implementing an intercultural psychology undergraduate unit: approach, strategies, and outcomes

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Implementing an Intercultural Psychology Undergraduate Unit:Approach, Strategies, and OutcomesLinda N Chiodo, Christopher C Sonn, and Romana Morda

College of Arts, Victoria University

The relative absence of Indigenous and multicultural perspectives in core undergraduate psychology curriculum is said to hamper the prepa-ration of students for engaging with culturally diverse communities. An intercultural unit that includes perspectives on Australia’s history of racerelations, Indigenous issues, and migration as the basis from which to research and practise intercultural psychology was introduced into thepsychology undergraduate syllabus at Victoria University. This article describes the unit framework, structure, and evaluation of the unit. Contentanalysis of survey data showed that students appeared to develop greater critical awareness of psychological perspectives on cultural and socialdiversity. Although many students reported positive learning and an increased awareness of cultural matters, there were also student responsesthat suggested dissatisfaction or disengagement from what was being taught. These responses are consistent with the dynamics of learningabout self and other, and of dominance and subjugation. It is argued that promoting an understanding of psychological phenomena as socially,culturally, and historically embedded is important in preparing students to be culturally safe and respectful mental health practitioners.

Key words: cultural competence; Indigenous; pedagogy; psychology; whiteness.

What is already known on this topic

1 The need remains for the inclusion of intercultural andIndigenous issues and perspectives into psychology training.

2 There is a concern that approaches to psychology wedded topositivism can contribute to social exclusion.

What this paper adds

1 This article provides an example of curriculum action to developcultural inclusive training.

2 The article outlines a cultural- and social justice-orientedpedagogy guided by the notion of consciousness raising is high-lighted as key to promoting responsive and inclusive psychologyin multicultural Australia.

3 We highlight that efforts at promoting cultural “competence”must include knowledge about colonisation, race relations, andculture as process and meaning.

The need to integrate Indigenous and cross-cultural issues andperspectives into undergraduate psychology curriculum in Aus-tralia has continued to gain academic and practitioner support(Davidson, 1993; Pedersen & Barlow, 2008; Sonn, Garvey,Bishop, & Smith, 2000). Davidson (1993) highlighted the west-ernised nature of psychology in Australia, including the educa-tion and training of psychologists, and more so psychology’soverall disinterest in and lack of inclusion of cross-culturalpsychologies. The relative absence of Indigenous as well ascultural diversity issues in undergraduate psychology educationis concerning, especially due to the growing multiculturalnature of the Australian society, together with the continued

disadvantage and racism experienced by Indigenous Australians(Mellor, 2003; Sonn, 2008).

In 2010, Australia’s population was estimated to consist of22.3 million people, with approximately 560,000 (3%) of indi-viduals identifying as Indigenous Australians and six million(27%) of individuals as having been born overseas (AustralianBureau of Statistics, 2010). This means that Australia’s popula-tion is made up of individuals from various cultural, ethnic,religious, and linguistic backgrounds. Therefore, it is argued thatthe largely monocultural nature of psychology (or psychologyeducation) greatly disadvantages the preparation of studentsfor engaging with culturally diverse communities (Davidson,1993). Reports of disparities in physical and psychologicalhealth between Indigenous and minority ethnic group membersand majority group members indicate that culturally inappro-priate health services, including mental health services, arenegatively affecting large segments of the Australian public(Downing & Kowal, 2011; Sanson et al., 1998). Sonn et al.(2000) assert that “these issues strike at the heart of educationand training of Australian psychologists, as we are implicated

Correspondence: Linda N Chiodo, College of Arts, Victoria University,PO Box 14428, Melbourne, VIC 8001, Australia. Fax: +61 39919 5223;email: [email protected]

Accepted for publication 6 January 2014

doi:10.1111/ap.12047

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Australian Psychologist 49 (2014) 181–192© 2014 The Australian Psychological Society

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in the provision of these services and their administration”(p. 144).

Psychology’s specific contribution as well as the overall con-tribution of the Australian mental health system to institutionaland overt racism and prejudice against Indigenous Australianand culturally diverse minority groups have been acknowledged(Sanson et al., 1998). Sanson et al. (1998) also highlighted psy-chology’s past failings regarding culturally appropriate practice.Other identified issues included culturally inappropriate assess-ments and a lack of services that were informed by Indigenousand/or other culturally appropriate perspectives (Sanson et al.,1998). They outlined a number of recommendations to addressthese issues. A key recommendation was that “courses on crosscultural (including Aboriginal) issues, awareness, and research,[be] developed in consultation with indigenous and migrantgroups [and] be integrated into undergraduate psychologycourse” (Sanson et al., 1998, p. 178). Researchers (e.g.,Pedersen & Barlow, 2008) have supported the view that theintroduction of cross-cultural and Indigenous perspectiveswithin education programmes and more so within undergradu-ate psychology courses is an important strategy in helpingcombat culturally inappropriate practice.

Since the Sanson et al. (1998) publication and consistent withsubsequent Australian Psychology Accreditation Committee’s(APAC; Ranzijn, McConnochie, Day, Nolan, & Wharton, 2008)recommendations for the inclusion of Indigenous issues in psy-chology courses, the integration of cross-cultural and Indig-enous perspectives into psychology undergraduate degrees hasgained further momentum. This is reflected in the introductionof cross-cultural- and Indigenous-focused units of study intoundergraduate courses at a number of Australian universities(Pedersen & Barlow, 2008; Ranzijn et al., 2008; Sonn, 2008;Sonn et al., 2000). However, APAC recommendations oftenprovide minimal direction and resources, which can lead toambiguity and challenges involved in developing and teachingsuch content (Ranzijn et al., 2008).

Building on APAC requirements, Ranzijn et al. (2008) formeda reference group to develop recommendations relating to theintegration of Indigenous content within undergraduate psy-chology education. This reference group was made up of bothIndigenous and non-Indigenous psychologists from differentemployment contexts. Consequently, it was recommended thatpsychology undergraduate students should be provided witha comprehensive understanding of Indigenous perspectives,including “the cultural, historical and contemporary frame-works that have shaped and continue to shape, the lives ofIndigenous Australians” (Ranzijn et al., 2008, p. 133). It wasalso recommended that undergraduate psychology coursesshould provide students with the opportunity to critically reflecton psychology as a discipline, as well as the fundamental para-digms and values of psychology and how these values have animpact on their ability to work with individuals from culturallydiverse and Indigenous backgrounds. Together with criticallyexamining the values inherent in psychology, Ranzijn et al. alsoemphasised that it is important that students are challenged toconsider and contemplate their own values and beliefs regard-ing cultural diversity and Indigenous perspectives.

Previous research has indicated that the introduction of Indig-enous and cultural diversity issues into undergraduate pro-

grammes both within Australia and abroad is not without itschallenges. For instance, Sonn et al. (2000) described that stu-dents at times expressed racist points of views, inciting intensedebate. However, in general, such anti-prejudice education hasresulted in positive student outcomes (Pedersen & Barlow,2008; Ranzijn et al., 2008; Sonn, 2008; Sonn et al., 2000). Sonnet al. reported that following integration of Indigenous andcross-cultural perspectives in an undergraduate psychology syl-labus, students displayed increased awareness of issues regard-ing racism and prejudice. However, students also found thecontent of the unit challenging. Pedersen and Barlow (2008)also reported positive student outcomes following the introduc-tion of a cultural psychology unit. The aim of their unit was toprovide students with a safe environment to discuss issues ofrace and false beliefs. In addition to promoting such dialogue,Pedersen and Barlow sought to encourage empathy for stigma-tised groups in Australia while trying to avoid causing feelings ofgroup guilt in students. Thus, the objective of the initiative wasto engage and challenge participating students (of whom major-ity identified as White Australian) regarding their beliefs but toavoid antagonising them, as this may have led them to disen-gage from the subject matter. From a pre–post-evaluation, it wasconcluded that students demonstrated a decrease in prejudice aswell as an increased rejection of false beliefs, such as Aboriginalpeople receiving unwarranted government benefits and treat-ment (Pedersen & Barlow, 2008). Pedersen and Barlow providea strong foundation for the changes we sought to make withinthe undergraduate psychology syllabus at Victoria University.However, they were seemingly limited in their attention toother stigmatised groups in Australia, such as migrants, refu-gees, and asylum seekers. These considerations are also impera-tive for psychology students working in culturally pluralisticcontexts, such as Australian communities.

Despite the difficulty in integrating such content into under-graduate psychology education, it argued that there are benefitsin challenging students to critically reflect on issues of diversity(Pedersen & Barlow, 2008; Sonn, 2008). Consistent with Sonn’s(2008) findings, other researchers (e.g., de Freitas & McAuley,2008; Haddad & Lieberman, 2002) have also reported that stu-dents show signs of resistance and even hostility when asked toreflect on cultural diversity issues, and in particular the conceptof White privilege. de Freitas and McAuley (2008) sought toeducate pre-service teachers regarding issues of diversity, andmore so to prepare them to teach diversity in predominantlyWhite communities. The syllabus focused on “pedagogy thataddresses the connections between local cultural practices, col-lective habits regarding difference and otherness, and globalhistories of racism and oppression” (de Freitas & McAuley, 2008,p. 429). de Freitas and McAuley argued that it was importantthat pre-service teachers be given the opportunity to reflect onissues of whiteness, including the social and political context ofpower, privilege, and inequality, as they were said to often adoptand communicate (and consequently teach) a “colour-blind”approach to diversity. This approach to cultural diversity over-looks minority groups’ experiences of exclusion and racism (deFreitas & McAuley, 2008). Similar to Sonn, de Freitas andMcAuley also noted that students found it emotionally difficultwhen challenged about their complicity and participation inwhiteness.

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de Freitas and McAuley (2008) consider raising discomfort ornegative emotions in students as an essential part of teachingabout White privilege and anti-racism, while others haveemphasised the need to create a balance between encouragingempathy in students and not polarising them to an extent thatthey disengage from the content (Pedersen & Barlow, 2008).How to effectively incorporate such strategies into the pedagogyof such diversity units is gaining attention (e.g., Leibowitz,Bozalek, Rohleder, Carolissen, & Swartz, 2010).

In their presentation of similar content regarding diversityand inequality to an undergraduate honours cohort, Haddadand Lieberman (2002) described as unprecedented the opposi-tion displayed by students. Apart from rejecting notions ofWhite privilege and participating in colour-blind racism, stu-dents were critical of many key issues and content coveredthroughout the unit. For instance, the students challengedviews that standardised assessments may be culturally biased.Also, students opposed the instructors’ critique of scientificracism, instead asserting “that all views on the subject wereequally valid” (Haddad & Lieberman, 2002, p. 331). Namely,students argued that by the tutor challenging and discreditingscientific racism, they were effectively being told what to believerather than being allowed to freely disclose their beliefs (Haddad& Lieberman, 2002). The authors hypothesised that such oppo-sition was experienced partly due to the class being made up ofprimarily middle-class and academically privileged White stu-dents who had limited previous experience with issues ofoppression (Haddad & Lieberman, 2002). Thus, this raises ques-tions regarding how a more culturally diverse student cohort,such as that enrolled in Victoria University’s psychology pro-gramme, may respond to anti-racism content, and if this overtrejection would be experienced at the same level.

In regard to psychology students’ opposition to criticallyengaging with issues of cultural diversity, this is particularlyproblematic, as the development of self-awareness and reflexiv-ity has been emphasised as central to culturally safe and respect-ful training and eventual service provision (Hollinsworth, 2013;Pon, 2009). That is, while engaging with material and lessonsabout difference, it is imperative that the focus is not necessarilyon the “other” but on the cultural and social contexts in which allidentities are developed. Hollinsworth (2013) explains:

Central to developing critical awareness of positionality and privilege.. . . is an engaged learning and teaching approach that recognizeswhere each of us has come from, what we value and why, and howthese impact of our openness or resistance to acknowledging others’perspectives and partiality of our own. (p. 1054)

Importantly, Hollinsworth (2013) and others (Pon, 2009)warn that in the quest for increasing cultural awareness andcompetence, essentialist ideas regarding culture are not perpe-trated. Essentialism seemingly overlooks the diversity inherentin cultural groups, but rather considers people from culturaldiverse communities as homogeneous and unable to change(Hollinsworth, 2013). Pon (2009) further argues that culturalcompetency is at risk of becoming a new form of racism, which“refers to racial discrimination that involves a shift away fromracial exclusionary practices based on biology to those based onculture” (p. 60). Therefore, similar to Hollinsworth’s concerns,

Pon cautions that lessons centred on cultural competence oftenoverlook issues of power, racism, and violence (such as coloni-sation), and thus promote a superficial understanding of differ-ence and diversity.

Boler and Zembylas (2003) argued that a “pedagogy of dis-comfort” may be an appropriate framework to teach studentsabout difference and normative values. Pedagogy of discomfortrequires students (as well as their teachers) to progress past their“comfort zones” and “critique their deeply held assumptions,and destabilise their view of themselves and their worlds”(Leibowitz et al., 2010, p. 84). Fundamental to this pedagogy isthe recognition that the process of questioning one’s values andestablished understanding of the world is difficult and distress-ing (Boler, 2004; Boler & Zembylas, 2003; Leibowitz et al.,2010). Thus, this approach not only necessitates intellectualengagement but also emotional investment of students (Boler &Zembylas, 2003). As described by Boler (2004), it is importantthat all individuals, not only members of dominant groups butalso Indigenous and minority group members, question howhegemonic values influence their lived experiences. However, itis acknowledged that there is a fine balance between challeng-ing students and students disengaging or disconnecting frommaterial as too much discomfort has been created (Gillespie,Ashbaugh, & De Fiore, 2002).

Given this overview, the aim of this article is to report on theevaluation of the effectiveness of participation in an intercul-tural psychology unit in fostering students’ critical awareness of,and appreciation for, cultural, social, and psychological diver-sity. Of particular interest was students’ perspectives of whatthey gained from the unit and what they found challenging. Inaddition, we examined how students positioned themselves inrelation to (or within) such intercultural content and the impli-cations of this for their development as future mental healthpractitioners. Finally, for curriculum development purposes, theteaching experiences and outcomes of the current interculturalpsychology programme were evaluated against other cross-cultural education initiatives (e.g., Pedersen & Barlow, 2008;Sonn, 2008; Sonn et al., 2000).

Intercultural Unit of Study Framework

Theory and Guiding Philosophy

The aim of this intercultural psychology unit was to presentstudents with theoretical and conceptual resources that chal-lenged the role of psychology as neutral and objective inconstructing knowledge about diversity, difference, and inter-cultural relations. The intention was to decentre privileged waysof being and knowing, and instead consider the ways in whichpower and issues of identity and belonging influence the waysin which race relations are negotiated in culturally diverse com-munities. As explained by Sonn (2009), “the development ofculturally safe interactions requires that we negotiate our ownpositions and clarify privilege and power” (p. 145). The unitpresented information on Australia’s history of race relationsand migration, and Indigenous perspectives, with the aim ofhighlighting that issues of diversity need to be understood asproducts of social, cultural, and historical processes. Severalresources were useful in framing the pedagogy for the unit,

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including whiteness studies (Green, Sonn, & Matsebula, 2007;Stewart, Latu, Branscombe, Phillips, & Denney, 2012) and cul-tural safety frameworks (Downing & Kowal, 2011; Downing,Kowal, & Paradies, 2011). Whiteness or White privilege isconceptualised as the invisible (or taken-for-granted) powerand advantages, which are available to culturally dominantgroup members at an institutional and social level (Case, 2007).Whiteness studies, in particular, allowed us to address concernsthat teaching about race and traditional forms of racism expe-rienced by minority group members has significant limitationsin promoting anti-racism and positive intercultural relations.Whiteness studies also highlight the covert discriminationexperienced by minoritised group members as a result of thetaken-for-granted racial privilege experienced by majoritygroup members (Green et al., 2007; Stewart et al., 2012). It hasbeen argued that inclusion of whiteness studies is a necessarycomplementary approach to anti-racism pedagogy (Green et al.,2007; Stewart et al., 2012). That is, increasing the awareness ofmajority group members about the “illegitimate advantages thatthey hold in society” has resulted in lower levels of prejudiceattitudes among university students (Stewart et al., 2012, p. 12).

The unit was also developed using cultural safety frameworks,which “eschew[s] teaching a catalogue of ‘cultural specificbeliefs’, instead encouraging health workers to be aware of thesocial, political and historical process and structures that may besites of ‘social determinants’ of health” (Anderson et al., 2003,cited in Downing & Kowal, 2011, p. 12). Therefore, the focus ison introducing Indigenous and ethnic group perspectives withina framework that emphasises the role of history and powerrelations in understanding cultural identities and the health andwell-being of Indigenous Australians as well as other culturallydiverse community members (Downing & Kowal, 2011). Inaddition, in line with this cultural safety approach, it was nec-essary that students deconstructed their own cultural identityand values systems (Freire, 1972).

Structure of the Intercultural Unit

As it is becoming increasingly important that graduating psy-chology students develop and demonstrate competence inassisting clients from diverse backgrounds, substantial curricu-lum changes were made in a core second year unit of thepsychology major. At the commencement of the unit, tutors leddiscussions regarding why learning about intercultural issuesand diversity would be important for psychology students aswell as those pursuing other professions (e.g., teaching). Thesediscussions often centred on Australia’s increasingly diversecommunities and their possibly diverse needs regarding well-being. In preparing students, it was highlighted that issues con-cerning racism and prejudice, Australian race relations, andIndigenous disadvantage would be reflected on in the unit, andthus at times may be challenging and confronting. Studentswere advised that the objective was not for them to feel asthough we were targeting (or blaming) any one group, but thatthis was an opportunity to engage and consider these importantsocial issues.

Thus, the aim of the 6-week unit was to introduce students tocultural, social, and psychological diversity, and promote thedevelopment of a critical awareness and appreciation of such

diversity. More specifically, the unit focused on the identity andwell-being of Indigenous Australians, the impacts of colonisa-tion, whiteness and privilege, refugees, and immigration, as wellas community responses to racism. Although it is acknowledgedthat 6 weeks is far from sufficient time to thoroughly exploresuch intercultural issues, it was felt that the advantages expos-ing students to this content, however limited, were more ben-eficial than not. For example, Pedersen and Barlow (2008)reported that students demonstrated a significant decrease inbias against Aboriginal Australians after participating in a6-week cultural psychology unit.

The unit structure involved weekly 2-hr lectures, followed bya 1-hr tutorial in which lecture themes were further exploredand critically discussed. The weekly curriculum content andlearning objectives are further outlined in Table 1. The unit wastaught by a diverse group of male and female tutors and lectur-ers from various cultural backgrounds. Together with thisdiverse teaching group, Indigenous guest speakers were invited,and students were introduced to articles led by Indigenousauthors (e.g., Dudgeon, Wright, Paradies, Garvey, & Walker,2010; O’Shane, 1995). Case studies and digital resources (pre-dominantly online videos and current Australian magazines)were also utilised to assist student learning. For instance, clips ofspeeches given by former prime ministers John Howard andKevin Rudd, as well as news vision of the Cronulla riots, assistedin illustrating contemporary diversity issues. The assessment forthis unit included students keeping a reflective journal. The aimof the journal was to encourage students to reflect upon thetopics covered in class and in the set reading material. Theywere asked to think about what the issues/concepts/theoriesthat were covered in the unit meant for them both in theirpersonal and professional lives.

Evaluation Methodology

This was the first time this unit had been taught to second yearpsychology students in this format. At the conclusion of theunit, a specific formative evaluation was conducted to aid infurther curriculum development, as well as to determine theeffectiveness of the unit in meeting the predetermined learningobjectives, including increasing students’ awareness and knowl-edge of intercultural issues in psychology.

The evaluation questionnaire, which students completed, wasin line with and was an extension of the university’s standardcurriculum evaluations that occur each semester. The ethicalstandards of informed consent, voluntary participation, andconfidentiality of responses were adhered to. The evaluationsurvey was provided to students in the final class of the unitafter students had completed their assessments. Students weretold that the evaluation was being conducted to inform futureteaching practice and that their responses were anonymous.They were also informed that participation in the evaluationwas completely voluntary, and hence they had the choice to notparticipate in the evaluation (e.g., they could return a blanksurvey). Their responses were anonymous as the surveys didnot include or require students to provide any identifyingdetails, including their name, student number, or tutorial group.In order to protect their anonymity, students were given anunmarked envelope in which they could seal and return the



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evaluation form. In addition, when reporting the evaluationfindings in this article, we have not made mention of the yearthat data were collected, thus further preserving the anonymityof the student cohort.

One hundred thirteen students completed the survey used forthe unit evaluation. The students involved in this interculturalpsychology unit were primarily enrolled in psychology degrees.However, there were students from other disciplines, includingeducation and health sciences. The student cohort in this unitwas representative of Victoria University’s student population,in that it was culturally diverse, and although the specificcultural backgrounds of the students in each class were notidentified unless disclosed by individual students, all groups

were diverse in regard to gender, religion, ethnicity, and culturalbackground.

The evaluation survey complemented the standard university-wide teaching and unit evaluations, which are conducted at theconclusion of each semester. The evaluation survey consisted of10 open-ended questions that asked students what aspects of theunit they preferred as well as those they did not, the extent towhich the unit met their expectations, and the value they placedon the material covered for both their personal as well as profes-sional development. Examples of specific questions included werethe following: Was the unit and information covered what youexpected? Is there anything that you would have wanted to focusmore or less on in the unit? Do you feel as though this unit has

Table 1 Weekly Outline and Learning Objectives of Intercultural Unit

Week Lecture topic Seminar Learning objectives

1 — Why study intercultural issues in

psychology

— Approaches to intercultural

psychology

Unit introduction

— Why study intercultural issues in

psychology

— Discussion/activity: What is my

culture?

1. Demonstrate an appreciation and awareness of the

importance of intercultural issues in psychology and

related disciplines

2. Explore introductory concepts (e.g., culture, ethnicity,

identity)

3. Provide an opportunity for students to reflect on their

own cultural identity and how it may impact on

interactions with others

2 — Approaches to intercultural

psychology

— Australia as a pluralistic society:

communities and cultures in

interaction

Defining culture

— Definitions of culture

— What is Western culture?

— Group activity: Western culture in

Australian media

— Case study: cultural competence

1. Explore history of cross-cultural, cultural, and Indigenous

psychologies

2. Facilitate students’ critical examination of Western

culture as being the norm and the impact of this on

practice

3. Provide an opportunity for students to reflect on what it

means to be a culturally competent practitioner

3 — Psychology and Indigenous

Australians: historical context

— Psychology and Indigenous

Australians: colonisation and

well-being

Psychology and Indigenous Australians

— Social/psychological impacts of

colonisation

— Examining whiteness and White

privilege

Discussion/activity: culturally appropriate

testing

1. Explore Indigenous world views, place and belonging,

colonisation, identity, and well-being of Indigenous

Australians

2. Increase awareness and knowledge regarding whiteness

and issues of White privilege

3. Demonstrate an appreciation of culturally appropriate

testing

4 — Psychology and Indigenous

Australians: current context and

reconciliation

— Refugees, immigration, and

sojourners: cultural shock,

acculturation, and social identity

theory

Psychology and Indigenous Australians

— Group-based guilt

— Support/non-support for an apology

to Indigenous Australians

1. Increase understanding of concepts related to group guilt

2. Increase understanding regarding history of and political

climate involved in the support and non-support for an

apology to Indigenous Australians

5 — Refugees, immigration, and

sojourners: dialogical self,

multiple heritage, and second

generation

Immigration and settlement

— Settlement experiences and

challenges

— Cultural diversity and multiculturalism

— Identity and belonging—ethnic,

national, and hybrid identity

1. Increase understanding of how settlement experiences

influence identity and belonging

2. Provide an opportunity for students to critically reflect

upon the social and psychological impacts of migration

and settlement

3. Demonstrate understanding of the different approaches

to managing cultural diversity—assimilation, integration,

and multiculturalism

6 — Receiving community responses:

psychology and social justice

Racism in Australia

— Prevalence/forms of racism

— Everyday racism—media’s role in

perpetuating racism

— Discussion/activity: Cronulla riots

1. Increase knowledge of impact of and forms of racism

2. Provide an opportunity for student to critically reflect on

the role media and sociopolitical contextual factors play

in the prevalence of racism



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been significant to your professional development? Why/Whynot? Do you think learning about intercultural issues in psychol-ogy is important? Why/Why not? Although the survey requiredstudents to provide their opinions regarding the unit content,students’ perceptions regarding the teaching within this unit wasnot assessed. Despite students’ evaluation of teaching qualitybeing important, it was determined that this was not a priorityin this evaluation process as official teaching evaluations tookplace later in the semester. Furthermore, Boatright-Horowitz andSoeung (2009) raised concerns regarding the legitimacy of teach-ing evaluations when the syllabus centres on issues of racism andWhite privilege. Namely, it is asserted that “students often rejectboth message and messenger, projecting their frustrations andemotions about this topic onto instructors,” thus resulting in biasand negative teaching evaluations (Boatright-Horowitz & Soeung,2009, p. 575).

Students’ responses to open-ended questions were recordedon a question-ordered matrix, and then analysed for recurringand unique responses to the questions about the content of unit(Hayes, 2000; Miles & Huberman, 2003). This process involvedreading the responses to questions and then using keywordsand phrases to group similar responses. We then counted theresponses, reporting mainly themes with the highest number ofresponses. The themes included increased awareness of diver-sity, cultural competence, critical self-reflection, and challengingresponses, and each reflects engagement with knowledge. Thesethemes were organised into a table including a description of thetheme, engagement with knowledge, and illustrative quotationsof this engagement.

Findings

As shown in Table 2, the students reported greater criticalawareness of psychological perspectives on cultural and socialdiversity. They also reported that participation in this unitallowed them to critically reflect on their own values andassumptions, and what it meant to be culturally aware and

competent. Although many students valued what they havelearnt in the unit, some students also challenged elements of theunit content.

Increased Understanding of CulturalDiversity Issues

For many students, this was the first time that they had beenpresented with the opportunity to discuss issues of diversity inpsychology. As reported in previous evaluations of interculturaleducation initiatives (Aveling, 2002), the majority of studentsreported that the unit had introduced them to new knowledge,and therefore was a beneficial learning experience. Majority ofstudents identified that as a result of the unit, they hadincreased their awareness on a number of critical issues inrelation to cultural diversity and psychology. The followingresponses indicate the increase in awareness that students feltthey had achieved as a result of the unit:

Raised [my] awareness of the lack of understanding of other culturesthat is still rampant in our “multicultural” society.

It opened my eyes to issues that were always there but [I] never lookedat.

I liked how we learnt not only from a western paradigm, but alsothrough an Indigenous perspective (with the guest speaker andappropriate readings).

Students also cited general lessons about culture and theimportance of one’s cultural background as a positive outcomeof completing this unit:

It has taught me a lot of things about the world we live in. It hashelped me become aware of many issues I was not aware of. I thinkit is an important unit in Psychology.

I have gained an awareness of issues related to culture and havebecome more proactive in my anti-racial thinking.

Table 2 Main Themes in Student Responses to Intercultural Issues

Main theme Features Illustrative quotation

Increased

understanding

of cultural

diversity issues

Theoretical and

empirical

knowledge

“It has taught me a lot of things about the world we live in. It has helped me become aware of many issues I was not

aware of. I think it is an important unit in Psychology.”

“I do feel that understanding some theoretical aspects has been helpful. The discussion about the ‘invisibility of

whiteness’ or our lack of awareness of white privilege was important and powerful.”

Cultural

competence

Applying new

knowledge

“I believe it is important to learn about intercultural issues in psychology . . . It teaches us to be aware of our culture

and others . . . this unit has been important to my professional development. The skill and knowledge we learn

today (in this class) will help in the future.”

Critical

self-reflection

Knowledge

of self

“It has opened my eyes to other cultures, and to always think twice about things and not make as many assumptions,

because being in another country or being Indigenous would be extremely difficult . . . To be more thoughtful and

considerate towards immigrants.”

“I have learnt more about myself, how I think and realised some of the things that go on in Australia that require

change.”

Negotiating

challenging

content

Disinterest and

distancing

“I appreciate the lecturer’s ideas and knowledge [but] it was too, too much.”

“Felt like we were being blamed for a lot of the problems.”



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Interestingly, Aveling (2002) questions the authenticity or thevalue of such common student responses. That is, despite stu-dents demonstrating signs of inquisitiveness and enjoyment inthe content presented, there still lacks “a great shift in con-sciousness from a paternalistic ‘wanting to help those less for-tunate’ than themselves—who are essentially ‘the same underthe skin’—to examining their own position of privilege”(Aveling, 2002, p. 125). Unfortunately, within the limits of thecurrent evaluation, it is difficult to assess whether such interestand increased awareness in unit content translate into changesin students’ ideological frameworks and positions. However,students did nominate various types of knowledge that they feltwere most significant or in which they learnt the greatestlessons. For instance, besides lessons regarding the importanceof culture, students also discussed increasing their knowledgebase regarding historical and contemporary race relations andIndigenous perspectives. Furthermore, students highlightedtheir interest in and the importance of more critical and theo-retical concepts, such as whiteness. As will be further discussed,this demonstrated interest in notions of whiteness may be initialnecessary steps towards such “shifts in consciousness” (Aveling,2002, p. 125).

Responding to Indigenous perspectives

Due to differences in educational (and/or social) experiences,students’ level of knowledge regarding Australia’s history ofrace relations, in particular the events of colonisation, wasvaried prior to undertaking this unit. A fundamental objective ofthis unit was to position the content covered (especially con-cerning Indigenous well-being) in a historical context. In addi-tion to discussing previous events of colonisation, students werealso engaged in discussions concerning racism and impacts ofracism, as well as negative perceptions and false beliefs aboutIndigenous Australians (Mellor, 2003; Pedersen & Barlow,2008). However, from the evaluation questionnaire, it is evidentthat students’ views varied regarding the need to learn aboutIndigenous frames of reference within psychology. For example,students responded:

Indigenous studies—understanding the struggles of Aboriginalpeople. I had no idea it was so bad.

It helped me better understand the dispossession that Aboriginalpeople went through has continued to affect them through thegenerations.

Looking at Indigenous issues. I hadn’t spent much time looking atthis topic and it really opened my eyes.

I enjoyed learning about the history of displacement and dispossessionof Aborigines.

Similar to previous attempts to address the disadvantageexperienced by Indigenous Australians through interculturaleducation (Pedersen & Barlow, 2008; Sonn et al., 2000), stu-dents were mostly positive about gaining new understanding ofthe experiences of Aboriginal Australians as well as the contin-ued psychological consequences of dispossession. Despite thepositive reactions and outcomes, a minority of students also

expressed the shared opinion that the unit focused too fre-quently or extensively on Indigenous issues, and thus to anextent neglected the experiences of the other diverse andminority ethnic groups within Australia. For example, studentsreported:

The unit was slightly too focused on the relations between “whiteAustralians” and “Aboriginal Australians” and not on multiplecultures.

Not enough emphasis was placed on immigrant issues (culturally).Being a multicultural nation, I felt that this was ignored.

I would have liked to look at other cultures more, rather than justmainly focussing on the one.

Consequently, it could be argued that the unit may not havemet students’ expectations with regard to exploring the experi-ences and challenges faced by a range of groups, such as Africanor Asian background ethnic minority groups, within Australia.Aveling (2002) reported similar criticism from students: “[S]tu-dents [begin] to feel uncomfortable when the ‘natural’ order ofhow much time is spent on what or whom, [becomes] unbal-anced” (p. 127). However, it would be an overstatement tointerpret the desire to learn more about other cultural groups assimply a rejection of Indigenous issues:

Focus less on Indigenous psychology (yes it is important but) wouldlike to explore the wider impacts of culture from other perspectives.

Whiteness studies and racial privilege

A key component of the current intercultural psychology wasthe focus on the concept of whiteness and White privilege.Researchers (Case, 2007; Green & Sonn, 2006; Pedersen &Barlow, 2008; Sanson et al., 1998) have contended that it isimportant to incorporate discussion of whiteness and Whiteprivilege within teachings of diversity in order to help challengestudents’ understanding of racism and diversity. Indeed, Greenand Sonn (2006) state that “a sociopolitical awareness of white-ness by those in dominant positions is fundamental in ensuringthe goal of particular action is achieved” (p. 381). Overall, it wasacknowledged from the outset that these notions of whitenessand invisible privilege, although important, would be a chal-lenging material to effectively present in an accessible mannerto students. Consequently, the lectures and tutorials, whichcentred on issues of whiteness and racial privilege, generateddiscussion and at times heated debate among students. For themajority of students, this unit was clearly their first exposure tounderstandings of whiteness, with many students reporting thatthey had never thought about whiteness or the privilege that itprovides them. This is evident in the following responses:

I liked learning about white privilege, it was something completelydifferent to anything I have ever studied and something I hadn’treally thought much about before.

I do feel that understanding some theoretical aspects has been helpful.The discussion about the “invisibility of whiteness” or our lack ofawareness of white privilege was important and powerful.



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To not take my whiteness for granted and understanding whiteprivilege and how it automatically exists.

Appreciating other cultures and learning about my “white”privilege—I had not thought about it before.

Although it would be premature to claim that such responsesshow indications of deep shifts in thinking, they demonstrate anew level of learning and awareness about power and privilegebetween minority and majority group members. This is impor-tant as it has been suggested that the presentation of suchintercultural content without critical discussions of whitenesscan lead to “othering” and participation in contemporary (andpossible covert) forms of racism (Pon, 2009). As students arerelatively new to reflecting on such challenging content, thisincreased awareness and knowledge of issues of whiteness isregarded as a positive outcome.

Importance of Cultural Competence

Many students acknowledged the importance of learning aboutintercultural issues and that this knowledge would be valuablein their future careers. Some students completing psychologydegrees recognised that learning about intercultural issues wascritical in order to be an effective and culturally competentmental health practitioner. We acknowledge that this findingmay be in part due to how unit content was introduced tostudents. In the first week’s seminar, discussions were heldregarding why it was important to study intercultural issues inpsychology.

Cultural competency refers to “a commitment to engagerespectfully with people from other cultures. A commitment tocultural competence is the beginning of an ongoing process thatrequires motivation and a willingness to improve cross-culturalcommunication and practice in both individuals and organisa-tions” (Walker & Sonn, 2010, p. 161). Access to culturallyrespectful and safe health services (including mental healthservices) is often conceptualised as a response to the healthinequalities experienced by Indigenous and culturally diversecommunity members (Walker & Sonn, 2010). Therefore, it isvital that psychology students are prepared with the necessarycomprehension, values, and ability to be culturally competentand safe mental health practitioners. Thus, it is encouraging thata large segment of students were aware that as potential futurepsychologists they were required to have a level of culturalcompetency or an awareness of the impacts that an individual’sculture has on his/her health and well-being:

It is important as everyone is different and come from differentbackgrounds. Psychologists need to be aware of this.

As potential practitioners it is essential to understand why people actand feel certain ways, which can be attributed to culture.

Culture has a massive influence in the way people think and act,psychologists need to understand this before they go into practice.

So you can develop a better understanding of those with variedcultural backgrounds so in the future when helping clients of differentethnic backgrounds we will have useful advice they can relate to . . .It is crucial to have a thorough understanding of different cultures

because issues such as racism or stereotyping are fundamental inpsychology.

Yes so you can be more respectful and aware in the future if you area practitioner . . . to allow us to develop into more well roundedpsychologists.

However, this awareness and understanding that culture iscentral to an individual’s health and well-being is only the firststep towards displaying a level of cultural competency. Rather,cultural competency and safety requires one to understand,evaluate, and be accountable for his/her personal ideologies,values, and bias regarding culture and diversity (Walker & Sonn,2010). This is achieved through personal development and criti-cal reflection. As will be discussed, it was found that studentswithin this current cohort demonstrated such development andreflection at different levels.

The Development of Critical Self-reflection

Apart from developing awareness and knowledge essential fortheir professional development as future psychologists, it wasapparent from the evaluations that for some students, the unitand content discussed contributed to their personal develop-ment. Many students highlighted that, for them, their personaldevelopment involved having more respect, more acceptance,and overall more awareness of the possible experiences ofpeople from different cultures:

I have learnt a lot about culture and Indigenous history that I did notknow before. I have a different mindset about Australian history now.

Yes, once again it has opened my eyes to other cultures, and to alwaysthink twice about things and not make as many assumptions, becausebeing in another country or being Indigenous would be extremelydifficult . . . To be more thoughtful and considerate towardsimmigrants.

A small number of respondents also demonstrated personaldevelopment and reflection at a deeper critical level. As shownin the following comments, these students suggested that theunit assisted them in learning about themselves and confrontinghow they felt about intercultural issues.

I think it is important to know yourself before you can learn aboutothers.

It’s made me confront myself with how I feel and who I am.

I have learnt more about myself, how I think and realised some of thethings that go on in Australia that require change.

Understanding my own culture and other culture has made me moreself aware.

I have become more aware of myself and the importance ofintercultural issues.

Has allowed me to critique my own views and to find areas toimprove.

This outcome is in line with the argument that for intercul-tural or cultural competency education to be effective, it is



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fundamental that individuals are challenged to consider andreflect on their own values and beliefs regarding cultural diver-sity and Indigenous well-being (e.g., Ranzijn et al., 2008;Walker & Sonn, 2010). Similarly, Pon (2009) highlights thatself-reflexivity is often wrongly neglected in lessons of diversityin an effort to learn about the “other.” It appears that for somestudents, participation in the current unit provided an opportu-nity to further develop and participate in critical reflection.

Negotiating Challenging Content

Although many students commented positively about whatthey had learnt from the unit, some student responses indicatedthat they appeared to be dissatisfied with unit content. Thisdissatisfaction manifested in a variety of ways. These includedexpressions of disinterest, dismissal of content as being biasedand distancing. These reactions could be interpreted as resist-ance to the issues discussed in the unit. This student resistanceis defined as the “denial of the existence or importance ofinequality; attribution of race, class and sex differences to indi-vidual deficiencies; and insistence that discussions of inequalityremain on an abstract, intellectual level” (Davis, 1992, cited inHaddad & Lieberman, 2002, p. 331). Indeed, it has been foundthat student resistance is quite a common outcome of previousefforts to integrate intercultural and diversity education intothe psychology (Boler, 2004; Pedersen & Barlow, 2008; Ranzijnet al., 2008; Sonn, 2008; Sonn et al., 2000). However, asLindquist (1994) noted about the concept of resistance:

the deceptive attraction of labelling students’ reactions as “resistant”may be that if we disagree with others, we can interpret theirbehaviour as resistant; the risk is that such an interpretation makesit very difficult to interrogate and benefit from what they might besaying. (p. 3)

A minority of students expressed disinterest in the unitcontent and did not consider it essential for their professional orpersonal development. For instance, a small number of studentsdescribed the unit as not being “valuable,” while others consid-ered the content not to be related to their future profession.These students contested the proposition that having an under-standing of intercultural and diversity issues would be of benefitin their chosen profession or discipline.

A small number of students dismissed and distanced them-selves from the material as they seemingly felt as though it waspresented in a biased manner and blamed White Australians andWestern culture for “a lot of the problems.” For example, fromthe class discussions and evaluation responses, students seem-ingly rejected the concepts of collective or group guilt, as well asthe need for a national apology from current generations for theevents of colonisation and the stolen generation. Discussionsconcerning the continued impacts of colonisation on IndigenousAustralians, and more so the sustained privileges experiencedby non-Indigenous Australians, often invoked some negativeresponses. For example, it was noted by some students:

The unit although exposing the important issues of one side, failed toaccommodate the origination of other groups and their perspective,they are readily condemned.

Felt like we were being blamed for a lot of the problems.

I didn’t like how it was too biased and although I appreciate thelecturer’s ideas and knowledge [but] it was too, too much and theywent a bit overboard. It is best to be realistic.

Some students indicated that they felt that other students didnot express their genuine views in class discussions for fear ofbeing labelled politically incorrect. Arguably, the discussionsoutside of the classroom were different from those that wereconducted within class.

A lot of participants in class held back a lot of their views andopinions/reactions to the materials out of fear it might have beendeemed politically incorrect. No freedom of authentic expression.Other students would only declare their true opinions outside theclassroom.

Discussions in class are always tailored to meet the content of theunit—ironic.

Although students were encouraged to always share theiropinions in a respectful manner (rather than a focus of politicalcorrectness), we do acknowledge that the perceived reluctanceof some students to “authentically” participate could also be dueto a host of factors, including our teaching practices and per-ceptions that the space was not safe to express contrary views.

In addition to dismissing or censoring their responses, somestudents appeared to use other strategies, such as denial andrationalisation, to negotiate their experiences of unit content(Augoustinos & Every, 2007). Denial of the pervasiveness ofprejudice is indicated in claims that the unit “went a bit over-board.” “I appreciate the lecturer’s ideas and knowledge [but] itwas too, too much” seems to be in line with this rationalisationand distancing. Aveling (2002) contends that students, in an effortto deal with what they believe to be “reverse racism towardswhites,” dismiss the content raised as “politically correct andtherefore not to be taken too seriously” (p. 125). Furthermore,reframing theoretical or evidence-based content as moral agendapossibly of the lecturer has also been identified as a common formof student resistance (Haddad & Lieberman, 2002).

This criticism of bias and blame or anti-White class contentwas not unexpected and has been reported in previous research(Boler, 2004; Pedersen & Barlow, 2008). Similar to Leibowitzet al.’s (2010) teaching experience, “many students gainedintellectual wisdom and insights about the self, but the teachingand learning situation allowed for some students to retain con-tradictory and defensive positions” (p. 89). Pedagogy of discom-fort further assists in understanding and making sense of suchreactions. Namely, when an individual’s identity and under-standings of self are effectively embedded within normativecultural values and beliefs, and these beliefs are challenged, thismay be experienced as discrediting of self (Boler, 2004). Thatis, “to suggest that some unfairly benefit from (white, or male,or heterosexual) privilege—can be emotionally translated intofeeling one has no place of belonging” (Boler, 2004, p. 118).However, it is important that students and teaching staff be bothchallenged and supported in negotiating challenging content. AsSchick (2000) contends, “it is those places of uncertainty, dis-satisfaction, doubts—where identities are not secure—which



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are the places where possibilities for exploration and changereside” (p. 98).

Discussion

The intercultural unit introduced at Victoria University offersanother way in which issues of diversity and Indigenous well-being can be integrated into undergraduate psychology edu-cation and training, where such content is arguably competingwith prescribed foundational units. Although ideally it wouldbe beneficial to have more time and curriculum space to dedi-cate to issues of diversity in psychology, it is believed that theinclusion of this unit has been effective in attending to someof the gaps currently identified in psychology education andtraining (Davidson, 1993; Pedersen & Barlow, 2008; Sonnet al., 2000) regarding matters of cultural diversity. Theeducation initiative reported in this article is one way thatthrough psychology education students can develop awarenessabout social disadvantage experienced by Indigenous and cul-turally diverse community members, and the historic and sys-temic roots of such disadvantage (see also Pedersen & Barlow,2008).

Importantly, we argue that teaching matters of diversityrequires a clearly articulated framework that is committed toanti-racism and the development of a socially responsive andinclusive psychology. The framework that we have been devel-oping is informed by critical pedagogy that emphasises a com-mitment to anti-racism, the social construction of knowledgeand reality, and that is guided by the notion of consciousnessraising (Freire, 1972). We build on these by introducing stu-dents to theoretical and conceptual resources from social andcultural psychology, which they apply by examining case studiesas well as by deconstructing their own understandings, experi-ences, and identities. The unit uses decentring as a tool topromote critical reflection on social locations and identities ofvarious groups, and implications for access to material, social,and symbolic resources. We have demonstrated how psychologycurriculum can be used to engage with students in understand-ing how knowledge is produced, and how notions such asculture and race are not natural but constructed, and our con-ceptions of these ideas have significant implications for enactingcultural competence. Importantly, this approach to educatingabout psychology resonates with arguments for critical culturalcompetence and cultural safety in health and allied health train-ing (e.g., Boler, 2004; Downing & Kowal, 2011; Walker & Sonn,2010).

The evaluation findings show a number of encouraging out-comes. Students appeared to show greater understanding of theassociation between culture and notions of health, and more sothat culture is not free from historic, political, and social frame-works and contexts. Such understandings are fundamental inculturally safe frameworks and practice (Downing & Kowal,2011; Downing et al., 2011). In particular, there was evidentprogression in students’ comprehension of and appreciationthat the previous events of colonisation and ongoing racismcontinue to have an impact upon the lived experiences andwell-being of Indigenous Australians. Furthermore, consistentwith the unit framework, whiteness studies and notions ofprivilege and normativity were useful in challenging taken-for-

granted understandings about the self and other. In line withother authors (e.g., Case, 2007; Green et al., 2007; Stewartet al., 2012), we agree that whiteness studies can be an impor-tant framework for anti-racism education by moving from aunidirectional focus on the other to include an examination ofnormative values and contemporary forms of racism (see Pon,2009).

Although the introduction of knowledge about and frame-works for understanding cultural diversity appeared to raisestudents’ cultural awareness, not all students were receptive todiscussion about difference. Some students showed signs ofdiscomfort, were defensive, and rejected the idea that a levelof guilt or responsibility should be directed towards non-Indigenous Australians for the disadvantages faced by Indig-enous community members. It is important to engage with thisrange of responses and reactions in supportive ways. As outlinedin the pedagogy of discomfort, this notion of pushing individualsbeyond their comfort zone both emotionally and intellectually isa necessary and fundamental component of learning about dif-ference (Boler, 2004). It is incumbent upon us, as educators, thatwe continue to reflect upon our own pedagogical practices andthe changes that we experience in order to identify the waysin which we can support students to negotiate their reactionsand emotions, and develop new understandings of themselvesand of psychology’s role in addressing inequality. Importantly,we engage with this discomfort and acknowledge the range ofstudent responses to the content and issues discussed. Apart fromoffering additional resources to interested students, we encour-age students through discussion to support and assist each otherin attending to the discomfort or defensive responses. Boler(2004) suggests that “one might engage discussions of how theconstruction of masculinity or white privilege, for example, alsobears a cost to those who benefit” (p. 130). At times, this line ofdiscussion has also been beneficial in our experience of teachingthis unit. Finally, to continue to appropriately attend to suchresponses in a meaningful way with patience and “compassion”(Boler, 2004, p. 131), it has been necessary for our teaching groupto continue to debrief, reflect on, and discuss these responses andthe discomfort that it also raises in ourselves.

Despite the positive outcomes of this curriculum initiative,there are limitations inherent in this evaluation that need to beconsidered. For instance, the evaluation was conducted imme-diately at the conclusion of the intercultural unit. Therefore, theincreased awareness regarding diversity and related topics dem-onstrated by some students may be due to their recent exposureto the content. It would be beneficial to conduct furtherfollow-up evaluations to determine if this critical thinkingregarding issues of diversity in psychology has been maintainedand further developed. Fortunately, it can be said that we havewitnessed moments of this critical thinking and consideration ofcultural diversity by the students in subsequent psychologyunits. Although not feasible at the time, the evaluation wouldhave also benefited from the inclusion of some individual orgroup interviews with students regarding the class content andteaching practices, to gain a more in-depth understanding ofstudents’ experiences of the unit and some of their reactions.Informal and unplanned discussions with students (who havesince completed the unit) regarding their intercultural classeshave been beneficial in providing some further insights and



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have been valuable for continued curriculum development andimprovement.

In summary, to determine whether the teaching of this unitwas successful or not, it is essential to consider the studentcohort. That is, for the majority of students the unit was theirfirst exposure to such challenging content. Therefore, it is con-sidered that the unit was successful in reinforcing to studentsthat there are multiple perspectives when it comes to culture,health, and well-being, and also that this understanding ofand critical reflection on intergroup relations is an ongoingprocess, which hopefully has been initiated for some students asa result of their participation in the unit. Finally, although itwould be overly optimistic to expect significant shifts in beliefsand values within this short period of time, it is felt that theunit was effective in having students start to question culturalhegemony and psychology’s role in the disadvantages experi-enced by Indigenous Australians and cultural diverse commu-nity members. It is hoped that such learning will continue to bereflected on as well as further developed throughout the dura-tion of their studies.

Acknowledgements

The curriculum development and evaluation for the unit wassupported by a Student as Staff grant from Victoria University. Aversion of this article was presented at the Place and Displace-ment conference held in Melbourne, 21–31 November 2012.

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implementing an intercultural psychology undergraduate unit: approach, strategies, and outcomes

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