impact of land use change on groundwater - a review

www.seipub.org/awrp Advances in Water Resource and Protection (AWRP) Volume 2, 2014

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Impact of Land Use Change on

Groundwater ‐ A Review Nitin Mishra*1, Deepak Khare2, K.K. Gupta3, Rituraj Shukla4

1Assiatant Professor, Dept of Civil Engg, Graphic Era University, Dehradun, India.

2Professor and Head, Dept of WRD&M, IIT Roorkee, India.

3Associate Professor and Head, Dept of Civil Engg, Graphic Era University, Dehradun, India

4Research Scholar, Dept of WRD&M, IIT Roorkee, India.

*[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

Received 15 July 2013; Revised 24 September 2013; Accepted 5 November 2013; Published 21 April 2014

©2014 Science and Engineering Publishing Company

Abstract

The changes in Land use have mostly occurred locally,

regionally and globally over the last few decades and will

carry on in the future as well. The increase in imperviousness

has a major impact on groundwater and is of major concern

over the past years to those who are involved in

groundwater studies. The increase in urbanization results in

reduction in infiltration, which affects the groundwater

recharge and storage. Thus, land use changes have to be

evaluated properly using traditional as well as latest

techniques viz. Remote Sensing and Geographical

Information System (GIS). The increase in population leads

to increase in food, fodder and fuel demands with rapid

change in land use patterns. From the time when the human

civilization started, mankind interdependence on environ‐

ment is greater, excess hunt of progress, comfort and security

has resulted in augmented stress on the environment. Proper

planning and management for development of natural

resources without jeopardizing the environment is a vital

concern to be sorted out for the world community. Quality

inputs on the rate and pattern of land use change is essential

for proper planning and management. Land use change

pattern reflects the rate of change of groundwater recharge.

It is necessary to detect the land use change in the past and

present existing land use, and its spatial distribution and

potential changes are essential prerequisites for planning

and management. Proper land use planning and

management is key to socio‐economic up‐liftment of a region

and country as a whole.

Keywords

Land Use; Groundwater; Infiltration; GIS; Remote Sensing

Introduction

Groundwater is a major source of drinking water

across the world and plays a vital role in maintaining

the ecological value of many areas (IPCC, 2001).

However, the quantity and quality of groundwater are

changing due to human activity (Gehrels et al., 2001)

jeopardizing the suitability of the groundwater system

as a source of drinking water and affecting natural

reserves. Assessing the impact on the groundwater

system and predicting the magnitude of change in the

future is therefore a major scientific challenge (Tang,

2005). Land‐use and land‐cover changes are one of the

main human induced activities altering the

groundwater system (Calder, 1993). Nevertheless, the

impact of future land‐use changes in the groundwater

system has not been investigated extensively.

Throughout the entire history of mankind, intense

human utilization of land resources has resulted in

significant changes of the land‐use and land‐cover

(Bronstert, 2004). Since the era of industrialization and

rapid population growth, land‐use change phenomena

have strongly accelerated in many regions.

A Land‐use change directly impact the hydrology of

the catchment area (e.g. Bhaduri et al., 2000; Fohrer et

al., 2001; Tang et al., 2005). The research on the impact

of land‐use changes on surface hydrology has

therefore received considerable attention from both

field observations and model simulations.

The impact of land use and land cover changes on the

regional water balance is the most vigorous research in

the international hydrological fields, and lots of

research indicates that large‐scale land use and land

cover changes are the important factors resulting in the

regional climate and hydrological cycle changes

Advances in Water Resource and Protection (AWRP) Volume 2, 2014 www.seipub.org/awrp

29

(Hutjes et al, 1998; Zhang L et al, 2001[a]). Therefore,

International Geosphere‐Biosphere Programme (IGBP),

The International Human Dimensions Programme on

Global Environmental Change (IHDP), World Climate

Research Programme (WCRP), an international

programme of biodiversity science (DIVERSITAS), etc.

take the relationship between Biosphere Aspects of the

Hydrological Cycle (BAHC) and the land use and land

cover changes, as well as its climate frangibility, as the

core plans (Hoff, 2002; Lambin et al., 2002). Moreover,

in LUCC established by IGBP and IHDP, one core

problem is to understand the impact of the regional

land use and land cover changes on hydrological

process and water resources (Suzanne Serneels, 2001).

Such work indicates that the regional vegetation

ecosystem changes caused by land use and land cover

changes remarkably affect the regional hydrological

cycle (Zhang L et al., 2001 [b]). Therefore, the

mechanism of land use and land cover changes in the

catchment impacting the hydrological process become

important fields in the development of hydrology

(Hoff, 2002).

Thereinto, actual estimation of the impact of human

activities on groundwater system is critical to establish

a reasonable utilization program of regional

groundwater resources (Schwarts et al., 2003; Sato et al.,

2003). Previous research of the impact of human

activities on groundwater system mainly focused on

the aspects of the intensity and reasonability of

groundwater utilization, while ignoring the impact of

land use changes in the groundwater system in the

basin. Actually, as the important part of the regional

hydrological cycle, groundwater system has a strong

response to land use and land cover changes

(Mtembezeka et al., 1997; Alley et al., 1999).

About 75‐80% of human requirements for water are

fulfilled by groundwater. Uncontrolled disposal of

urban waste into water bodies, open dumps, and

poorly designed landfills cause groundwater

contamination (Singh, 1999, 2000). Groundwater

pollution has become one of the most important

toxicological and environmental issues in India. In

January 1994, the Central Pollution Control Board

(CPCB), Delhi, undertook the first major groundwater

quality monitoring exercise. The report, published in

December 1995, identified 22 locations in 16 states of

India as “critical” sites of groundwater pollution, and

the CPCB found industrial effluents to be the primary

reason for groundwater pollution (CPCB, 1998). Many

of the critical regions have to depend on groundwater

resources for various needs due to scarcity of surface

water.

Litreture Review

Groundwater is a major source of drinking water

across the world and plays a vital role in maintaining

the ecological value of many areas. The rainfall in

India shows very high spatial and temporal variability

and paradox of the situation is that Cherapunji, which

receives the highest rainfall in the world, also suffers

from a shortage of water during the non‐rainy season,

almost every year. The total average annual flow per

year for the Indian rivers is estimated 1953 km3. The

total annual replenishable groundwater resources are

assessed as 432 km3. The annual utilizable surface

water and groundwater resources of India are

estimated at 690 km3 and 396 km3 per year,

respectively (Kumar et. al., 2005).

In India, large canal irrigation projects account for over

35 million hectares (m ha) of irrigated area. Of this,

about 30 (m ha) were created after 1951, during

successive Five Year Plans (Chowdary et. al., 2003).

Ground water was the main source of irrigation in

these areas prior to the introduction of canal irrigation.

It continues to be so in several areas even after the

introduction of canal irrigation, even though this factor

was not considered explicitly in the design of canal

irrigation systems. In recent years there has been

considerable emphasis on integrated management of

surface and groundwater resources in irrigation

project areas both to augment the canal supplies and to

increase agricultural productivities as well as to

control ground water depletion, water logging, and

soil salinity (Chowdary 2003). Groundwater resource

assessment in canal irrigation project areas is critical

for the development of strategies for such integrated

management.

With rapidly growing population and improving

living standards, the pressure on our water resources

is increasing and per capita availability of water

resources is reducing day by day. Due to spatial and

temporal variability in precipitation, the country faces

the problem of flood and drought syndrome.

Overexploitation of groundwater leads to reduction of

low flows in the rivers, decline of the groundwater

resources, and saltwater intrusion in aquifers of the

coastal areas. The climate change is expected to affect

precipitation and water availability.

Impact on Groundwater Recharge

The methodology includes assessment of annual


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replenishable groundwater resources using water level

fluctuation approach and empirical norms, estimation

of the annual quantity of groundwater withdrawal and

categorization of the assessment units based on the

status of groundwater utilization and water level trend.

Annual replenishable groundwater resources of

National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi is about 297

million cubic meters (mcm) while the annual

groundwater draft is about 480 million cubic meter

(mcm). The assessment of dynamic groundwater

resources of NCT Delhi was done based on lumped

estimate following GEC‐1997 methodology (Purohit,

2009).

The rate of recharge is considered to decrease

exponentially with time during a single cycle of

recharge while two cycles of time varying recharge are

approximated by continuous elements described by nth

degree polynomials. Numerical solution of the non‐

linear Boussinesq equation was implemented to

validate the applied linearization. New analytical

solutions of a linearized Boussinesq equation are

presented in this study, developed for the problem of

water table fluctuation in an unconfined aquifer

underlain by semi‐impervious layer in response to

time varying recharge. Numerical solution of the

nonlinear form of the governing equation was used to

validate the applied linearization. It was found that

proper adjustment of the weighted mean of the depth

of saturation can further improve the accuracy of the

solutions of the linearized form of the governing

equation (Teloglou, 2008).

Groundwater is a renewable resource and has to be

protected from contamination. The concept of a zone

of protection for areas containing groundwater has

been developed and adopted in a number of countries.

One such area is Tirupur, (Tamil Nadu, India) which is

an arid region and rapid expansion of the textile

industry has taken place with no associated develop‐

ment of supporting infrastructure or institutional

capacity. Textile production, particularly dyeing and

bleaching is water intensive and generates large

quantities of effluent. One of the most significant

challenges for the Tirupur textile industry today is

water for bleaching and disposal of effluent (Teloglou,

2008).

Overexploitation of groundwater and intensive

irrigation in major canal commands has posed serious

problems for groundwater managers in India.

Depletion of water tables, saltwater encroachment,

drying of aquifers, groundwater pollution, water

logging and salinity, etc. are major consequences of

overexploitation and intensive Irrigation. It has been

reported that in many parts of the country the water

table is declining at the rate of 1–2 m/year (Singh et. al.,

2010). At the same time in some canal commands, the

water table rise is as high as 1 m/year (Singh 2002).

This paper highlights the critical issues and examines

the various schemes related to groundwater

development and management. If depletion of the

groundwater table in some parts of India is a matter of

great concern, rising water tables and salinity in many

canal commands have overshadowed the expected

benefits from the irrigation projects. It is anticipated

that if these two problems are not attended, a stage

may be reached when all regions in the country could

be adversely affected by one of these maladies (Singh,

Groundwater Situation in India: Problems and

Perspective july 21 2010).

The increase in runoff as a result of land‐use change is

used as a measure of the loss of recharge (Fig. 1). It is

important to note that this is a maximum estimate of

the recharge loss, assuming no change in evapotrans‐

piration. In practice, if most of the vegetation cover has

been removed, evapotranspiration should decrease,

and thus part of the increase in runoff will be due to

reduced evapotranspiration rather than recharge loss.

These results are interesting for two reasons. Firstly,

with complete development to commercial use (almost

entirely impervious surfaces) one would expect

groundwater recharge to essentially be cut off, i.e. the

recharge loss should equal the natural recharge rate.

Thus the fact that the method described here predicts a

recharge loss that is very close to natural recharge

rates is a convincing indication that the method

produces realistic results. Secondly, the results provide

strong support for the argument that land‐use change

can have very significant consequences for ground‐

water recharge, and thus for long‐term water supply

for our communities.

FIG. 1 IMPACT OF URBANIZATION ON STORM WATER

RUNOFF RATES AND VOLUMES

The area under each curve represents the total volume


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of runoff, and urbanization typically produces

increased peak discharges and runoff volumes.

Detention basins reduce local flooding by reducing

peak flow rates, but do not reduce the total volume of

runoff. (Adapted from Burke et al. 1988 and Walesh

1989).

For the range of natural recharge rates in the example

area, conversion of woodland to low density

residential uses gives an 11 percent to 30 percent

reduction in groundwater recharge; conversion of

woodland to high density residential uses gives a 52

percent to 100 percent reduction in groundwater

recharge; and conversion of woodland to commercial

uses gives a 94 percent to 100 percent reduction in

groundwater recharge (Harbor, 2007).

Based on three periods of remote sensing data from

the 1960s and the long‐term observed data of

groundwater from the 1980s, the impacts of land use

changes in the groundwater system in the middle

reach of Heihe River Basin in recent three decades are

analyzed by the perspective of groundwater recharge

and discharge system (Wang et al., 2005). This

indicated that with the different intensities of land use

changes, the impacts on the groundwater recharge

were 2.602 X108 m3/a in the former 15 years (1969‐1985)

and 0.218 X108 m3/a in the latter 15 years (1986‐2000),

and the impacts on the groundwater discharge were

2.03 5 X 108 m3/a and 4.91 X 108 m3/a respectively (Pan

et al., 2001). When the groundwater exploitation was

in a reasonable range less than 3.0 X 108 m3/a, the land

use changes could control the changes of regional

groundwater resources. Influenced by the land use

changes and the large‐scale exploitation in the recent

decade, the groundwater resources present apparent

regional differences in Zhangye region. Realizing the

impact of land use changes on groundwater system

and the characteristics of spatial‐temporal variations of

regional groundwater resources would be very

important for reasonably utilizing and managing

water and soil resources (Wang et al., 2005).

Groundwater recharge is affected by land use in (semi)

arid areas. A new application of the chloride‐mass

balance approach has been developed to estimate the

reduction in groundwater recharge following land‐use

change by comparing chloride concentrations below

the root zone and above the base of the chloride

accumulation zone, before and after the land‐use

conversion. Two sites in the Loess Plateau of central

China have been selected for study, resulting in that

groundwater recharge beneath natural sparse small

grass was 100 mm/year, but the conversion to winter

wheat about 100 years ago has reduced groundwater

recharge to 55 mm/year. On the Xifeng Loess Plain, the

conversion from winter wheat, with groundwater

recharge at 33 mm/year, to apple orchard 7 years ago

has led to chloride accumulation to 5 m below land

surface, suggesting the recharge rate has been reduced

(Tianming et al., 2010).

Water balance and groundwater dynamics of a

floodplain catchment in the Northeast German low‐

lands are investigated with consideration of the

variable interactions between the riparian ground‐

water and surface water. Based on experimental and

numerical investigations, evidence is given for

temporally and spatially variable exchange fluxes

between groundwater and surface water, which have

significant impact on the riparian water balance and

groundwater recharge. Although groundwater

contributions from this river stretch represent only 1%

of the annual total discharge within the river its impact

is much higher during low flow conditions in summer

when ca. 30% of the river runoff which is generated in

the catchment is originated by groundwater discharge

from the riparian zone along this river stretch. The

simulation of the floodplain water balance coupled

with groundwater recharge dynamics proved the

significance of the groundwater–surface water

exchange fluxes for the total groundwater recharge of

that area. (Stefan Krause, 2007).

The influence of land use and land use changes on

hydrological processes and process parameters is not

yet well quantified. Therefore, simulating the effects of

land use change on hydrology leads at present to the

results that carry quite a bit of uncertainty. Obvious

effects are that a forest cover will increase the

evapotranspiration, and that urbanization will reduce

evapotranspiration and infiltration and increase

surface runoff. From simulations in this paper with the

LISFLOOD model, no changes in land use and thus

hydrology are found in the Oder catchment between

1975 and 1992. In the Meuse catchment, land use has

changed from 1975 to 1992 such that the flood risk has

become slightly larger. The initial soil moisture storage

capacity just before the flood is reduced by 12 mm

(6%), the peak discharge is increased by 0.2% and

water level is 1 cm higher (Roo et al., 2001).

Land developer usually induces large changes in flood

peak and infiltration properties, thus affecting the

entire hydrological environment of the area. In order

to evaluate such negative effects caused by land‐use

change, it is necessary to estimate the changes in

surface runoff and groundwater recharge rate. The


32

effects of land‐use changes in the parameter values of a

groundwater recharge model were studied and are

presented. The response of groundwater level was

examined at several observation wells for two different

unconfined aquifers consisting of weathered granite.

The spatially calibrated parameters of the

groundwater recharge model were classified in order

to evaluate the effects of land‐use change. It was

shown that the parameter values most affected by

land‐use change were the surface runoff coefficient, F∞,

followed by the shape parameter, (r)1/2. The field

capacity parameter, R0, was also greatly affected. By

defining the land‐use change for these three

parameters the hydrological change can be predicted

(Kenji et al. 2009).

It is important to understand how land use change

impacts groundwater recharge, especially in regions

that are undergoing rapid urbanization and there is

limited surface water. In this study, the hydrological

processes and recharge ability of various land use

types in Guishui River Basin, China (in Beijing

Municipality) were analyzed. The impact of land use

change was investigated based on water balance

modeling, WetSpass and GIS. The results indicate that

groundwater recharge accounts for only 21.16% of the

precipitation, while 72.54% is lost in the form of

evapotranspiration. The annual‐lumped groundwater

recharge rate decreases in the order of cropland,

grassland, urban land, and forest. Land use change has

resulted in a decrease of 4×106 m3 of yearly

groundwater recharge in the study area, with a

spatially averaged rate of 100.48 mm/yr. and 98.41

mm/yr. in 1980 and 2005, respectively (Yun et al. 2011).

High intensity of urbanization is observed in Indian

cities in the last few decades due to the rapidly

growing population and increasing economic activities.

This phenomenon of rapid urbanization is causing

unorganized and unplanned growth in most of the

towns and cities. The ever‐growing population and

urbanization is leading to over‐utilization of the

resources, thus exerting pressure on the limited civic

amenities, which are on the brink of collapse. One of

the immediate fallout is the over‐utilization of water

resources near the cities and emerging urban centers.

We are also facing constraints in choosing suitable

geological sites which can provide necessary resources

and favorable conditions (Ahmad et al. 2008).

Impact on Groundwater Storage

The current global rate of land‐use change is

unprecedented. In the Great Lakes Basin, several large‐

scale land‐use change trends over the last 150 yr have

probably had significant impacts on water cycle fluxes.

In the late 1800s, many of the old‐growth forests in

Michigan and Wisconsin were logged to provide

building materials for the region’s large cities, most

notably Chicago and Detroit. Much of this land was

converted to agricultural use in the early 1900s with

another agricultural expansion in the 1960s that caused

a large loss of wetlands and forests. In the last 30 yr,

many marginal agricultural lands have been converted

to residential and commercial uses because of urban

sprawl. Agricultural decline in this region has also led

to significant afforestation in rural areas. The coupling

of two spatial‐temporal models ‐ a backcast land‐use

change model and a groundwater flow model, to

develop what is called “land‐use legacy maps.” To

quantify how a land‐use legacy map, created from

maps of past land use and groundwater travel times,

differs from a current land‐use map. To show how

these map differences can affect land‐use planning and

watershed management decisions on a variety of

spatial and temporal scales. The approach demon‐

strates that land‐use legacy maps provide a more

accurate representation of the linkage between land

use/cover and current water quality compared to the

current land‐use map. The historical signatures of

land‐use impacts on current water quality should be

considered in land‐use planning and watershed

management (Bryan Pijanowski et al., 2007).

Increase in withdrawal and decrease in recharge of

groundwater due to urbanization influences subsur‐

face flow regimes. The overall objective of this study

was to determine the impact of land development

activities on the subsurface flow regime in the Upper

Roanoke River Watershed (URRW). A regional

groundwater model of the URRW was constructed

using Modular Three‐Dimensional Ground‐Water

Flow Model (MODFLOW) and calibrated for steady‐

state conditions. Then, eight land use management

scenarios were simulated on the Back Creek (BC)

subwatershed to assess the impacts of residential

density, residential location, and land‐cover on

hydraulic head of groundwater and streamflow. The

average recharge output from the Hydrological

Simulation Program, FORTRAN (HSPF) simulation

was used as the direct input to MODFLOW to take

changes in land use into account in the BC watershed.

Development of agriculture and forest areas with low

population density on larger areas (low‐density

scenario), near the middle of the watershed


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(midsection scenario), and with changes all open space

to lawn (lawn scenario) had greatest overall impact on

the BC watershed for both hydraulic head and

streamflow among density, location, and land‐cover

scenarios, respectively. The simulated scenarios

indicated that decreases in both hydraulic head and

streamflow coincided with the increases in impervious

land. The reductions in hydraulic head and streamflow

were restricted to the subwatershed where land use

changes occurred. The urbanization impacts on both

surface and subsurface regimes were very local with

20.8 cm of maximum difference in local hydraulic head

and 0.532% of maximum percent difference in local

streamflow at lawn scenario while average corres‐

ponding values through BC watershed was 4.3 cm and

0.153% (Cho et al., 2008).

Base flow discharge is an important element of the

hydrological cycle that describes the loss of water from

the groundwater compartment to surface waters.

Groundwater discharge is influenced by climate,

watershed, and land use/management conditions.

Forests are an important component in the

stabilization of groundwater discharge and stream

flow. The Pipiripau river basin, a 235 km2 catchment

in central Brazil, has experienced a substantial increase

in land use intensity (mostly agriculture and

pastureland) in the last 40 years. This has contributed

to a significant decrease in the base flow discharge,

responsible for the maintenance of the stream flow

during the dry winter season. To assess the

hydrological and economic benefits of three land

conservation programs in the basin, an empirical

relationship was obtained between the base flow index

and the normalized basin curve‐ number, calibrated

with observed stream flow and precipitation data. The

results indicate that if reforestation and best

management practices are implemented in the basin,

up to 755 x 106 m3/a of additional base flow discharge

would result during the dry season, with additional

revenues up to US$ 1.03 million per year for the water

utility company (Henrique et al., 2011).

In view of increasing demand of water for various

purposes like agricultural, domestic, industrial etc., a

greater emphasis is being laid for a planned and

optimal utilization of water resources. Due to uneven

distribution of rainfall both in time and space, the

surface water resources are unevenly distributed. Also,

increasing intensities of irrigation from surface water

alone may result in alarming rise of water table

creating problems of waterlogging and salinization,

affecting crop growth adversely and rendering large

areas unproductive. Water balance techniques have

been extensively used to make quantitative estimates

of water resources and the impact of manʹs activities

on the hydrologic cycle. On the basis of the water

balance approach, it is possible to make a quantitative

evaluation of water resources and its dynamic

behavior under the influence of manʹs activities. To

understand and evaluate the various recharge and

discharge components of ground water balance

equation and to establish the recharge coefficient with

a view to work out the ground water potential of an

area. Water balance approach, essentially a lumped

model study, is a viable method of establishing the

rainfall recharge coefficient and for evaluating the

methods adopted for the quantification of discharge

and recharge from other sources. For proper

assessment of potential, present use and additional

exploitability of water resources at optimal level, a

water balance study is necessary (Kumar, 1990).

Major changes in land‐use have occurred locally,

regionally and globally over the last century. These

will continue in the future too. The impact of

urbanization on groundwater has a major concern for

the most urban area over the past few decades, and in

particular, to those involved in groundwater quantity

and qualitative studies. The increased impervious area

has been a major factor in contributing to decreased

infiltration, which results in decreasing groundwater

storage. . Effect of land use change is found to be more

on groundwater than surface water. Increased

impervious area due to land use change has been a

major factor in contributing to decreased infiltration.

The ground water storage is depleting due to fact that

the extraction of groundwater to fulfill the demand of

rapidly growth urbanization with constant surface

water available and portion of the water infiltrating for

groundwater storage is reduced due to increase in

imperviousness (Shrestha, 2002).

About 75‐80% of human requirements for water are

fulfilled by groundwater. In recent studies it was

observed that of the use of inorganic fertilizers has

resulted in increasing nitrate and related pollution in

groundwater. The Punjab‐Haryana plains (India) are

one of the most agriculturally productive regions in

the world. The plains are rich in natural resources,

including deep productive soils, adequate water

supply, and favorable climatic conditions for

agriculture resulting in two or more crops per year.

Increased production and productivity that

characterized the green revolution of the 1970s and

1980s came about due to a combination of factors


34

including expansion of irrigated areas by the

development of surface and groundwater resources

and increased use of inputs, such as fertilizers,

herbicides, and pesticides. Since then, water supply

has been threatened due to degradation of water

quality. In order to fulfil the requirements for

agricultural, domestic and industrial purposes, the

dependency on groundwater in Punjab‐Haryana

plains is rapidly increasing. Several questions which

the planners and decision makers are confronted

related to the quantity and quality of groundwater and

how the groundwater resource is affected by the

location of recharge areas, the temporal and spatial

variability of recharge, the inter‐linkage between

groundwater and surface water, existing hydraulic

gradients, and the water table situation, and regional

groundwater flow. Major groundwater resource

problems result from indiscriminate exploitation,

particularly for irrigation, and contaminant inputs

from a variety of sources such as urban runoff,

fertilizers used in agriculture, seepage from con‐

taminated industrial sites, and industrial discharges.

Improved water availability and safe water supply can

be guided by effective public policies, plans, and local

technologies, in addition to political, socio‐economic,

and other factors (Singh R.B., 2001).

Due to the rapid population growth and urbanization

in the City of Calgary, the Elbow River watershed in

southern Alberta covering 1238 km2 has been

subjected to considerable land‐use changes over the

last decade. The impact of land‐use intensification

simulated with a cellular automata (CA) model on the

hydrological processes of the watershed using MIKE‐

SHE, a physically‐based and distributed hydrological

model. MIKE‐SHE was calibrated for the period 1985‐

1990 and validated for the period 2000‐2005.The results

of calibration and validation showed sufficient model

performance. The total water balance error for all

MIKE‐SHE model runs was less than 1% of the total

precipitation. Simulations carried out between 2001

and 2031 showed a 25% increase in urbanization

(corresponding to 5% of the watershed area) in the

watershed which resulted in a 2.6% increase in over‐

land flow (OL), 2.3% reduction in evapotranspiration

(ET), and a 11% increase of combined overland and

base flow into the river flow (Wijesekara et al., 2010).

Developing an approach for simulating and assessing

land use changes and their effects on land use patterns

and hydrological processes at the watershed level is

essential in land use and water resource planning and

management. To provide a novel approach that

combines a land use change model, landscape metrics

and a watershed hydrological model with an analysis

of impacts of future land use scenarios on land use

pattern and hydrology. The proposed models were

applied to assess the impacts of different land use

scenarios that include various spatial and non‐spatial

policies in the Wu‐Tu watershed in northern Taiwan.

The results revealed that future land use patterns

differed between spatial policies. Scenarios with low

land use demand for land use conversion policies did

not lead to significantly different land use patterns.

Moreover, patterns of future agricultural land patches

obviously differed among agricultural land conversion

policies. The stream flow, runoff and groundwater

discharge were successfully simulated using a lumped

hydrological model that can assess the impact of land

use change in the watershed. The variability and

magnitude of future hydrological components were

significantly and cumulatively influenced by land use

changes during the simulation period, particularly

runoff and groundwater discharge (Yu‐Pin et al., 2007).

Desertification in arid, semi‐arid, and dry sub‐humid

regions is one of the major environmental issues of the

21st century and has affected food security and

environmental quality worldwide for centuries. As a

strongly cold‐resistant and drought‐resistant tree

species, MP is naturally distributed in the

Daxinganling Mountains and the Hulunbeier Sandy

Plain of China and in parts of Russia and Mongolia.

Since the Three‐North Shelter Forest Program was

launched in 1978, more than 3.0×105 ha of Mongolian

pine (Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica, MP) plantations

have been introduced to control erosion in sandy areas.

To clarify the relationships between land use changes,

the decrease in the groundwater table, and the decline

of MP plantations, land use changes from 1953 to 2009

were explored using remote sensing data, and the

levels of water consumption associated with different

types of land use were estimated using a modified

CROPWAT model. The results showed that during the

period 1953–2009, the area of bare sandy land in the

study region sharply decreased by 89.7%. Agricultural

land and broadleaved forests were the two major

consumers of water resources, accounting for more

than 40.0 and 20.0% of the total water consumption,

respectively. MP plantations, in contrast, accounted for

only about 12.0% of the total water consumption

(Zheng et al., 2012).

Impact on Groundwater Quality

The potential and quality of groundwater, is an


35

economic resource and essential component of human

life. However, the deterioration in major cities and

urban centers due to population explosion,

urbanization and industrialization results in large

volume of effluent discharge that may affect the

groundwater quality since the effluent from discharges

or run‐off from solid waste disposal sites generally

moves vertically downwards. Land use in geographic

areas that replenish groundwater and surface water

resources is increasingly recognized as an important

factor affecting water quality and, consequently, the

health of human and ecological communities sustained

by these resources. Study is to relate the groundwater

quality to land use types in Lagos State. Fourteen

samples were collected from hand dug wells and

boreholes, seven each from rural and urban land uses

in the study area. Ten parameters (pH, electrical

conductivity, total dissolved solids, total hardness,

calcium, magnesium, chloride, nitrate and sulfate)

were determined using standard methods. The

resulting water quality indices revealed that 58.09% of

the samples were rated very poor while 21.73%, 9.08%

and 11.1% were rated poor, good and excellent,

respectively in rural land use. The analysis of samples

drawn from urban land use revealed that 76.55% of the

water was unfit for drinking while 14.4%, 6.42% and

2.63% were found to be very poor, good and excellent,

respectively. pH, total dissolved solids, chloride, total

hardness and nitrate were beyond the permissible

limits for urban land use while, pH, total hardness and

nitrate were above permissible limits for rural land use

(Balogun et al., 2012).

Contamination through septic tanks and effluents of

the urban groundwater used by local population for

agricultural practices and domestic consumption has

led water authorities, stakeholders and researchers to

develop strategies for water resource management. In

this respect a multi‐disciplinary approach which

combines Remote Sensing, GIS, hydrogeological and

sociological techniques focusing on water quality

degradation and devastating urban floods were

developed to provide material for future emergency

planning and hazard mitigation in the densely

populated area in the Dakar suburb. Approach

developed is useful for development of regional

groundwater protection plans, policy analysis tools

and pollution source control. The effective awareness

of the local population and stakeholders can permit to

implement strategies to ensure properly conceived tool

for managing this valuable resource in urban

environment (Faye et al., 2008).

Undoubtedly it is clear and evident that land and

water, an important life supporting systems are under

intense pressure due to natural factors and human

induced accelerating factors. Rapidly increasing

population, over exploitation of groundwater

resources, environmentally unsound infrastructural

development and inadequate management practices

are disturbing, damaging and degrading the natural

resources especially the groundwater regime. The

annual replenisable ground water recharge in the

shallow aquifers both hard rock and sedimentary

rocks are heterogeneous in nature and its storage

capacity is inadequate to meet the present tune of

demand for domestic, industrial and institutional

needs. But, it is necessitated to supply water

considering the available water resources. Geomatics is

today widely used in land use change detection and

management of water resources. The technology has

found to be very effective in identification of land use

changes occurred over a period of time with temporal

data. Explosive growth of urbanisation, increasing

demand of water for industries and IT parks have

resulted in reduction of water bodies and land use in

southern sub urban area of Chennai City. Detection of

land use changes brings out aquifer hazards in the

study area. The present paper summarizes the

aggravating groundwater problem and gives solution

through geomatics by integrating drainage, geology,

geomorphology, lineament, soil, water level, rainfall

and land use for the periods 1994, 2004 and 2008. By

synthesizing the satellite data and hydrogeological

information, changes in land use category, uprising

aquifer hazards, unaccountable groundwater

extraction surpassing over unplanned growth of

urbanization which have trigged the hydrogeological

imbalance, lowering of water level have been

identified (Jaganathan et al., 2010).

A study on the impact of land use/cover change on

shallow groundwater quality in the oasis over the

Sangong River Basin, Xinjiang, China is carried out by

applying RS, GIS and geostatistical analysis. The data

used in this study include the TM images in 1987, ETM

images in 2004 and test data of groundwater quality

sampled from 77 wells in 2004.the results indicate that

the hydro‐chemical characteristics in alluvial‐diluvial

fans in the upper reaches of the river are

predominantly represented by NO3‐‐ SO42‐ Ca‐ Mg, with

showing the mineralization of groundwater generally

lower than 800 mg/l. The nitrate content in

groundwater is high, its average value is 27.37 mg/L,

and groundwater is polluted by nitrate in some areas.


36

The areas with high nitrate content in groundwater,

like farmland, land for construction, industry and

mining, have been undergoing a long period of land

resource exploitation and utilization. The hydro

chemical type is SO42‐ CL‐ HCO3‐ Ca‐ Na‐ , K‐ Mg over

the alluvial plain in the lower reaches of the river, with

showing the mineralization of groundwater usually

higher than 1000 mg/l. Groundwater salinity is high in

some areas, and it is mainly composed of nitrate and

chloride (Jinfeng & Quanjun, 2009).

Groundwater is the sole source of water for drinking,

irrigation, and industrial uses in many arid and semi‐

arid regions of the world. Presence of hard rock

aquifers in such regions can be especially problematic

since these aquifer systems have low storage and

yields, as well as a greater vulnerability to pollutants

through fissure and fracture flows. Groundwater can

be contaminated by natural as well as anthropogenic

influences. Residential, municipal, commercial, industrial,

and agricultural activities can all affect groundwater

quality. Groundwater contamination results in poor

drinking water quality, loss of water supply, high

cleanup costs, high costs for alternative water supplies,

and/or potential health problems. In India, depen‐

dence on groundwater has increased tremendously in

recent years. By studying the impact of this rapid

urbanization and overall land‐use transition; a

groundwater quality index (GQI) was prepared within

a geographical information system (GIS). The GQI

integrates the different water quality parameters to

give a final index value that can be used for spatial‐

temporal comparisons. The land‐use transitions were

closely monitored from 2003 to 2008 using mul‐

tispectral satellite images. The land‐use pattern has

changed drastically with an increase in the built‐up

area at the expense of other land uses. The analysis

reveals a rapid deterioration of groundwater quality

related mainly to the increase in built‐up land with

unsewered sanitation and poultry farms. Seasonal

variability of the groundwater quality was also assessed.

Mean GQI decreased from 84.16 to 83.26 over a period

of 5 years from 2003 to 2008, while seasonal variability

of water quality increased (Khan et al., 2010).

Groundwater has three major roles in our environment:

providing the base flow that keeps most rivers flowing

all year long, maintaining good river water quality by

diluting sewage and other effluents, and as an

excellent source of water supply, providing over 75

per cent of the potable supply in some regions.

Groundwater is intimately connected with the

landscape and land use that it underlies, and most of

the landscape and is vulnerable to the anthropogenic

activities on the land surface above. Land use affects

groundwater resources through changes in recharge

and by changing demands for water. Inappropriate

land use, particularly poor land management, causes

chronic groundwater quality problems. Acute

groundwater quality problems are common and arise

from unsuitable land use and control, notably through

point sources of hazardous chemicals. Current land

use instruments have only been designed to address

quality issues in groundwater and do not consider

recharge. These instruments have been largely

ineffective in protecting groundwater from diffuse

pollution for several reasons including fragmentation,

their general absence of teeth, and their lack of

integration into the land use planning system. This

paper argues for a more radical approach which

would zone land according to its overall vulnerability

and resilience to anthropogenic and climatic influence

in order to sustainably support the ecosystem services

it can deliver. Land use would be matched with the

vulnerability of the soil, with geology and water, and

with the whole ecosystem. The Water Framework

Directive offers a mechanism to do this, but there is no

evidence of enough political will to tackle the long‐

term conflicts between land use and groundwater

(Lerner & Harris, 2009).

Land‐use change is currently very rapid and its

consequences are more evident in tropical regions, in

part because human population growth there is the

most rapid of all geographical regions. In India, nearly

70% of the population is directly dependent on

agriculture for sustenance. Of the total 320 Mha land

area, nearly 180 Mha is cultivable. From 1970 to 2000,

non‐agricultural land use in India expanded from 16.2

to 26 Mha, an increase of about 60%. This study

focuses on the change in groundwater quality due to

land‐use change in the Sirkazhi region (11°14ʹN,

79°44ʹE) of the Cauvery Delta in India. Groundwater

samples were collected from 22 locations for a one year

Period to evaluate the spatial and temporal variability

in water quality. The heterogeneous distribution of

elements in the Sirkazhi region of the Cauvery Delta,

India is mostly due to indiscriminate use of

groundwater in aquaculture farms, which causes

groundwater levels to decline and salinization of

freshwater aquifers. The land‐use change associated

with intensive aquaculture activities results in

groundwater abstraction and pollution due to effluent

discharge. Pollution and land‐use change is of concern


37

and because the environment, development, and

public health are interlinked, it is essential to adopt

sustainable utilization of the available water resources

(Ramesh, 2001).

Humans have exerted large‐scale changes on the

terrestrial biosphere, primarily through agriculture;

however, the impacts of such changes on the

hydrologic cycle are poorly understood. The purpose

was to test the hypothesis that the conversion of

natural rangeland ecosystems to agricultural eco‐

systems impacts the subsurface portion of the

hydrologic cycle by changing groundwater recharge

and flushing salts to underlying aquifers. The

hypothesis was examined through point and areal

studies investigating the effects of land use/land cover

(LU/LC) changes on groundwater recharge and solute

transport in the Amargosa Desert (AD) in Nevada and

in the High Plains (HP) in Texas, US. Studies use the

fact that matric (pore‐water‐pressure) potential and

environmental‐tracer profiles in thick unsaturated

zones archive past changes in recharging fluxes.

Results show that recharge is related to LU/LC as

follows: discharge through evapotranspiration (i.e., no

recharge; upward fluxes < 0.1 mmyr‐1) in natural

rangeland ecosystems (low matric potentials; high

chloride and nitrate concentrations); moderate‐to‐high

recharge in irrigated agricultural ecosystems (high

matric potentials; low to moderate chloride and nitrate

concentrations) (AD recharge: ~ 130–640 mmyr‐1); and

moderate recharge in non‐irrigated (dry‐land)

agricultural ecosystems (high matric potentials; low

chloride and nitrate concentrations, and increasing

groundwater levels) (HP recharge: ~ 9–32 mmyr‐1)

(Scanlon et al., 2005).

Groundwater contamination, particularly from nitrate

(NO3‐), is an emerging global problem with

consequences for both human and ecosystem health.

Agricultural activities are considered the primary

anthropogenic source of nitrogen contamination in

aquatic ecosystems Elevated NO3‐ levels in streams,

wetlands, lakes, and coastal waters pose ecological

problems such as loss of biodiversity, increased

growth of aquatic vegetation, and eutrophication

which decrease aquatic ecosystem health and degrade

suitable habitat for fishes and aquatic invertebrates. To

examine groundwater chemistry over a seven year

period beginning in June 2001 to September 2008 in

Radium, Riverview, Bovine, and Hog Parlor springs

that discharge into the lower Flint River between

Albany and Bainbridge, Georgia. The Radium Spring

spring shed includes substantial urbanized land cover;

whereas, the other three springs are recharged in areas

dominated by agriculture. Significantly lower nitrate

(NO3‐) concentrations in Radium spring were

attributed to differences in land use and lower rates of

fertilizer application (p < 0.05). Long‐term trends

demonstrated a statistically significant increase (p <

0.05) in groundwater NO3‐ concentrations for all four

springs with net increases ranging from 0.6 to 2.0 mg/L.

Based on isotope analysis for δ15N‐NO3‐ of 10 springs

from the Upper Floridan aquifer, multiple sources of

NO3‐ contamination were evident and may differ

depending on landuse. This study demonstrates the

importance of long‐term datasets for evaluating the

effects of anthropogenic activities on regional

groundwater quality (Stephanie et al., 2009).

Ecological environments such as water or soil are very

fragile and, in karstic areas, the environment can be

adversely affected due to land use or cover changes

caused by rapid economic growth and fast population

increase. Changes in hydrological balances are not

unique to karstic regions, but karstic regions are more

sensitive than others. The impact of land‐use change

on the quality of groundwater in the Xiaotjiang

watershed, China was assessed for the period 1982–

2004. Groundwater samples were collected from 30

monitoring points across the watershed, and were

representative of the various changes, determined by

remote sensing and geographical information systems.

The results indicated that 610 km2 (60% of the total

watershed area) were subject to land‐use change

during the period. The most important changes were

the conversion of 135 km2 of forested land to cultivated

land, and 211 km2 of unused land to cultivated land.

The main impact was ascribed to diffuse pollution

from fertilizers applied to newly cultivated land, and

from building development (Yongjun et al., 2008).

Conclusions

In the present study, a comprehensive review on the

research works in the area of impact of land use

change on groundwater has been carried out. The

main findings of the study are as follows:

Hydrologic effects of land change can be

substantial and have both positive and negative

consequences for humans at a variety of

temporal and spatial scales.

Water demand is forecast to increase world‐

wide, including in those areas already

experiencing high water‐stress. Certain land

use and land cover changes, some of which are


38

occurring at an accelerating rate, and have

distinctly negative impacts on water resources.

The impact of urbanization on groundwater

has a major concern over past few decades, and

in particular, for those involved in ground‐

water quantity and qualitative studies.

Increment in impervious area due to

urbanization results in decreased infiltration,

and finally affecting the groundwater storage.

Existing literature demonstrated that progress

has been made in identifying the potential

consequences of various land changes and

groundwater management, though there

remains a clear need to improve the tools

available to water resource planners to predict

and manage the specific impacts of land change

on Groundwater.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors thankfully acknowledges all authors and

publishers for providing all the necessary information

and the research done by them which has made the

study achievable.

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