The Psychology of the Brain and Behavior: Their Mutual Impact

Dr. Ibrahim Abdelrahim Ibrahim Humaida / Associate Professor of Psychology

Department of Psychology, Islamic University, Omdurman, Sudan

Email address

ibrahimhumaida0@gmail.com

Abstract

The main purpose of this article is to elaborate on the mutual impact of both brain and behavior. To fulfill this aim, a relevant literature has been reviewed, and also there was certain methodology adopted , in addition to all the theoretical assumptions were verified . It is obvious that millions of people are affected by brain disturbances such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's , and Epilepsy. These serious injuries indicate the significance of the biological foundation of human behavior , therefore, Biopsychology is a branch of Psychology that explains how the brain influences our behavior. This field of psychology is often referred to by a variety of names such as: Biopsychology, Physiological Psychology, Behavioral Neuroscience, and Psychobiology. Bio psychologists are, therefore, concerned with how these biological processes interact with emotion , cognition, and other mental processes, in addition to give a scientific interpretation of the nature of the relationship between brain and behavior. This overlapping effect and interaction lead to a complicated human behavior. Conclusion: This paper highlights the fact that both the Brain and behavior are considered foundation of Biological psychology and origin of behavior and mental processes.

Key words: Psychology, Brain, human behavior, biopsychology .

1. Introduction

Understanding the brain is of vital importance to psychologists because of its influence over behavior and mental states.

Psychology is commonly defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes. It has existed since the late 19th century, with 1879 often being given as a starting date because that was when the first psychological research lab was founded. Many schools of thought within the field have come and gone since then; some, like behaviorism, have persisted and evolved if they stood up to scientific study; others, like phrenology, have faded as they have lost credibility.

Neuroscience shows that activity in the brain is intimately intertwined with behavior and mental processes. These foundations can better maintain brain health and its normal function affecting our behavior in all domains of life. It is well-understood that brain neurons are responsible for our all actions and activities, any damage to the brain can affect behavior causing abnormal patterns of behavior .

1.1.Objectives

1-To understand the nature of relationship between the brain and behavior.

2-To increase knowledge concerning the work of mental processes.

3-To highlight the significance of biopsychology as a scientific discipline.

4-To provide the investigators with the different theories and assumptions regarding the psychology of the brain.

1.2 .Definition of Terms

i. Psychology: is the scientific study of the mind and human behavior. [1] .

ii. Brain: is the central organ of the human nervous system, and with the spinal cord makes up the central nervous system.The brain consists of the cerebrum, the brain stem, and the cerebellum. [2] .

Figure 1. shows the Brain and its parts .

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iii. Behavior: the way in which a person behaves in response to a particular situation or stimulus. [3] .

2.Literature Review

2.1.The Brain

Neuroscience is a relatively new field, but the more research that is done, the more it appears that much of human behavior and mental processes ,are the key interests for psychological study and are intimately intertwined with activity in the brain. Understanding the brain is important no matter what type of psychology you will be involved with, because its effects cover all human behavior.

Brain lesions: Though brain damage is deeply unfortunate, it can help researchers to understand more about the function of different parts of the brain. This image shows the location of a brain lesion on the left hemisphere which caused the patients to experience partial paralysis on their right parts of body. [4].

Studying damaged brains is one of the most useful ways to increase our understanding of the links between the brain and behavior. A lesion is a general term for any abnormality in tissue, usually caused by disease or trauma. Lesions are important to the study of brain and behavior because if a psychologist sees a person with a partially damaged brain and then sees changes in that person’s behavior, those behavioral changes can often be attributed to the brain damage. For example, damage to a part of the brain called Boca's area causes patients to lose the ability to speak; knowing this, we can infer that part of the brain is in some way related to language production. This gives us more information about neuroanatomy and also about the influence the brain has on behavior. [5].

Figure 2. shows the Brain lesions .

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2.2 .Neurology

It is the study and characterization of the behavioral modifications that follow a neurological trauma or condition.[1] It is both an experimental and clinical field of psychology that aims to understand how behavior and cognition are influenced by brain functioning and is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of behavioral and cognitive effects of neurological disorders. Whereas classical neurology focuses on the pathology of the nervous system and classical psychology is largely divorced from it, neuropsychology seeks to discover how the brain connects with the mind through the study of neurological patients. It thus shares concepts and concerns with neuropsychiatry and with behavioral neurology in general. The term neuropsychology has been applied to brain lesion studies in humans and animals. It has also been applied in efforts to record electrical activity from individual cells (or groups of cells) in higher primates (including some studies of human patients). [6] .

In practice, neuropsychologists tend to work in research settings (universities, laboratories or research institutions), clinical areas (medical hospitals or rehabilitation settings, often involved in assessing or treating patients with neuropsychological problems), or forensic fields or industry (often as clinical-trial consultants where central nervous system (CNS) function is a concern). [7].

Neuropsychology is a relatively new discipline within the field of psychology. The first textbook defining the field, Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology, was initially published by Bryan Kolb, and in 1980,however, the history of its development can be traced back to the Third Dynasty in ancient Egyptian, perhaps even earlier, there was much debate as to when societies started considering the functions of different organs. For many centuries, the brain was thought useless and was often discarded during burial processes and autopsies. As the field of medicine developed its understanding of human anatomy and physiology, different theories were developed as to why the body functioned the way it did. Many times, bodily functions were approached from a religious point of view and abnormalities were blamed on bad spirits and the gods. The brain has not always been considered the center of the functioning body. It has taken hundreds of years to develop our understanding of the brain and how it affects our behaviors. [8].

2.3 .Development of psychology of the brain studies

In ancient time, writings on medicine date from the time of the early Greek. They took a more scientific approach to medicine and disease, describing the brain, trauma, abnormalities, and remedies for reference for future physicians. despite this, they saw the heart not the brain as the center of the soul. [9] .

In Aristotle's view, senses are stored in the heart of perception, linked by ''laws of association'' (similarity, contrast, and contiguity). Aristotle reinforced this focus on the heart which originated in Greece. He believed the heart to be in control of mental processes, and looked on the brain, due to its inert nature, as a mechanism for cooling the heat generated by the heart. He drew his conclusions based on the empirical study of animals. He found that while their brains were cold to the touch and that such contact did not trigger any movements, the heart was warm and active, accelerating and slowing dependent on mood. Such beliefs were upheld by many for years to come, persisting through the Middle Ages and the ''Renaissance'' period until they began to falter in the 17th Century due to further research. The influence of Aristotle in the development of neuropsychology is evident within language used in modern day, since we "follow our hearts" and "learn by the heart". [10] .

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Hippocrates looked upon the brain as the seat of the soul. He drew a connection between the brain and behaviors of the body saying "The brain exercises the greatest power in the man".[10] Apart from moving the focus from the heart as the "essence of the soul" to the brain, Hippocrates did not go into much detail about its actual functioning. However, by switching the attention of the medical community to the brain, the doors were opened to a more scientific discovery of the organ responsible for our behaviors. For years to come, scientists were inspired to explore the functions of the body and to find concrete explanations for both normal and abnormal behaviors. Scientific discovery led them to believe that there were natural and organically occurring reasons to explain various functions of the body, and it could all be traced back to the brain. Over the years, science would continue to expand and the mysteries of the world would begin to make sense, or at least be looked at in a different way. Hippocrates introduced man to the concept of

the mind – which was widely seen as a separate function apart from the actual brain organ. [11] .

French philosopher René Descartes expanded upon this idea and is most widely known by his work on the mind-body relationship. Often, Descartes' ideas were looked upon as overly philosophical and lacking in sufficient scientific background. Descartes focused much of his anatomical experimentation on the brain, paying specific attention to the pineal gland , which he argued was the actual "essence of the soul". Still deeply rooted in a spiritual outlook towards the scientific world, the body was said to be mortal, and the soul immortal. The pineal gland was then thought to be the very place at which the mind would interact with the mortal and machine-like body. At the time, Descartes was convinced the mind had control over the behaviors of the body (controlling the man) – but also that the body could have influence over the mind, which is referred to as dualism. [12] .

This idea that the mind essentially had control over the body, but man's body could resist or even influence other behaviors was a major turning point in the way many physiologists would look at the brain. The capabilities of the mind were observed to do much more than simply react, but also to be rational and function in organized, thoughtful ways and much more complex than he thought the animal world to be. These ideas, although disregarded by many and cast aside for years led the medical community to expand their own ideas of the brain and begin to understand in new ways just how intricate the workings of the brain really were, and the complete effects it had on daily life, as well, which treatments would be the most beneficial to helping those people living with a dysfunctional mind. The mind-body problem, spurred by René Descartes, continues to this day with many philosophical arguments both for and against his ideas. However controversial they were and remain today, the fresh and well-thought-out perspective Descartes presented has had long-lasting effects on the various disciplines of medicine, psychology and much more, especially in putting an emphasis on separating the mind from the body in order to explain observable behaviors. [13].

It was in the mid-17th century that another major contributor to the field of neuropsychology emerged. Thomas Willis studied at Oxford University and took a physiological approach to the brain and behavior. It was Willis who coined the words 'hemisphere' and 'lobe' when referring to the brain He was one of the earliest to use the words 'neurology' and 'psychology'. Rejecting the idea that humans were the only beings capable of rational thought, Willis looked at specialized structures of the brain. He theorized that higher structures accounted for complex functions, whereas lower structures were responsible for functions similar to those seen in other animals, consisting mostly of reactions and automatic responses. He was particularly interested in people who suffered from manic disorders and hysteria. His research constituted some of the first times that psychiatry and neurology came together to study individuals.

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Through his in-depth study of the brain and behavior, Willis concluded that automated responses such as breathing, heartbeats and other various motor activities were carried out within the lower region of the brain. Although much of his work has been made obsolete, his ideas presented the brain as more complex than previously imagined, and led the way for future pioneers to understand and build upon his theories, especially when it came to looking at disorders and dysfunctions in the brain. [14, 15] .

Neurologist and physiologist Franz Joseph Gall made major progress in understanding the brain. He theorized that personality was directly related to features and structures within the brain. However, Gall's major contribution within the field of neuroscience is his invention of phrenology. This new discipline looked at the brain as an organ of the mind, where the shape of the skull could ultimately determine one's intelligence and personality. This theory was like many circulating at the time, as many scientists were taking into account physical features of the face and body, head size, anatomical structure, and levels of intelligence; only Gall looked primarily at the brain. There was much debate over the validity of Gall's claims however, because he was often found to be wrong in his predictions. He was once sent a cast of René Descartes' skull, and through his method of phrenology claimed the subject must have had a limited capacity for reasoning and higher cognition. As controversial and false as many of Gall's claims were, his contributions to understanding cortical regions of the brain and localized activity continued to advance understanding of the brain, personality, and behavior. His work is considered crucial to having laid a firm

foundation in the field of neuropsychology, which would flourish over the next few decades. [16] . 

Towards the late 19th century, the belief that the size of ones skull could determine their level of intelligence was discarded as science and medicine moved forward. A physician by the name of Jean Baptiste expanded upon the ideas of Gall and took a closer look at the idea of distinct cortical regions of the brain each having their own independent function. Baptiste was specifically interested in speech and wrote many publications on the anterior region of the brain being responsible for carrying out the act of one's speech, a discovery that had stemmed from the research of Gall. He was also one of the first to use larger samples for research although it took many years for that method to be accepted. By looking at over a hundred different case studies, Bouillaud came to discover that it was through different areas of the brain that speech is completed and understood. By observing people with brain damage, his theory was made more concrete. Bouillaud, along with many other pioneers of the time made great advances within the field of neurology, especially when it came to localization of function. There are many arguable debates as to who deserves the most credit for such discoveries,[18] and often, people remain unmentioned, but Paul Broca is perhaps one of the most famous and well known contributors to neuropsychology –

often referred to as "the father" of the discipline. [17] .

Inspired by the advances being made in the area of localized function within the brain, Paul Broca committed much of his study to the phenomena of how speech is understood and produced. Through his study, it was discovered and expanded upon that we articulate via the left hemisphere. Broca's observations and methods are widely considered to be where neuropsychology really takes form as a recognizable and respected discipline. Armed with the understanding that specific, independent areas of the brain are responsible for articulation and understanding of speech, the brains abilities were finally being acknowledged as the complex and highly intricate organ that it is. Broca was essentially the first to fully break away from the ideas of phrenology and delve deeper into a more scientific and psychological view of the brain. [18, 19] .

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Lashley's works and theories that follow are summarized in his book ''Brain Mechanisms and Intelligence''.[20] Lashley's theory of the Engram was the driving force for much of his research. An engram was believed to be a part of the brain where a specific memory was stored. He continued to use the training/ablation method that Franz had taught him. He would train a rat to learn a maze and then use systematic lesions and removed sections of cortical tissue to see if the rat forgot what it had learned .

Through his research with the rats, he learned that forgetting was dependent on the amount of tissue removed and not where it was removed from. He called this mass action and he believed that it was a general rule that governed how brain tissue would respond, independent of the type of learning. But we know now that mass action was true for these rats, because learning to run a maze is known as complex learning and it requires multiple cortical areas, so cutting into individual parts alone will not erase the memory from the rats' brains, but taking large sections removes multiple cortical areas at one time and so they can forget .

Lashley also discovered that a portion of a functional area could carry out the role of the entire area, even when the rest of the area has been removed. He called this phenomenon equipotentiality. We know now that he was seeing evidence of plasticity in the brain. The brain has the spectacular ability for certain areas to take over the functions of other areas if those areas should fail or be removed. [20] .

2.4 .Approaches to study the link between the brain and psychological function

Experimental neuropsychology is an approach that uses methods from experimental psychology to uncover the relationship between the nervous system and cognitive function. The majority of work involves studying healthy humans in a laboratory setting, although a minority of researchers may conduct animal experiments. Human work in this area often takes advantage of specific features of our nervous system (for example that visual information presented to a specific visual field is preferentially processed by the cortical hemisphere on the opposite side) to make links between neuroanatomical and psychological function. [21] .

clinical neuropsychologyExperimental neuropsychology is the application of knowledge to the assessment (see neuropsychological test and neuropsychological assessment), management, and rehabilitation of people who have suffered illness or injury (particularly to the brain) which has caused neurocognitive problems. In particular they bring a psychological viewpoint to treatment, to understand how such illness and injury may affect and be affected by psychological factors. They also can offer an opinion as to whether a person is demonstrating difficulties due to brain pathology or as a consequence of an emotional or another (potentially) reversible cause or both. For example, a test might show that both patients X and Y are unable to name items that they have been previously exposed to within the past 20 minutes (indicating possible dementia). If patient Y can name some of them with further prompting (e.g. given a categorical clue such as being told that the item they could not name is a fruit), this allows a more specific diagnosis than simply dementia (Y appears to have the vascular type which is due to brain pathology but is usually at least somewhat reversible). Clinical neuropsychologists often work in hospital settings in an interdisciplinary medical team; others work in private practice and may provide expert input into medico-legal proceedings. [22, 23] .

Cognitive neuropsychology is a relatively new development and has emerged as a distillation of the complementary approaches of both experimental and clinical neuropsychology. It seeks to understand the

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mind and brain by studying people who have suffered brain injury or neurological illness. One model of neuropsychological functioning is known as functional localization. This is based on the principle that if a specific cognitive problem can be found after an injury to a specific area of the brain, it is possible that this part of the brain is in some way involved. However, there may be reason to believe that the link between mental functions and neural regions is not so simple. An alternative model of the link between mind and brain, such as parallel processing, may have more explanatory power for the workings and dysfunction of the human brain. Yet another approach investigates how the pattern of errors produced by brain-damaged individuals can constrain our understanding of mental representations and processes without reference to the underlying neural structure. A more recent but related approach is cognitive neuropsychiatry which seeks to understand the normal function of mind and brain by studying psychiatric or mental illness. [24, 25] .

Connectionism is the use of artificial neural networks to model specific cognitive processes using what are considered to be simplified but plausible models of how neurons operate. Once trained to perform a specific cognitive task these networks are often damaged or 'lesioned' to simulate brain injury or impairment in an attempt to understand and compare the results to the effects of brain injury

in humans. [26, 27] .

Functional neuroimaging uses specific neuroimaging technologies to take readings from the brain, usually when a person is doing a particular task, in an attempt to understand how the activation of particular brain areas is related to the task. In particular, the growth of methodologies to employ cognitive testing within established functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) techniques to study brain-behavior relations is having a notable influence on neuropsychological research. [28,29] .

In practice these approaches are not mutually exclusive and most neuropsychologists select the best approach or approaches for the task to be completed. [30].

2.5 .The psychology of behavior

There is an argument that behavior results from environmental influences, however, in reality human behavior is rather complicated. It is most likely that our behavior result from complex interplay between our genetic make-up, brain functioning , and the economic , social and psychological environments in

which we live. [31, 32].

Human behavior is a response of individuals to internal and external stimuli and different behaviors are deemed to be either acceptable or unacceptable. The acceptability of behavior depends largely on social

norms and is regulated by various means of socialization. [33, 34].

Behavior changes throughout an individual's life passing through different stages of life, such as adolescence, parenthood and retirement. Human behavior is shaped by psychological traits . For example, extraverted people are more likely to introverted people to participate in social activities like parties. [35].

3.Methods and Tools

1 -Standardized neuropsychological tests 

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These tasks have been designed so the performance on the task can be linked to specific neurocognitive processes. These tests are typically standardized, meaning that they have been administered to a specific group (or groups) of individuals before being used in individual clinical cases. The data resulting from standardization are known as normative data. After these data have been collected and analyzed, they are used as the comparative standard against which individual performances can be compared. Examples of neuropsychological tests include: the Wechsler Memory Scale (WMS), the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), Boston Naming Test, the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, the Benton Visual Retention Test, and the Controlled Oral Word Association. [36, 37].

2 -Brain scanning 

The use of brain scanning to investigate the structure or function of the brain is common, either as simply a way of better assessing brain injury with high resolution pictures, or by examining the relative activations of different brain areas. Such technologies may include fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging) and positron emission tomography (PET), which yields data related to functioning, as well as MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) and computed tomography (CT), which yields structural data. [38, 39].

3-Global Brain Project 

Brain models based on mouse and monkey have been developed based on theoretical neuroscience involving working memory and attention, while mapping brain activity based on time constants validated by measurements of neuronal activity in various layers of the brain. These methods also map to decision

states of behavior in simple tasks that involve binary outcomes. [40, 41].

Electrophysiology4 -

The use of electrophysiological measures designed to measure the activation of the brain by measuring the electrical or magnetic field produced by the nervous system. This may include

electroencephalography (EEG) or magneto-encephalography (MEG). [42, 43].

5 -Experimental tasks 

The use of designed experimental tasks, often controlled by computer and typically measuring reaction time and accuracy on a particular tasks thought to be related to a specific neurocognitive process. An example of this is the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery (CANTAB) or CNS Vital Signs (CNSVS). [44].

Researchers have mapped to neural activity in the brain through brain scan or MRI. Applications based on Neuropsychology are being used to influence behavior design and habit formation. An example of such a product is a mobile App for children that has been shown in randomized and controlled studies to

influence dietary preferences among children. [45].

4 -Results

1.It is demonstrated that our brain can undergo changes due to the environment, therefore, influencing future behaviors.

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2.Behavior serves two purposes:(1) to get something or (2) to avoid something.

3 .All behavior is learned.

4 .Behavior is an action that is observable and measurable.

5 .Behavior has three components: antecedents , beliefs and consequences.

5 -Discussion

Behavioral psychologists have recently attempted to link and find reciprocal effect between brain and

human behavior, focusing on underlying processes that play a significant role in how we behave. They

found that all patterns of behavior , whether normal or abnormal, can be affected by the central nervous

system(CNS) including the brain and the spinal cord, the autonomic nervous system (ANS) , and the

peripheral nervous system (PNS) as well.

Recent research work on the brain and behavior, has highlighted the brain disorders and how can be

prevented and cured, based on tremendous experimental studies using naturalistic observation and case

study .

6 -Conclusion

The nature of relationship between the brain and behavior is rather complicated, therefore, to provide a

better understanding and interpretation as far as the psychology brain and behavior are concerned. In this

connection, the glandular system as neurotransmitter is also concerned, owing to its effect on human

behavior. Furthermore, psychologists should focus on the observable behavior which can be measured in

normal individuals, and also behavior of patients suffering from neurological disorders should be

considered. Consequently, people with brain injury has provided insight into the function of each part of

the brain .

7 -Recommendations and Suggestions

1.To keen on more scientific investigation regarding the brain and behavior.

2.To highlight the assumptions conducted by the researchers over centuries.

3.To focus on experimental studies concerning complicated patterns of behavior.

4.To carry out research that links abnormal behavior with brain injury.

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5.To examine the contribution of early psychobiological studies on behavior.

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