onboard Taiwanese fishing vessels.
J. Hua, Y. Wu / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–26682662
important ramification on the sustainability of resource andenvironment.
4. Discussion
4.1. Implication of sustainability
One of the major concerns regarding sustainability is thatheavy fishing pressures will erode stock structure to the pointwhere it loses diversity and resilience to environmental fluctua-tions (Hilborn, 2005). On the other hand, rising ocean tempera-tures and ocean acidification are altering aquatic ecosystems(Doney, 2006), while climate change is modifying distributionand productivity of aquatic species (IPCC, 2007). Bjorndal andMunro (1998) suggested to eliminate overfishing subsidies toattain fisheries sustainability. Good subsidies help to maintain orenhance the fish stock while bad subsidies such as vesselconstruction and fuel subsidies can lead to outright destructionof the natural resource (Sumaila et al., 2007). Some ambiguoussubsidies can also lead to different outcomes depending on thecontext and management effectiveness, e.g. vessel buyback ordecommissioning programs (Clark et al., 2005).
4.1.1. Fuel vs. production
Fig. 9 demonstrates marked fluctuations in MT production perkL fuel use throughout the entire study period. Fuel data wereextracted from official statistics. The ratios for three recent years(2006–2008) indicate outcome of reduction in total fuel con-sumption due to vessel reduction policy. Except for these threeyears, the value of landed fish per fuel use tended to grow,doubling between 1980 and 1990, followed by a slight drop in
the following five years. This was mainly due to the selectivetarget of catch.
The average trend in the tonnage of each fishing vessel(Fig. 10) has shown continual growth from approximately 15 tonearly 70 in 1990, followed by a relatively slow decline toapproximately 50 in 2008. The trend of reduction in vessel sizeindicates a reverse of the past tendency of expansion of thevessels in the Taiwanese offshore fishery. This was due mainly toa lack of willingness to fish because of several factors, such asrising costs and shortage of manpower. The number of fishermencontinues to decline because older fishermen are retiring, whilefew young men are willing to succeed them, despite policiesencouraging them to do so. Currently, there are approximately336,000 fishermen in Taiwan, including 248,000 full time and88,000 part-time (World Fishing and Aquaculture, 2009).
Figs. 11 and 12 show the trend of average propulsion horse-power per vessel and tonnage, respectively, from 1959 through2008. It presents a rather steady growth from 2.2 to 6 throughoutthe entire statistical period (1959–2008). Propulsion output onaverage for each vessel continuously increased from 30 kW in1959 to nearly 320 kW in 2000, indicating that the Taiwanesefishing fleet tended to voyage farther and faster, as well as adjustfor heavier loads required by more powerful fishing gear. Thistendency continued throughout the remainder of the study period(2001–2008) despite a marked reduction in the number and sizeof vessels.
Overcapacity in the fishing fleets is a major threat to sustain-able development, because it leads to increased pressure on fishresources, less profitability, and environmental problems such asGHGs emissions from fuel consumption (Utne, 2008). The resultsof Driscoll and Tyedmers (2010) indicate that, because of the5-fold lower fuel intensity of purse seining relative to mid-watertrawling, the seasonal ban on mid-water trawling has the
NOx emission
-
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000N
Ox,
Ton
ne/y
r
SOx emission
-
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
SOx,
Ton
ne/y
r
HC emission
-
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
HC
, Ton
ne/y
r
PM emission
-
400
800
1,200
1,600
PM, T
onne
/yr
CO2 emission
-
1,000,000
2,000,000
3,000,000
4,000,000
5,000,000
6,000,000
CO
2, To
nne/
yr
1959
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
1959
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
1959
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
1959
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
1959
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
Fig. 8. Trends of atmospheric emissions (in ton) from Taiwanese fishing vessels calculated using output method.
J. Hua, Y. Wu / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–2668 2663
potential to markedly reduce overall fuel use and GHGs asso-ciated with the herring fishery. With regard to Taiwan’s fisherypolicy, it is worthwhile to note that the hidden cost of fuel use(e.g. fish oil subsidies and external costs) is not negligible.
To ensure a future with more promising marine resources andenvironment, the Taiwanese government and fishing industry
recognize that it requires a fundamental change in attitude andresponsibilities. The FA should continuously support programsdealt with practical issues for responsible fishing, which comefrom all stakeholders involved in the fishery. Based on theseprinciples, guidelines need to be established to achieve sustain-able fishing operations. Topics in the guidelines should at least
MT Production/Fuel Use
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
Year
Prod
uctio
n in
MT/
Fuel
Use
, KL
Value/Fuel Use
1
51
101
151
201
251
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Year
Prod
uctio
n in
100
0 N
T/Fu
el U
se, K
L
Fig. 9. Variations in production in MT and 1000 NT per fuel consumption in kiloliter of Taiwanese fishing vessels from 1980 through 2008.
Ton/Vessel
010
203040
5060
7080
1959
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
Fig. 10. Trend of average tonnage per fishing vessel from 1959 through 2008.
HP/Vessel
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1959
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
Fig. 11. Trend of average propulsion horsepower per fishing vessel from 1959 through 2008.
J. Hua, Y. Wu / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–26682664
include selective fishing, catch monitoring, protection of theresource and environment, efficient fishing vessels and gear,cooperation and partnership, and education, research, and publicawareness (Chen, 2010).
4.1.2. Pollution vs. production
Fig. 13 demonstrates a rising trend in the pollution to produc-tion ratio as a whole during the period from 1983 through 2008.The ratio increased by 47% (from 34 to 50) for the first decade
HP/tonnage
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
719
59
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
Fig. 12. Trend of ratio of average propulsion horsepower per tonnage of fishing vessel from 1959 through 2008.
Production vs. CO2
-
1
2
3
4
5
6
Production, 1000USD
CO
2, m
illio
n M
T
Production vs. Pollutants
-
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
-
Production, 1000USD
Pollu
tant
s, m
illio
n M
T
3,500,0003,000,0002,500,0002,000,0001,500,0001,000,000500,000
- 3,500,0003,000,0002,500,0002,000,0001,500,0001,000,000500,000
Fig. 13. Correlations between annual fishery production in 1000 US dollars and emissions of index air pollutants (including NOx, SOx, HC, and PM) during 1959–2008.
J. Hua, Y. Wu / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–2668 2665
followed by fluctuations within the range between 50% and 58%for the remainder of the statistical period. The figure also showsmore emissions per unit of production during the latter years ascompared to earlier years. This was due mainly to fluctuations in
production efficiency due to a number of factors, such as partialcapacity in vessel operations, fuel use efficiency, and over exploi-tation of the resources, which results in decrease in fish stock andcorresponding production value. However, emissions per unit of
Production vs. CO2
-
1
2
3
4
5
6
Production, MT
CO
2, m
illio
n M
T
Production vs. Pollutants
-
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
200,000Production, MT
Pollu
tant
s, m
illio
n M
T
400,000 600,000 800,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 1,400,000 1,600,000
200,000 400,000 600,000 800,000 1,000,000 1,200,000 1,400,000 1,600,000
Fig. 14. Correlations between annual fishery production in metric tones and atmospheric emissions during 1959–2008.
J. Hua, Y. Wu / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–26682666
production could also be reduced due to improvement in overallfishing vessel technologies.
Detailed investigation into the correlation of production vs.atmospheric emissions in the higher range scale revealed theinconsistencies shown in Fig. 14. This indicates that with ade-quate scale in fishing activity, say 1.2 million tons yearly,increased production in fishing does not necessarily translateinto a proportionally higher environmental impact. Additionally,one reason could be decrease in fishing vessels since 2005, whichleads to decrease in overall fuel consumption and hence decreasein corresponding emissions.
Fishing vessels operating at partial capacity are regarded asinefficient in operating at full capacity. Efforts to maximizeoverall operation system efficiency may save energy and therequired cost to a certain degree. For example, the newer atransport ship, the more efficient the transport. Additionally,among the same types of ships, larger vessels tend to have moreefficient transport per ton-mile and lower fuel consumption pertransport ton-mile at the same speed.
4.2. Abatement of emissions
Progresses made by international (IMO, 2006), regional (EU,2002), and national (Skjølsvik et al., 2010) regulatory bodies haveenforced legislation aimed at reducing marine emissions (Colvileet al., 2001). On the other hand, international maritime industries
have established strategies for reductions in onboard emissions(GoKtmalm, 1993; Sowman, 1996; Klokk 1997; USDC, 2007; Huaet al., 2008). IMO, EU, and USA have initiated ship SOx emissionregulations (IMO, 2006; US EPA, 2003; EU, 2002). For example, theAnnex VI of MARPOL 73/78 (IMO, 2006) includes a global cap of4.5% on the sulfur content of fuel oil, and a 1.5% limit in ‘‘SOx
Emission Control Areas’’ (SECA).The recently updated MARPOL Annex VI sets out substantial
changes in atmospheric emission controls, which will have farreaching effects on the operation of ships of all categories (IMO2010). The first stage reductions in 2010 to 1.00% within emissioncontrol areas (ECA) were established to limit SOx and PM emis-sions. It is the dramatic second stage of NOx and SOx reductionswhich will see major changes arising in the options for compli-ance (LR, 2010). Utne (2008) demonstrated differences in perfor-mance and sustainability among fishing fleets. Approaches tomitigating emissions from fishing vessels encompasses a range ofpossibilities from currently available, low-cost approaches, tomore significant investments, including shore-side power fordocked ships (ARB, 2004). Categories of technological develop-ment in the marketplace include engine design (re-power), after-market retrofits, and alternative fuel options (Hua et al., 2008; USDOE, 1994). Compared to conventional diesel technology, switch-ing to cleaner alternative fuels such as compressed natural gas(NG) has shown reductions in emission in the range of 50% forNOx and 90% for PM (US DOE, 1994). However, NG engines willlikely have higher CO and CO2 emissions and slightly higher HC
J. Hua, Y. Wu / Energy Policy 39 (2011) 2656–2668 2667
emissions. Nonetheless, the increase in emissions is small com-pared to the decrease in SOx, NOx, and PM emissions. Purebiodiesel can reduce PM and CO2, but at the expense of anincrease in NOx (by as much as 10%) (US EPA, 2008). A new policyhas Taiwan selling this blended one with conventional diesel atless than 1%.
The enforcement of idling limits, which is relatively easy andinexpensive to adopt, can significantly mitigate air pollution fromships (US EPA, 1997). Aftermarket retrofit technologies incorpo-rate new, cleaner burning technologies and apply them to existingengines. They include injection timing delays, water injection,exhaust gas recirculation, selective catalytic reduction (SCR), andshore power (ARB, 2004). A number of ports in Europe and theUSA have found ways to eliminate pollution from ships byplugging ships into shore power (Frederiksen, 2003; ARB, 2004).Fishing vessels normally use auxiliary diesel engines whiledocked, to run onboard systems such as freezers, lights, andventilations (ARB, 2004). Fossil fuel-based shore power could bereplaced with renewable energies such as wind energy (Hua et al.,2008; US DOE, 1994).
For shore-side power measures to be successful, sufficientpower must exist or be developed for use at the wharves. Optionsto bring power to wharves include new or upgraded substations,fuel cell (FC) units, or floating power stations (Hua et al., 2008;ARB, 2004). The second power generation option is the installa-tion of one or two FC units (200–250 kW) at berths where fishingboats are berthed, and where NG is available as a fuel source. Theuse of zero-emission FCs for maritime applications is still in theexploratory stages, and is considered one of the most desirableapplications from the standpoint of petroleum displacement. Thistype of project may work well for ships in berth with dieselgenerators producing loads in the 1–2 MW range (ARB, 2004;Entec UK Ltd, 2007).
The fuel and machinery configuration used by the fishingvessel for the next few decades will have to adjust to accom-modate such changes (LR, 2010). Following the updates ofmaritime legislation, the fishing operators considering new shipsorders will need to carefully assess the available options andselect the one that works best for them. In addition, the non-shipping world is looking critically at the marine industry’scontribution to GHGs emissions and asking how they can bereduced (LR, 2010). The IMO’s Energy Efficiency Design Index(EEDI), in conjunction with the proposed Ship Energy EfficiencyManagement Plan (SEEMP) and Energy Efficiency OperationalIndicator (EEOI) should help the fishing industry achieve fuelefficiencies and a consequent reduction in GHG emissions (IMO,2010). Before this happens, we suggest fishing vessels adoptspecific corrective actions for the engine load and use moreeffectively the planned maintenance system. We also recommendthe introduction of specific instructions concerning manualengine operation. Meanwhile, the Taiwanese FA and fishingindustry will need to work together to evaluate the options toensure a smooth transition to low-carbon fishing.
5. Conclusions
Taiwanese marine fishery is unlikely to grow in the future asthe government is implementing measures to ensure the devel-opment of sustainable fishing practices. In addition to a fleetreduction program, the government has been actively promotinga policy for the modernization of fishing vessels, through the useof GPS and computer mapping software.
Commercial fisheries rely heavily on fossil fuel combustionand contribute heavily to the emission of atmospheric pollutantsand greenhouse gases. Although propulsive main engines are the
primary source of emissions, emissions from auxiliary generatorengines cannot be overlooked. This is particularly true when shipsare berthing in ports close to population centers, which iscommonplace in virtually every Taiwanese port city.
Regulatory bodies at virtually all levels around the world haveshown progress enforcing legislation aimed at reducing emissionsfrom ships. A great deal has been accomplished with regard toreducing onboard emissions, including the provision of shore-sidepower for docked ships. Investigating the possibility of reductionsin all categories of fishing with regard to energy use and emis-sions through modernized technologies and managerial strategiesis necessary. Subsidizing fishing vessels to encourage operators toswitch to more energy efficient equipment and cleaner fuelscould lead to increases in energy efficiency and reductions inemissions.
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