iii durability of self-compacting concrete with...

iii

DURABILITY OF SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE WITH COAL BOTTOM

ASH AS SAND REPLACEMENT MATERIAL UNDER AGGRESSIVE

ENVIRONMENT

AHMAD FARHAN BIN HAMZAH

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy (Civil Engineering)

Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering

Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia

SEPTEMBER 2017

v

Special dedication to the memory of

Allahyarham Muhammad Faiz Hamzah.

May ALLAH bless his soul and forgiveness.

Al-Fatihah

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

In the name of Allah S.W.T., most gracious and most merciful, with His

permission, Alhamdulillah this dissertation has been completed. Praise to Prophet

Muhammad S.A.W of His companions and to those on the path as what He preached

upon, may Allah the Almighty keep us in His blessing and tenders.

First and foremost, I would like to convey my highest gratitude to my

supervisors, Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Haziman Wan Ibrahim and Dr. Norwati

Jamaluddin who has helped, led and advised me in preparing a good proposal and for

all their contributions. They gave me so many useful advices from the first day until

the day of submitting this thesis. A special appreciation to my beloved co-supervisors,

Dr. Ramadhansyah Putra Jaya from Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) and Dr.

Mohd Fadzil Arshad from Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) who has helped

tremendously in providing constructive comments and suggestions throughout the

experimental works and thesis writing.

Above and beyond, I would like to thank to my parent, my wife, sibling and

family-in-law for their prayers, understanding, and support during the preparation of

this dissertation.

My appreciation is also dedicated to Norul Ernida Zainal Abidin, Norzubaidah

Fadzil, Mohd Hanif Hasbullah, Mohd Arief Mohamed, Syahredza Salikin and all my

friends for their useful advices and instilled besides giving me their moral support.

Last but not least, there is too numerous persons to be mentioned here that have been

sharing their knowledge on how to complete this work effectively as a teaching and

learning tool. I would like to express my most sincere thoughts for those who helped.

Thank you.

AHMAD FARHAN BIN HAMZAH.

vii

ABSTRACT

Concrete is a major building material use for numerous purposes in construction

including the concrete structures that exposed to aggressive environment or seawater

such as coastal berthing facilities, breakwaters, retaining walls, tidal barriers, dry

docks, container terminals, off-shore floating docks and drilling platforms. As these

concrete structures that usually exposed to an aggressive environment, it is expected

to require a minimum level of repair or maintenance during their service life. The

ingress of aggressive agents, in particular chloride and sulphate ions, can lead to

corrosion of reinforcing steel bars and thus cause a reduction in strength and

subsequent decrease in the service life of concrete structures. In context to resist this

type of premature deterioration, concrete must be proportioned to achieve high

durability in aggressive environments. The incorporation of coal bottom ash as sand

replacement material was possible to help self-compacting concrete in designing mix

proportion which contains extra fine particles content and fewer amounts of coarse

aggregates. On the other hand, self-compacting concrete was developed to respond to

the need for a self-compacting concrete with improved durability. In this study, six

replacement levels were considered for self-compacting concrete: 0%, 10%, 15%,

20%, 25% and 30% by volume. The essential workability properties of the fresh self-

compacting concrete containing coal bottom ash were prepared and evaluated by the

test of slump flow, L-box and sieve segregation resistance. Later, the effect of coal

bottom ash subjected to sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) and

seawater through cyclic wetting and drying was also investigated. The durability

performance of the coal bottom ash self-compacting concrete exposed to aggressive

environment was evaluated through compressive strength, Rapid Chloride

Permeability Test (RCPT), chloride penetration by Rapid Migration Test (RMT) and

carbonation depth test. In addition, microstructural changes that occur in specimens

due to aggressive environmental effects were identified through X-ray diffraction

(XRD) techniques and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Test results show that

coal bottom ash can be acceptably used as a fine aggregate replacement material in

order to achieve good durability of concrete. The self-compacting concrete containing

10% coal bottom ash replacement showed excellent durability to chloride, sulphate

and seawater attack. The test results also indicate that the amount of calcium hydroxide

(Ca(OH)2) in the 10% coal bottom ash concrete was slightly lower than that of control

sample due to the pozzolanic reaction of coal bottom ash and cement. The

combination of compressive strength, XRD and SEM analysis leads to the

identification of Friedel’s salt, ettringite, gypsum, calcium hydroxide formations in

specimen.

viii

ABSTRAK

Konkrit adalah bahan binaan utama yang digunakan untuk pelbagai tujuan dalam

pembinaan termasuk struktur konkrit yang terdedah kepada persekitaran yang agresif

atau air laut seperti kemudahan pantai (berthing), pemecah ombak, dinding penahan

(retaining wall), benteng pasang surut, dok kering, terminal kontena, dok terapung di

luar pantai dan penggerudian pelantar. Oleh kerana struktur konkrit tersebut terdedah

kepada persekitaran yang agresif, ia memerlukan tahap pembaikan yang minimum

atau penyelenggaraan semasa hayat perkhidmatan. Pendedahan dan kemasukan agen

agresif, terutamanya ion klorida dan sulfat boleh mengakibatkan kakisan bar tetulang

keluli dan menjejaskan kekuatan dan seterusnya menyebabkan penurunan hayat

perkhidmatan struktur konkrit. Justeru, bagi mengelakkan kemerosotan konkrit

pramatang ini, konkrit perlu dinisbahkan mengikut kesesuaian untuk mencapai

ketahanan yang tinggi dalam persekitaran yang agresif. Penggunaan abu enapan arang

batu (coal bottom ash) sebagai bahan pengganti pasir adalah sesuai untuk

menghasilkan konkrit tanpa getar (self-compacting concrete) dalam merancang nisbah

campuran yang mengandungi kandungan zarah halus dan jumlah agregat kasar yang

sedikit. Sehubungan dengan itu, konkrit tanpa getar telah dibangunkan dengan

ketahanan yang lebih baik. Melalui kajian ini, enam tahap penggantian berdasarkan

volumetrik telah dipertimbangkan untuk konkrit tanpa getar iaitu 0%, 10%, 15%, 20%,

25% dan 30%. Sifat penting kebolehkerjaan dalam konkrit tanpa getar yang

mengandungi abu enapan arang batu dinilai oleh ujian aliran turunan (slump flow),

ujian L-box dan ujian rintangan pengasingan. Selain itu, kesan abu enapan arang batu

yang tertakluk kepada natrium klorida (NaCl), natrium sulfat (Na2SO4) dan air laut

melalui kitaran pembasahan dan pengeringan juga dikaji. Prestasi ketahanan konkrit

tanpa getar mengandungi abu enapan arang batu yang terdedah kepada persekitaran

yang agresif telah dinilai melalui ujian kekuatan mampatan, ujian kebolehtelapan ion-

klorida pantas (RCPT), penembusan ion-klorida oleh ujian migrasi pantas (RMT) dan

ujian karbonasi. Di samping itu, perubahan mikrostruktur yang berlaku dalam

spesimen kerana kesan alam sekitar yang agresif telah dikenal pasti melalui teknik X-

ray pembelauan (XRD) dan Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Keputusan ujian

menunjukkan bahawa abu enapan arang batu boleh digunakan sebagai bahan gantian

agregat halus untuk mencapai ketahanan konkrit yang baik. Penggantian sebanyak

10% abu enapan arang batu menunjukkan ketahanan yang sangat baik untuk

persekitaran klorida, sulfat dan air laut. Keputusan ujian juga menunjukkan bahawa

jumlah kalsium hidroksida (Ca(OH)2) dalam spesimen konkrit penggantian 10% abu

enapan arang batu adalah lebih rendah daripada sampel kawalan yang disebabkan oleh

tindakbalas pozzolanik abu enapan arang batu dan simen. Berdasarkan keputusan

RCPT dan RMT, kadar penembusan ion-klorida meningkat dengan peningkatan abu

enapan arang batu di dalam konkrit. Hasil ujian karbonasi bagi spesimen yang

terdedah kepada air laut melalui kitaran pembasahan-pengeringan menunjukkan

ix

bahawa hasil dapatan adalah selari dengan spesimen yang terdedah kepada

persekitaran klorida dan sulfat. Berdasarkan hasil keputusan ujian, dapat diperhatikan

bahawa kedalaman pengkarbonan spesimen terdedah kepada persekitaran yang agresif

pada tahap penggantian sebanyak 10% abu enapan arang batu adalah paling rendah

berbanding spesimen yang lain. Ini menunjukkan bahawa rintangan pengkarbonan

adalah sangat tinggi dengan penggunaan nisbah penggantian sebanyak 10%. Justeru,

gabungan hasil ujian kekuatan mampatan, analisis XRD dan SEM telah membawa

kepada pengenalpastian garam Friedel, ettringite, gypsum, kalsium hidroksida dan

lain-lain sebatian kimia dalam spesimen.

x

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Problem Statement 4

1.3 Research Objectives 5

1.4 Research Significant 6

1.5 Scope of Works 7

1.6 Structure of Thesis 9

LITERATURE REVIEW 10

2.1 Introduction 10

2.2 Salt attack in concrete material 10

2.3 Factors affecting salt attack on concrete 10

2.3.1 Cement type and composition 11

2.3.2 Water binder ratio 11

2.3.3 Curing condition 12

2.3.4 Type of sulphate and concentration 12

2.3.5 Presence of chloride 13

2.3.6 Temperature of exposure 14

2.4 Mechanism of salt attack 15

2.4.1 Salt crystallization 15

xi

2.4.2 Chloride attack 17

2.4.3 Sulphate attack 18

2.4.4 Seawater attack 19

2.5 Aggressive exposure condition 21

2.5.1 Wetting and drying 22

2.5.2 Freeze and thaw 23

2.5.3 Laboratory simulation of wetting and drying cycles 24

2.6 Coal bottom ash concrete 24

2.6.1 Durability of coal bottom ash concrete 28

2.6.1.1 Permeability 28

2.6.1.2 Wet and dry resistance 29

2.6.1.3 Salt attack resistance 29

2.7 Summary 30

MATERIALS PROPERTIES, RESEARCH DESIGN AND

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS 32

3.1 Introduction 32

3.2 Research Design 33

3.3 Materials 37

3.3.1 Cement 37

3.3.2 Coal bottom ash 39

3.3.3 Aggregates 42

3.3.3.1 Coarse aggregates 42

3.3.3.2 Fine aggregates 43

3.3.3.3 Specific gravity and water absorption test 45

3.3.3.4 Flakiness Index and Elongation Index test 47

3.3.3.5 Aggregate Impact Value and Aggregate Crushing Value test 49

3.3.4 Water 50

3.3.5 Superplasticizer 51

3.4 Characterization of raw materials 52

3.4.1 Physical properties 52

3.4.1.1 Particle size distribution 52

xii

3.4.1.2 Specific gravity 53

3.4.2 Chemical compositions 54

3.4.2.1 X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) 54

3.4.2.2 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) 55

3.4.2.3 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 55

3.5 Mix design mix proportioning 56

3.6 Cyclic wetting and drying 58

3.6.1 Samples preparation and curing condition 58

3.6.2 Sodium Chloride (NaCl) 59

3.6.3 Sodium Sulphate (Na2SO4) 60

3.6.4 Seawater sampling 61

3.6.5 Laboratory simulation-Temperature and Relative humidity data

63

3.7 Concreting procedure 63

3.7.1 Fresh properties of concrete 64

3.7.1.1 Slump flow and Slump spread time test 64

3.7.1.2 L-box test 65

3.7.1.3 Sieve stability test 66

3.7.2 Hardened properties 67

3.7.2.1 Compressive strength 67

3.7.2.2 Split tensile strength 68

3.7.2.3 Flexural strength 69

3.7.2.4 Water absorption test 71

3.8 Durability test 72

3.8.1 Rapid Chloride-ion Permeability Test (RCPT) 72

3.8.2 Rapid Migration Test 74

3.8.3 Carbonation test 75

3.9 Summary 76

xiii

SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE WITH COAL BOTTOM ASH 78

4.1 Introduction 78

4.2 Properties of fresh self-compacting concrete 78

4.2.1 Flow ability 78

4.2.2 Passing ability 81

4.2.3 Segregation resistance 82

4.2.4 Concluding remarks on fresh properties 84

4.3 Properties of hardened self-compacting concrete 84

4.3.1 Unit weight 85

4.3.2 Compressive strength 87

4.3.3 Split tensile strength 91

4.3.4 Flexural strength 95

4.3.5 Permeable pore space and water absorption 98

4.3.6 Relationship of density and compressive strength 102

4.3.7 Relationship of compressive strength and split tensile strength

103

4.3.8 Relationship of compressive strength and flexural strength 104

4.3.9 Relationship of compressive strength and water absorption 106

4.3.10 Nomograph Development 107

4.4 X-ray diffraction (XRD) 109

.6 Scanning electron microscopy 116

4.7 Summary 119

EFFECT OF CHLORIDE AND SULPHATE EXPOSURE ON SELF-

COMPACTING CONCRETE WITH COAL BOTTOM ASH BY WETTING

AND DRYING CYCLES 120

5.1 Introduction 120

5.2 Compressive strength of self-compacting concrete with coal bottom

ash cured in tap water 120


ash subjected to sodium chloride solution 122

xiv

5.2.1 Reduction in compressive strength due to chloride attack 124

5.2.2 Weight loss due to chloride attack 126


ash subjected to sodium sulphate solution 127

5.4.1 Reduction in compressive strength due to sulphate attack 129

5.4.2 Weight loss due to sulphate attack 130

5.5 Rapid Chloride-ion Permeability Test (RCPT) 131

5.5.1 Relationship between total charge passed and compressive

strength 135

5.5.2 Relationship between total charged passed, current and time

(chloride exposure) 138

5.5.3 Relationship between total charged passed, current and time

(sulphate exposure) 141

5.6 Chloride penetration by Rapid Migration Test 144

5.6.1 Relationship between total charge passed and depth of chloride

penetration 147

5.7 Carbonation depth test 150

5.7.1 Relationship between carbonation depth and compressive strength

153


5.9 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 163

5.10 Summary 174

EFFECT OF SEAWATER ON SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE WITH

COAL BOTTOM ASH BY WETTING AND DRYING CYCLES 175

6.1 Introduction 175


ash subjected to seawater 176

6.2.1 Reduction in compressive strength due to seawater attack 178

6.2.2 Weight loss due to seawater attack 179

6.3 Rapid Chloride-ion Permeability Test (RCPT) 180

6.3.1 Relationship between RCPT and compressive strength 182

xv

6.3.2 Relationship between total charge passed, current and time 184

6.4 Chloride penetration by Rapid Migration Test 187

6.4.1 Relationship between total charge passed and depth of chloride

penetration 188

6.5 Carbonation depth test 190

6.5.1 Relationship between carbonation depth and compressive strength

191


6.7 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 197

6.8 Summary 201

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 202

7.1 Conclusions 202

7.1.1 Properties of self-compacting concrete and optimum content of

coal bottom ash 202

7.1.2 Microstructure of self-compacting concrete incorporating coal

bottom ash with different percentage of sand replacement 203

7.1.3 Performance of coal bottom ash self-compacting concrete with

different percentages of sand replacement subjected to

aggressive environments by wetting and drying cycles 204

7.2 Recommendations for future research 205

References 207

List of publications 228

A. International Journal Papers 228

B. International / National Conference 229

C. International Competition 230

Appendix A 231

Appendix B 232

Appendix C 233

Appendix D 234

Appendix E 235

xvi

LIST OF TABLES

2.1 Parameters related due to salt attack 11

2.2 Effect of coal bottom ash on properties of concrete 27

3.1 Number of specimens by experiments 36

3.2 Overall number of specimens 36

3.3 Chemical composition of cement 38

3.4 Gradation for coal bottom ash 40

3.5 Compounds composition of coal bottom ash 41

3.6 Gradation of coarse aggregates 43

3.7 Gradation for fine aggregates 44

3.8 Specific gravity and water absorption for coarse and fine aggregates 47

3.9 Specific gravity and water absorption for coal bottom ash aggregate 47

3.10 Chemical analysis of tap water 51

3.11 Technical data of ADVA 181 superplasticizer 52

3.12 Mix proportions (kg/m3) 57

3.13 Mix proportions by weight (kg) 57

3.14 Chemical analysis of sodium chloride 59

3.15 Chemical composition of sodium sulphate 60

3.16 Chemical analysis of seawater 62

3.17 Monthly analysis of seawater 62

3.18 Segregation resistance test (EFNARC, 2002) 67

3.19 Chloride ion penetrability (ASTM C1202, 2010) 74

4.1 Unit weight of specimen (g/cm3) 85

xvii

4.2 Compressive strength result 88

4.3 Split tensile strength 92

4.4 Flexural strength 96

4.5 Coefficients of linear relationship between concrete density and

compressive strength

103

4.6 Coefficients of linear relationship between compressive strength and

split tensile strength

104


flexural strength

105


water absorption

107

5.1 Chloride ion penetrability of self-compacting concrete subjected to

sodium chloride solution with wetting-drying cycles

133


sodium sulphate solution with wetting-drying cycles

135

5.3 Coefficients of linear relationship between total charge passed and

compressive strength (exposed to chloride solution)

137


compressive strength (exposed to sulphate solution)

138

5.5 Measurement of total charge passed, current and temperature

determined through RCPT (exposed to chloride solution)

139

5.6 Coefficients of linear relationship between total charge passed and time

(exposed to chloride solution)

140


current (exposed to chloride solution)

141


determined through RCPT (exposed to sulphate solution)

143


(exposed to sulphate solution)

144


current (exposed to sulphate solution)

144


chloride penetration (exposed to chloride solution)

148


chloride penetration (exposed to sulphate solution)

150

xviii


seawater with wetting-drying cycles

183


compressive strength (exposed to seawater)

184


(exposed to seawater)

185


determined through RCPT (exposed to seawater)

186


current (exposed to seawater)

187


chloride penetration (seawater)

191

xix

LIST OF FIGURES

2.1 Effect of physical condition of exposure (Hekal et al., 2002) 15

2.2 Chloride attack on reinforced concrete (Kung, 2014) 18

2.3 Schematic diagram for sulphate attack (China Microsilica

Union, 2011)

19

2.4 Concrete exposed to seawater (Malhorta, 2000) 21

3.1 Experimental stages in this research 33

3.2 Flow chart of experimental works 35

3.3 Holcim Top standard cement 38

3.4 Raw coal bottom ash 39

3.5 Sieved coal bottom ash 39

3.6 Grain size analysis for coal bottom ash 40

3.7 Coal bottom ash particle 41

3.8 Crushed blue stone aggregates 42

3.9 Grain size analysis for coarse aggregates 43

3.10 River sand used in this study 44

3.11 Grain size analysis for fine aggregates 45

3.12 Elongation gauge 48

3.13 Flakiness gauge 48

3.14 Flakiness and elongation index of aggregates 49

3.15 AIV and ACV test appratus 50

3.16 AIV and ACV of aggregates 50

xx

3.17 ADVA 181 polymer-based superplasticizer 52

3.18 Particle size analyser 53

3.19 Micromeritics AccuPyc 1330 53

3.20 XRF equipment 54

3.21 XRD instrument used in this study 55

3.22 NOVA NANOSEM 230 equipment 56

3.23 Sodium chloride 59

3.24 Sodium sulphate 60

3.25 Location of seawater sampling 61

3.26 Temperature and relative humidity data (laboratory

simulation)

63

3.27 Slump flow test 64

3.28 Measurement of slump flow 65

3.29 L-box test equipment 66

3.30 Sieve stability test 67

3.31 Compressive strength test 68

3.32 Cylindrical tensile test 69

3.33 Flexural test on concrete beam 70

3.34 Flexural breaking point failure 71

3.35 RCPT apparatus 73

3.36 RCPT sample in testing 73

3.37 Apparatus set up for RMT (NT Build 492, 1999) 75

3.38 Carbonation depth using a solution of phenolphthalein 76

3.39 Measurement of carbonation depth 76

4.1 Slump flow 79

4.2 Slump spread time (T500) 79

4.3 L-box passing ability 81

xxi

4.4 Sieve stability test results 83

4.5 Density of concrete at 28 days 87

4.6 Compressive strength for specimens of 0.35 water cement

ratio

89


ratio

90


ratio

90

4.9 Split tensile strength for specimens of 0.35 water cement

ratio

93


ratio

94


ratio

94

4.12 Flexural strength for specimens of 0.35 water cement ratio 97



4.15 Permeable pore space for specimens of 0.35 water cement

ratio

99

4.16 Water absorption for specimens of 0.35 water cement ratio 100


ratio

100



ratio

101


4.21 Relationship between concrete density and compressive

strength

103

4.22 Relationship between compressive strength and split

tensile strength

104

4.23 Relationship between compressive strength and flexural

strength

105

4.24 Relationship between compressive strength and water

absorption

106

4.25 Compressive-tensile strength nomograph 108

4.26 Compressive-flexural strength nomograph 108

4.27 Diffractogram of control concrete at 28 days 110

xxii

4.28 Diffractogram of 10% coal bottom ash replacement concrete

at 28 days

110


at 28 days

111


at 28 days

111


at 28 days

112


at 28 days

112

4.33 Diffractogram of control concrete at 180 days 113


at 180 days

113


at 180 days

114


at 180 days

114


at 180 days

115


at 180 days

115

4.39 Scanning electron micrograph of control concrete at 28 days 117

4.40 Scanning electron micrograph of 10% coal bottom

ash replacement concrete at 28 days

117

4.41 Scanning electron micrograph of 15% coal bottom ash

replacement concrete at 28 days

117



118



118



118

5.1 Compressive strength of specimens cured in tap water 121

5.2 Compressive strength of specimens subjected to sodium

chloride solution with wetting-drying cycles

123

5.3 Compressive strength reduction of coal bottom ash self-

compacting concrete due to chloride attack

126

5.4 Weight loss of coal bottom ash self-compacting concrete

due to chloride attack

127


sulphate solution with wetting-drying cycles

128

xxiii

5.6 Compressive strength reduction of coal bottom ash

self- compacting concrete due to sulphate attack

130


due to sulphate attack

131

5.8 Total charge passed of self-compacting concrete

subjected to sodium chloride solution with wetting-drying

cycles

132


subjected to sodium sulphate solution with wetting-drying

cycles

134

5.10 Relationship between total charge passed and

compressive strength specimens subjected to chloride

solution

136


compressive strength specimens subjected to sulphate

solution

136

5.12 Relationship between total charge passed and time (exposed

to chloride solution)

140

5.13 Relationship between total charge passed and current

(exposed to chloride solution)

141


to sulphate solution)

142


(exposed to sulphate solution)

142

5.16 Chloride penetration rate of concrete subjected to

chloride solution

145

5.17 Chloride penetration rate of concrete subjected to

sulphate solution

146

5.18 Relationship between total charge passed and chloride

penetration (exposed to chloride solution)

148


penetration (exposed to sulphate solution)

149

5.20 Carbonation for concrete subjected to chloride solution 151

5.21 Carbonation for concrete subjected to sulphate solution 152

5.22 Relationship between carbonation depth and

compressive strength (exposed to chloride solution)

154


compressive strength (exposed to sulphate solution)

155

5.24 Diffractogram of control concrete after 180 days of

cyclic wetting-drying in chloride solution

156

xxiv

5.25 Diffractogram of 10% coal bottom ash replacement

concrete after 180 days of cyclic wetting-drying in chloride

solution

157



solution

157



solution

158



solution

158



solution

159


cyclic wetting-drying in sulphate solution

160


concrete after 180 days of cyclic wetting-drying in sulphate

solution

160



solution

161



solution

161



solution

162



solution

162

5.36 Microstructure of control concrete subjected to sodium

chloride solution with cyclic wetting-drying

164

5.37 Microstructure of 10% coal bottom ash replacement

concrete subjected to sodium chloride solution with cyclic

wetting-drying

164



wetting-drying

165



wetting-drying

166

xxv



wetting-drying

166



wetting-drying

167

5.42 Hexagonal-plate particle - Portlandite crystal 168

5.43 Fine layered particle – Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH) 168

5.44 Irregular-shaped particle – Friedel’s salt 169

5.45 Microstructure of control concrete subjected to sodium

sulphate solution with cyclic wetting-drying

169


concrete subjected to sodium sulphate solution with cyclic

wetting-drying

170



wetting-drying

170



wetting-drying

171



wetting-drying

171



wetting-drying

172

5.51 Ettringite and thaumasite 173

5.52 Hexagonal platy Portlandite crystal 173

5.53 Gypsum formation 174



178

6.2 Compressive strength reduction of coal bottom ash

self- compacting concrete due to seawater attack

180


due to seawater attack

181


subjected to seawater with wetting-drying cycles

182


compressive strength specimens subjected to seawater

184

xxvi


to seawater)

185


(exposed to seawater)

187

6.8 Chloride penetration rate of concrete subjected to seawater 188


penetration (exposed to seawater)

190

6.10 Carbonation for concrete subjected to seawater 192


compressive strength (exposed to seawater)

193


cyclic wetting-drying in seawater

194


concrete after 180 days of cyclic wetting-drying in seawater

195



195



196



196



197

6.18 Microstructure of control concrete subjected to seawater

with cyclic wetting-drying

198

6.19 Ettringite and Portlandite 199

6.20 CSH and Gypsum 199


concrete subjected to seawater with cyclic wetting-drying

200



200



201



201



202

xxvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

ACV Aggregate Crushing Value

AIV Aggregate Impact Value

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

BS EN British Standard

CBA Coal Bottom Ash

CSH Calcium silicate hydrate

EFNARC European Federation of National Associations

Representing for Concrete

RCPT Rapid Chloride-ion Permeability Test

RMT Rapid Migration Test

SCC Self-compacting concrete

SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy

XRD X-ray Diffraction

XRF X-ray Fluoresence

xxviii

LIST OF SYMBOL

Ca(OH)2 Calcium hydroxide

CaCO3 Calcium carbonate

CaO Calcium oxide

CO2 Carbon dioxide

CPR Chloride penetration rate (mm/v.hr)

f’ch Average compressive strength subjected to

chloride solution with wetting-drying cycles

f’dw Average compressive strength cured in tap

water

f’sl Average compressive strength subjected to


f’sw Average compressive strength subjected to

seawater with wetting-drying cycles

fct Compressive strength (N/mm2 or MPa)

ff Flexural strength (N/mm2 or MPa)

ft Split tensile strength (N/mm2 or MPa)

H2CO3 Carbonic acid

H2O Water

mp Weight of pan

mpl Weight of sample

ms Weight of laitance

Na2SO4 Sodium Sulphate

xxix

NaCl Sodium Chloride

Wd Dry weight of specimen after 24 hours in oven

WLch Average initial weight of specimens subjected

to chloride solution with wetting-drying cycles

WLdw Average initial of weight of the specimens

cured in tap water

WLsl Average initial weight of specimens subjected

to sulphate solution with wetting-drying cycles

WLsw Average initial weight of specimens subjected

to seawater with wetting-drying cycles

Wssd Weight of sample in saturated surface dry

condition in air

Wssw Weight of saturated sample in water

1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Concrete is one of major building materials use for numerous purposes in construction

such as buildings, dams, foundations, highways, and others (Matthias, 2010). Often,

the structures exposed to aggressive environment or seawater such as coastal berthing

facilities, breakwaters, retaining walls, tidal barriers, dry docks, container terminals,

off-shore floating docks and drilling platforms. Therefore, it is expected that the

concrete structures will require a minimum maintenance during their service life. The

ingress of aggressive agents particularly chloride and sulphate ions can led to

corrosion of reinforcing steel bars, therefore will cause a reduction in strength and the

service life of concrete structures. In context to resist this type of premature

deterioration, concrete must be proportioned to achieve high durability in an

aggressive environment.

A common method used to prevent premature deterioration of concrete

structures is the application of concrete mixture in which designed to be relatively

impermeable. However, deterioration on a structure can usually be attributed to poor

construction practice and not from the properties of the concrete mixture itself. The

poor construction practices (construction factors) are including improper casting,

concrete placement, consolidation techniques, and inadequate curing regime which

eventually will lead to surface cracking, poor compaction, and high concrete

permeability. Of these factors will reduce the resistance of concrete for the aggressive

agents to ingress and consequently led to premature corrosion of reinforcing steel and

deterioration on the concrete structure.

2

Interestingly, the current construction specifications and codes

includingnormal vibrated concrete exposed to marine or aggressive environments are

only emphasize on the quality of the concrete mixture itself. The construction

specifications are including recommendations regarding the water to cement (w/c)

ratio, minimum cement content, and concrete cover thickness, however the effect of

construction factors is not highlighted. For example, the American Concrete Institute

(ACI) Committee 357 on Design and Construction of Fixed Concrete Offshore

Structures (ACI Committee 357 1994) has recommended that concrete with a

maximum w/c ratio of 0.45, a minimum cement content of 400 kg/m3 and minimum

cover thickness of 50 mm, can be used for marine structures. Similar requirements are

also specified in other codes such as British Standards and European Codes (British

Standard, BS 8110, 1985 and European Pre-Standard, ENV-206 1992). It should be

noted that the in-situ quality of such concrete is not solely a function of its w/c ratio,

cement content, cover thickness, but also a function of the construction factors.

Essentially, the durability of concrete structure is proven by the production of a

workable concrete mixture, its effective consolidation, and the application of proper

curing techniques. The latter is sometimes very difficult to specify due to the lack of

skilled workers and variations in construction techniques among the construction

companies.

The improper casting, placement, and consolidation of typical concrete

mixtures can lead to high concrete permeability and thus impair the durability of the

structures that exposed to aggressive environment. Additionally, the effect of high

temperature will cause poor fluidity of typical fresh concrete and therefore will create

difficulity in placing of such concrete at the field. This will need a considerable

amount of vibration and consolidation. There are few cases in which normal vibration

and consolidation techniques have not produced proper consolidation although a high

range water reducing admixtures has been applied. Such cases can be found especially

where structural members require congested reinforcement or when unusual shapes

and geometries are specified. If concrete is not properly consolidated, voids, gaps, and

cracks can be easily formed in the concrete structure. Furthermore, over vibration may

be applied if the concrete mixture is very stiff or in case of congested reinforcement,

which can result in bleeding and segregation. These defects may occur as a result of

poor vibration and will therefore reduce the permeability of concrete and will impair

3

the ability to resist aggressive agents. Consequently, it will reduce the concerete’s

serviceability.

A large number of concrete structures has been built in accordance with recent

codes with exposed to aggressive environments have showed considerable

deterioration before the end of their service lives due to poor construction practices.

Because the specifications and codes for vibrated concrete do not account for possible

effects of construction practices, it has been postulated that without adequate

compaction and curing, even correctly proportioned concrete will often not be as

impermeable as expected on the basis of its mixture composition.

Previous research have suggested that coal bottom ash as sand replacement

material which has particles appear similar to the natural size and, more recently, self-

compacting concrete has provided significant improvements in both its fresh and

hardened properties (Domone, 2006; Aggarwal et al., 2008; Pathak & Siddique, 2012;

Kadam & Patil, 2013). The incorporation of coal bottom ash as sand replacement

material was found to help self-compacting concrete in designing mix proportion

which contains extra fine particles content and fewer amounts of coarse aggregates

(Dubey & Kumar, 2012). On the other hand, self-compacting concrete was developed

to respond to the need for a self-compacting concrete with improved durability.

Therefore, the use of self-compacting concrete can minimize or even eliminate the

detrimental effects of construction factors. Additionally, the combination of the

benefits of coal bottom ash and self-compacting concrete can provide possible

durability advantages to the concrete structures in aggressive environments. There are

many issues which are lack of knowledge in its characteristics in relation to the

behaviour mainly in self-compacting concrete. Hence, further research about the self-

compacting concrete expose to aggressive environment, characterization of self-

compacting concrete using laboratory test methods, and construction issues related to

self-compacting concrete are practical.

4

1.2 Problem Statement

The durability of concrete has become a major concern in the construction industry. It

is also known that aggressive environments are the major factor affecting the

durability of concrete (Zuquan et al., 2007). The deteriorative of concrete is the resuted

from an ineffectiveness durability that might cause by physical, mechanical and

chemical factors and of these can be induced by external and internal factors to the

concrete structure. Physical and chemical deterioration are external influenced from

climate such as weathering, variation of temperature, wetting and drying cycles and

exposure to aggressive environment (Hekal et al., 2002; Mohr et al., 2005). Chemical

deterioration is usually determined by the rate at which concrete is decomposed as a

result of chemical reaction. The aggressive chemicals are greatly affected the concrete

durability which include chlorides and sulphates with their related cations.

Degradation consists of dissolution of calcium and hydroxide ions out of the

matrix when chloride dissolved in water, which causes an increase in porosity and

transport properties; and subsequently, affecting the strength and permeability of

concrete (Rozière et al., 2009). According to Bertolini et al. (2004), the increment of

coal bottom ash content in concrete shows a decreasing trend in the porosity of

concrete. As the degradation of chloride-water dissolved caused an increase in

porosity, potentially the coal bottom ash will be employed in the concrete due to pore

refinement. This process is vital to produce good quality of durable concrete. Calcium,

sodium, magnesium and ammonium sulphates may involve forming a progressive loss

of strength and loss of mass due to loss of cohesiveness in the cement hydration

products. Gypsum formation leads to reduction of stiffness and strength, then by

expansion and cracking. If concrete cracks, its permeability increases and the

aggressive chemical solution penetrate more easily into the interior, thus accelerating

the process of deterioration (Bassuoni & Nehdi, 2009; Monteiro & Kurtis, 2003).

Previous studies have suggested that coal bottom ash as sand replacement

material has particles appear similar size to natural river sand and, more recently, self-

compacting concrete provide concrete with significant improvements in both its fresh

and hardened properties (Domone, 2006; Aggarwal et al., 2008; Pathak & Siddique,

2012; Kadam & Patil, 2013). The incorporation of coal bottom ash as sand

replacement material is possible to help self-compacting concrete in designing mix

5

proportion which contains extra fine particles content and fewer amounts of coarse

aggregates (Dubey & Kumar, 2012). On the other hand, self-compacting concrete was

developed to respond to the need for a self-compacting concrete with improved

durability. Therefore, the use of self-compacting concrete can minimize or even

eliminate the detrimental effects of poor construction practices. The combination of

the benefits of coal bottom ash and self-compacting concrete can provide possible

durability advantages to the concrete structures in aggressive environments. There are

many issues which are lack of knowledge in its characteristics relation to the behaviour

mainly in self-compacting concrete. Hence, further research about the self-compacting

concrete expose to aggressive environment, characterization of self-compacting

concrete using laboratory test methods, and construction issues related to self-

compacting concrete are practical.

1.3 Research Objectives

This research is involves experimental study on self-compacting concrete. The aims

of this research are:-

i. To investigate the physical and mechanical properties of self-

compacting concrete incorporating coal bottom ash with different

percentage of sand replacement and optimum content of coal bottom as

sand replacement.

ii. To investigate the microstructure of self-compacting concrete

incorporating coal bottom ash with different percentage of sand

replacement.

iii. To evaluate the performance of coal bottom ash self-compacting

concrete with different percentages of sand replacement subjected to

aggressive environments (sodium chloride, sodium sulphate and

seawater) by wetting and drying cycles.

6

1.4 Research Significant

Self-compacting concrete signify the most important progress in concrete knowledge

for over decades. This type of concrete has been designed to make sure sufficient

compaction process and to ease the progress of concrete placement with complex

geometry areas and fully reinforced. The process is complicated or impracticable to

use mechanical compaction for fresh concrete. As the durability of concrete turns out

to be a crucial issue in exploring the potential cementitious materials, a good

compaction by expert workers was essential to get durable concrete structures

(Bouzoubaa & Lachemi, 2001; Zhu & Bartos, 2003).

Even there are advantages of utilization of self-compacting concrete; this type

of high performance concrete has not attracted local attention although it has been

introduced for the last 10 years especially in Malaysia. Mewah & Ehsan (2002)

acknowledged that the delivery of high strength concrete by the local ready mix

industry is not a current problem. There are many benefits from spectaculafdesin and

complex engineering whereby numerous high-rise structures have been constructed

such as Petronas Twin Tower and Menara Telekom Malaysia. The Menara Telekom

is a headquarters office that has been recognized as a noticeable project which

composed of excellence concrete technology and the use of high strength concrete.

The knowledge of high strength concrete and self-compacting concrete have

reached across the world, which driven by the concerned of poor compaction and

durability (Ahmadi et al., 2007; Madandoust & Mousavi, 2012; Azeredo & Diniz,

2013). However, the awareness about self-compacting concrete is still unfavourable

and this has showed the lack of commercial use of self-compacting concrete in the

Malaysia so far. The negative response in utilization of self-compacting concrete is

possibly due to limited research on locally utilizing this type of concrete. Moreover,

potential problems for the production and manufacturing self-compacting concrete

with local marginal aggregates due to accessibility of raw materials have an impact on

the self-compacting concrete consumerism in the industry as well as for environmental

concern by considering the construction cost, ecosystem and environmental aspect,

various option and alternative towards the utilization of local construction materials

are must be established. Mehta (2004) stated that one resolution to cut the cost of self-

7

compacting concrete is by using mineral admixtures or waste materials such as

limestone powder, natural pozzolans, ground granulated blast furnace slag and fly ash.

Malaysia is a country that hav hot and humid climate all the year, with an

average temperature of 27°C (80.6 °F) and small variability in the annual temperature.

The climate is characterized by high temperature and humidity with moderate

fluctuations in seasonal temperature and humidity. Conventional concrete admixtures

is greatly examined which subjected to aggressive environment such as sodium

chloride (NaCl), sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) solution and seawater. However, the

knowledge on exposure of fresh or harden self-compacting concrete to the harsh

condition are still limited Therefore, it is necessary to carry out a study on self-

compacting concrete using local admixture materials incorporating suitable

superplasticizer subjected to aggressive environment with wetting and drying cycles

that signify the region in Malaysja. Moreover, a preliminary standard mix design

nomograph of self-compacting concrete incorporating bottom ash will be produced

for future references.

1.5 Scope of Works

This study is focusing on the material performance of the self-compacting concrete.

The performance analysis were involved studying the characteristic of raw material of

coal bottom ash in terms of physical and mechanical properties to investigate the

durability and performance of self-compacting concrete containing coal bottom ash

with different proportion of fine aggregate replacement subjected to aggressive

sodium chloride, sodium sulphate solution and seawater with wetting and drying

cycles.

Standard strength concrete containing regular blended cement was designed

and prepared through a series of trial mixes to achieve a minimum compressive

strength of 40 MPa at the age of 28 days. The coal bottom ash replacement levels of

10%, 15%, 20%, 25% and 30% were used to replace sand. The experimental program

involved studying the characteristics of materials in terms of their physical and

mechanical properties, chemical compositions, particle morphology and phase

identification. The laboratory testing were conducted at the ages of 7, 28, 60, 90 and

8

180 days to study the effects of sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium sulphate (Na2SO4)

and seawater on the durability of self-compacting concrete containing coal bottom ash

with repetitive wetting and drying cycles including concrete exposed with normal

water. The selection of chemical is based on dominant chemicals in marine

environment, as the most is chloride, sodium and sulphate.

Results from laboratory testing of different mixture of self-compacting

concrete were analysed. There are 3 different mixture of self-compacting concrete

with different water/cement ratio which is 0.35, 0.4 and 0.45. The data obtained from

the experiment were analysed comprehensively to present a design mix nomograph of

self-compacting concrete and finally to meet the objective of this study.

9

1.6 Structure of Thesis

The thesis consists of eight chapters:

Chapter one discusses on the background of the study with a short overview

of the current situation, research and problem statement. Several research needs are

also identified. The objectives and scope of study are also presented.

Chapter two presents a background of the use of pozzolanic materials, its

characteristic and performance in concrete durability. The description on various

chemical solutions including chloride solution, sulphate solution and aggressive

seawater related to concrete were discussed.

Chapter three provides an overview of the research program and approach,

describes the preparation and testing of materials, discusses the selection and testing

of constituent materials, and highlights the procedures for experimental work,

apparatus and mixture design.

Details of finding and data about self-compacting concrete are presented in

chapter four. It has included various degrees of sand replacement on coal bottom ash

and different water-cement ratios on self-compacting concrete. Fresh and hardened

properties of concrete are analysed and presented in an appropriate forms. The chapter

discusses the significance of these results and determines the optimum percentage of

coal bottom ash incorporated in concrete. Additionally, mix design nomograph are

presented base on the results.

In chapter five, the influences of different replacement levels of coal bottom

ash to normal sand exposed to sodium chloride and sodium sulphate solution with

wetting and drying cycles are described. All results were presented in this chapter.

Chapter six discusses the performance of self-compacting concrete with coal

bottom ash subjected to seawater. Moreover, the chapter focuses on the exposure of

seawater from wetting and drying cycles and highlights the importance of these

results.

Finally, chapter seven provides a summary of the research findings, presents

the relationships and contributions, and present some recommendations for the future

study.

10

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Concrete is a man-made construction material and has been extensively used in the

world (Gambhir, 2006). According to Mehta & Monteiro (2006), concrete is made of

the basic ingredients of Portland cement, aggregates and water. Nowadays, the rapid

development in all areas of civil engineering has led to increase demand for concrete.

As a result many researchers have directed their attention towards developing concrete

that suits the contemporary requirements and proficient in the aggressive environment.

The concrete technology has been developing along with problem arises. This chapter

discusses the effect of aggressive environment and factors that influence the formation

of the crystallizing salt in the concrete structures. A general literature review of

research carried out on method for aggressive environment simulation and material of

coal bottom ash in self-compacting concrete are also presented.

2.2 Salt attack in concrete material

Salt attack is a controlled phenomenon to make the material more durable. The

exposure of salt attack for a longer period where the salt residue crystallised in the

pores of materials such as concrete and other masonry materials which can cause the

disintegration of concrete matrix and structure . The salt is transferred through water

11

that may be carried in the various surrounds of the material. When the water is

evaporated through dryer area, the salt residuals are deposited in the pores of the

concrete material. This reoccurrence of wetting and drying of the pores will eventually

cause a slow rise of salt in the pores and capillaries of the material resulting in a more

concentrated salt remnant. At this time, the crystals have formed. As the crystals grow,

micro-particles from the mortar will expand, thus exerting internal forces and stresses.

The internal forces exerted by the salt crystals exert may lead to the eventual damage

to the concrete material.

2.3 Factors affecting salt attack on concrete

The deterioration of concrete due to salt attack is considered as a complex problem

and it depends on many parameters related to materials and condition of exposure.

This can be found from Table 2.1 below.

Table 2.1: Parameters related due to salt attack

Dependence Parameters

Material properties Cement types and composition, mineral admixture

type, water binder ratio, degree of hydration and

curing conditions

Hydrated concrete properties Pore structure, permeability, diffusivity, mechanical

properties

Exposure conditions Temperature, type of ions and concentration

2.3.1 Cement type and composition

The salt attack caused by sulphate is depends on availability of Ca(OH)2 and C3A in

the hydrated concrete, hence chemical composition of binder have an important role

in the salt attack resistance. Cement that contains low C3A has good sulphate

resistance. Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement (SRPC) has less content of C3A,

therefore it is protected under sulphate attack. Too high cement content in the concrete

may cause increasein the sulphate resistance (Rodrıguez-Camacho & Uribe-Afif,

2002). Modern cement is made for rapid development of strength in which results to

an increase of tricalcium silicate (C3S) contentsin the cement. The susceptibility to

sulphate attack will be enhanced from the increase of calcium hydroxide content in

12

the hardened cement which resulted from the increased of C3S (Sancak, & Özkan,

2015).

Blending of mineral admixtures such as ground granulated blast furnace slag

(GGBFS), fly ash (FA), silica fume (SF) in cement increases resistance of concrete to

sulphate attack. The superior performance of blended cement over plain cement

concrete is attributedby the pozzolanic reactions that consumed the calcium hydroxide

and the reduction of the plain cement quantity in total binder will dilute the calcium

aluminate hydrates phase. Hekal et al. (2002) reported that the hardened cement paste

that contained 40% GGBFS shows a significant improvement in the sulphate

resistance.

2.3.2 Water binder ratio

Water to binder ratio is the key factor of the mechanism strength in the development

of concrete. The concrete with lower water/binder ratio is commonly denser and have

a higher strength. However, Prasad et al. (2006) stated that the assumption is not

always true for the concrete with low water/binder ratio to have a better sulphate

resistance. Al-Amaudi et al. (1995) investigated this effect and found that the lower

water/binder ratio may enhance the strength reduction. The possible reasons for such

behaviour could be due to sulphate attack that is not physically in nature hence it is

independent from permeability of mix. Furthermore, the expensive product formed

from the reaction between the cement and sulphate salts are not well accommodated

in the finer pore structure of low water/binder ratio mix. Thus dense concrete mixtures

have aggravated the deterioration process which attributed from the sulphate attack.

2.3.3 Curing condition

Curing of freshly placed concrete is an important requirement to achieve optimum

performance (Turk et al., 2007). The curing condition of the concrete has greatly

affected it’s hydration process. The complete hydration of binder and the influence

factor of strength development in the concrete are involved with the continuous and

moist curing process. Initial curing condition could affect the sulphate resistance of

13

concrete. Osborne (1999) reported that the beneficial effects of short initial air curing

are includingcontinuous moist curing, a long-term sulphate resistance of plain and

blended concrete. The possible reason for such behaviour may be due to the initial dry

curing that has reduces the calcium hydroxide concentration in the concrete surface

zone. In addition, the initial dry curing have caused minor carbonation and reduced

the availability of calcium hydroxide for the salt attack.

2.3.4 Type of sulphate and concentration

Deterioration rate of concrete under salt attack also depends on the type of sulphate.

Al-Amaudi et al. (2002) presented the results of sodium, magnesium, and mixed

sulphate solution attack on mortar and concrete specimen. The strength reduction was

almost comparable in both environments up to about 100 days of exposure and

subsequently the reduction is spread in the magnesium sulphate for all types of

specimens. The expansion data indicates that the sodium sulphate environment has

caused more expansion on all mortar specimens. Results showed a superior

performance of blended cement in the sodium sulphate solution. In mixed sulphate

environment, the mode of sulphate attack is mainly controlled by magnesium sulphate

due to the generation of magnesium hydroxide (brucite). The solubility of magnesium

hydroxide (its solubility is 0.01 g/litre compared to 1.37 g/litre for calcium hydroxide)

and it’s saturated solution with the ph about 10.5 will cause destabilization of both

ettringite and calcium silicate hydrate. Therefore, the formation of ettringite is

significantly hindered in such environment and the deterioration of concrete is

attributed mainly to the formation of gypsum.

Deterioration of concrete in the sulphate attack also depends on the Sulphate

concentration in the exposure solution. Higher concentration of sulphate will leads to

a quick deterioration. Al-Dulaijan et al. (2003) studied the performance of plain and

blended cement mortar cubes which exposed to sodium sulphate solution of varying

concentration for up to 24 months. The degree of deterioration was evaluated by

strength reduction and visual inspection. Result from their study has indicated that the

rate of deterioration increased with increase in sulphate concentration for both plain

and blended cement. The sample prepared by fly ash blended cement shows less

deterioration compared to other concentrations and at all time of exposure.

14

2.3.5 Presence of chloride

The chloride ions are inadvertently associated with the sulphate attack in the ground

water or marine environment on the concrete. It is commonly known that the chloride

ion reacts with the hydrates of cement and will form the Freidel’s salt that does not

have any harmful effects on the concrete. However, when chloride contents in the

concrete has reach more than the threshold value, the protective alkaline layer of steel

reinforcement in the concrete structure will be broken. Later, the presence of oxygen

and humidity will cause corrosion of of the steel reinforcement. The presence of

chloride in the sulphate solution will produce effects to the deterioration of concrete

under the sulphate attack. Al-Amoudi et al. (2002) studied this effect on plain and

blended cement mortar specimens, through the specimens exposure to 2.1% SO4

solution and 2.1% SO4 + 15.7% Cl solutions for 365 days. Deterioration was measured

on the basis of the strength reduction and expansion of specimens. Resultshows that

the deterioration was relatively more intense in the specimen that exposed to pure

sulphate solution compared to those that exposed to sulphate-chloride solution.

The increase of the sulphate resistance in the cement with the presence of

chlorides is attributed to (i) increased solubility of calcium aluminate hydrate phase

leading to calcium sulpho-aluminate crystallization i.e. ettringite formed in a non-

expensive form, (ii) a decrease in the lime concentration in the pure solution leading

conversion of the high insolubility of the basic aluminate hydrate phase to soluble low

basic compounds thus producing ettringite of liquid phase in the non-expensive forms,

(iii) a transformation of aluminate hydrate phase into chloro-aluminate phase, thereby

reducing the quantity of ettringite formed, (iv) the rate of diffusion of chloride ions is

much higher than the sulphate ions which allows the chloride to react with C3A to

form calcium chloro-aluminate hydrate,this will result the quantity of C3A to be

available for sulphate ions to react and the form ettringite will be reduced.

2.3.6 Temperature of exposure

The deterioration of mixes is influenced by the physical condition of sulphate solution

which related to its temperature and also by the submersed level of specimens. Hekal

et al. (2002) observed the sulphate exposure at 60°C temperature in the ambient

15

environment with drying-immersion cycle. The increase in temperature of sulphate

solution has accelerated the sulphate attack on all types of specimens of mortars. The

drying-immersion from the cyclic process at 60°C has accelerated the rate of sulphate

attack and this can be considered as an accelerated method to evaluate sulphate

resistance. Changes in compressive strength of ordinary Portland cement mortar cubes

over time at different exposure conditions is shown in Figure 2.1. The curve shows

more reduction in strength at higher temperature. Hence sulphate attack is more

aggressive in the summer or in a hot climatic area.

Figure 2.1: Effect of physical condition of exposure (Hekal et al., 2002)

2.4 Mechanism of salt attack

Over recent decades, several mechanisms have been proposed to explain the

phenomenon of damage due to crystallization in porous brittle materials. The most

widely accepted is the theory of salt attack by supersaturation proposed by Scherer

(2004). Salt attack is a crystal-forming process due to the presence of soluble salt in

moisture or water after evaporation. The salt concentration in the solution gradually

increases as the material dries. The presence of soluble salts can deteriorate the porous

brittle materials either directly or indirectly. Under this sub-section, mechanism of

crystallization and salt attack in the concrete material exposed to soluble salts are

discussed in details.

16

2.4.1 Salt crystallization

Porous and brittle materials such as stone, masonry or cement-based materials can be

deteriorated due to pressure induced by salt crystallization taken place in their pores.

The cracking and fracture can be formed as a result of the production of pressure which

has exceeded the tensile capacity of the material (Scherer, 2004). The advanced

damage can compromise the integrity and performance with cyclic exposure and

weathering of the affected material during a longer period. A phenomenon called as

“salt weathering”, “salt scaling”, “physical salt attack”, or “salt crystallization” when

the salt has crystallized in the absence of degrading chemical interation has caused

damage.

Researchers examining the salt crystallization damage on porous materials

have always focused on salt crystallization by sodium sulphate, sodium chloride, and

sodium carbonate (Lee & Kurtis, 2017; Haynes et al., 2010; Thaulow & Sahu, 2004).

For example, Scherer (2004) experimentally investigated the stress caused by

crystallization of sodium sulphate salt (thenardite and mirabilite) in the stone. This

phenomenon can be explained by precipitation of salt crystals from the liquid in pore

structure of a material and also related to the phase change from thenardite to

mirabilite, which contains 10 molecules of water. Chatterji & Thaulow (1997) also

experimentally demonstrated that the crystal growth pressure exerted by sodium

thiosulfate pentahydrate could break glass test tubes without confinement. Thaulow &

Sahu (2004) reviewed the mechanisms of surface scaling of concrete due to sodium

sulphate salt. There were three existing proposed damage mechanisms have been

compared- (i) solid volume change hypothesis, (ii) salt hydration pressure hypothesis,

and (iii) crystallization pressure hypothesis - concluding that damage can only be

explained by salt crystallization pressure theory. The damage mechanisms associated

with salt crystallization in porous materials have been reviewed by Valenza & Scherer

(2007).

Although not examined as often, other salts including nitrates, oxalates, and

acetates, are also known to damage porous materials (Lee & Kurtis, 2017). For

example, acetates is known to damage tiles of glazed ceramics by salt crystallization

(Linnow et al., 2007), and nitrate (NO3) salts, since they are derived from fertilizer

which known to damage masonry near agricultural regions. Conservationists have

17

found crystallization of calcium nitrate salts to be particularly damaging to brittle

materials such as plasters. In addition to their practical relevance in this application,

study of crystallization of various salts is desirable because it is essential to develop

accelerated laboratory tests to assess potential for damage in natural and engineered

porous materials. Salts are particularly damaging at a faster rate and it is also

potentially good candidate to be applied in the accelerated test methods. Cement-based

materials are brittle similar to stone and masonry and have a porous microstructure

which can exhibit salt crystallization damage in practice (Haynes et al., 2010).

However, the microstructure and hardened properties of cement-based materials are

different to the natural materials, thus the extent of damage, can be controlled or

tailored to enhance durability.

2.4.2 Chloride attack

The durability of concrete is depends to its capability to resist quality degradation

when exposed to aggressive environments which can cause deleterious effects to the

concrete (Glasser et al., 2008). It is known that the ingress of chloride ions in the

concrete is the most severe problem affecting the durability of the concrete

construction. Chloride ions may cause adverse effect on hardened concrete in various

ways. Generally, the effect is usually attributed to the formation of calcium

chloroaluminate or Friedel’s salt (Islam et al., 2010). This salt crystallization has a

low-medium expansion property and may increase concrete permeability by leaching

due to the formation of excessive calcium chloride. The process of chloride attack on

concrete may be explained by the following chemical reaction below.

NaOH2CaCl NaCl2Ca(OH) 22 Equation 2.1

O10HCaClOAl3CaOOH10OAlCaO3CaCl 22322322 Equation 2.2

The penetration of chloride ions may attack concrete in different ways and it

is usually associated with the corrosion process in the reinforced concrete. According

to Montemor et al. (2003), the common causes of corrosion are (i) an ingress of carbon

dioxide from the atmosphere decreasing the alkalinity of the pore solution and (ii) the

18

local depassivation of steel due to the presence of chlorides at the reinforcement level;

this has shown in Figure 2.2. Furthermore, chloride may also infiltrate into concrete

from the environment such as deicing salt and seawater (Xu et al., 2009).

Figure 2.2: Chloride attack on reinforced concrete (Kung, 2014)

2.4.3 Sulphate attack

Sulphate attack is a major problem which related to the durability of concrete

structures (Chatveera & Lertwattanaruk, 2009). The attack by solutions containing

sulphate can have different effects on concrete. Given that the influence of other

chemicals can affect the mechanism of the reaction, therefore the nature of the sulphate

solution is significant. Figure 2.3 shows the mechanism of sulphate attack. This is

particularly factual in the case of seawater, where the presence of a higher

concentration of chlorides can have a bearing on the action of the sulphates. Chlorides

have a high tendency to bind tricalcium alluminate (C3A) in the cement to produce

chloroaluminate compounds, such as Friedel's salt, which do not cause any expansion

(Ragab et al., 2016). The lowered accessibility of C3A can decrease the deterioration

by sulphate attack due to a direct decrease in the production of ettringite. Furthermore,

Mehta (1991) has stated that the ettringite formation in chloride-rich environments is

not related with expansion and cracking.

The extent of sulphate attack in concrete is influence by several factors

including type and concentration of sulphate solution, cement type and content,

presence of mineral admixture and permeability (Mehta & Monteiro, 2006; Neville,

2002). It was reported that the deterioration caused by sulphate attack may be due to

transformation of mono-sulphate to ettringite which resulted in ettringite formation,

19

formation of calcium sulphate upon reaction of calcium hydroxide with sulphate ions

lead to gypsum formation and mass or strength loss due to sulphate attack. Both

ettringite and gypsum formations are accompanied by large value expansions (Mehta

& Monteiro, 2006; Alexander et al., 2013; Mardani-Aghabaglou et al., 2015). The

reactions can be formulated (Santhanam et al., 2003) as follow:

OH8 NaOH2OH2CaSO O10HSONaCa(OH) 2242422 Equation 2.3

O17HNaOH62Al(OH)O31HCaSO3OAl3CaO

O10HSONaOH12.O3CaO.Al

232432

242232

Equation 2.4

Figure 2.3: Schematic diagram for sulphate attack (China Microsilica Union, 2011)

2.4.4 Seawater attack

Marine environments are very aggressive, since seawater mainly consists of chlorides

and sulphates. Both ions can be very harmful to the durability of concrete structures

which can affect the long-term durability and may cause a huge economic loss.

Furthermore, concretes are exposed to repeated drying–wetting cycles, such as in the

marine environment of splash and tidal zone which can accelerate the deterioration of

structures (Chen et al., 2016).

20

The main attack mechanism in marine environments is external sulphate

attack. This occurs when water contaminated with sulphates penetrates into the

concrete by means of diffusion or capillary suction. Sulphates are mostly found in the

form of sodium sulphate (Na2SO4) or magnesium sulphate (MgSO4). The cation

associated with SO42+ has an influence on the attack mechanism and the consequence

of deterioration (Maes & Belie, 2014). Sodium sulphate attack will result in expansive

reaction products while magnesium sulphate attack will result in reduction in strength.

Al-Amoudi (2002) describes the sequence of attack by magnesium sulphate in

seawater as follows:

Mg(OH)OH2CaSO O2HMgSOCa(OH) 224242 Equation 2.5

OHSiOMg(OH)OH2CaSO

OHMgSOH-S-C

22224

24

Equation 2.6

OHOH58SiOMgO OHSiO4Mg(OH) 222222 n Equation 2.7

Zacarias (2007) stated that calcium chloroaluminate hydrate or Fridel’s salt is

an important phase formed during exposure of concrete to seawater. Generally,

chloride and sulphate ion from seawater penetrate into concrete forming Fridels salt

and ettringite. However, magnesium sulphate also attacks calcium hydroxide and

calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) phases. According to Leng et al. (2000), magnesium

sulphate attacks calcium hydroxide and C-S-H, reacts with C-H to form secondary

gypsum and brucite. Apart from that, Islam et al. (2010) found that chloride reacting

with C-H of hydrated cement has led to weight loss and weakening the concrete

structures. Figure 2.4 illustrates the mechanism of deterioration act on concrete

exposed to seawater.

21

Figure 2.4: Concrete exposed to seawater (Malhorta, 2000)

2.5 Aggressive exposure condition

The most serious problem in concrete technology is the premature deterioration of

concrete structures that subjected to harsh environments. There is overwhelming

evidence from the field experience that many problems related to durability, such as

sulphate attack, reinforcement corrosion, carbonation and alkali-silica reaction in

concrete would not have occurred if the concrete is vulnerable to the environment and

during the intended service life at the time of exposure (Neville, 2004). The related

issue of durability, the selection of materials, aggregate mix proportions and

construction practices using concrete must be addressed. The industry must develop a

new comprehensive model of concrete deterioration and quantify the environmental

influences on the permeability of concrete.

Concrete bridge decks and parking structures are typically consist of concrete

deck, reinforced with steel bars, post or pre-tensioning tendons, which serve as the

finished wearing surface and can resist the abrasion of tires on surfaces. Some of these

22

decks are exposed to rain and snow, and others are subjected indirectly to moisture

carried on the undersides of cars. Moisture may also be associated with deck cleaning

and maintenance activities. De-icing salt is also brought from undersides of cars or

applied directly to the deck to melt ice and snow for improved traction. Virtually, all

de-icing salt used in the current road and highway maintenance contains chlorides

(Fortin et al., 2014). The water stands on the deck surface may worsen from the

exposure of chlorides. In offshore and marine areas, salty sand, salt-water spray,

seawater, and prevalent high moisture conditions can also lead to serious corrosion

problems.

The temperature follows seasonal and daily temperature cycles, although a

temperature lag always occurs in the structure materials. Differences in temperature

along cross-sections of a reinforced concrete structure result in volume changes in the

members, whereby changes that are greater than those within enclosed structures.

Such changes are frequently smaller in the plan dimensions and exist in an

environment with more constant temperature, humidity, and moisture. Restraint of

volume change can cause racking of decks and floor slabs, beams and columns, and if

unprotected itmay allow rapid ingress of water and chlorides leading to further

deterioration (Merritt & Ricketts, 2001). When de-icing salts are used, some of these

salts will be absorbed by the cover of the concrete. A high osmotic and hydraulic

pressure with a consequent movement of water toward the coldest zone which causes

freezing will be occurred under severe wetting, drying, freezing and thawing cycles.

Damage can occur when the tensile strain exceeds ithe capacity of the concrete, which

varies with the age of the concrete and the rate of application of strain. The extent of

damage varies from surface scaling to complete disintegration as the layers of ice is

formed, starting at the exposed surface of the concrete and progressing through its

depth (Yuan et al., 2003).

2.5.1 Wetting and drying

Wetting and drying cycles can cause constant moisture movement through concrete

pores (Hong & Hooton, 1999; Sahmaran et al., 2007; Jaya et al., 2014; Ye et al., 2016).

It is well-known that wetting and drying cycles may speed up concrete degradation

and durability problems because this has subjected the concrete to the motion and

23

accumulation of destructive elements, such as sulphates, alkalis, acids, and chlorides.

According to Hong & Hooton (1999), there are several mechanisms governing

chloride ingress into concrete such as absorption, diffusion, chloride binding,

permeation, wicking and dispersion. Absorption and diffusion are the most significant

mechanism of chloride ingress for the structures exposed to cyclic wetting-drying.

Chloride-induced corrosion of steel reinforcement is a major cause affecting the

service life of reinforced concrete structure exposed to aggressive environments.

Chloride ions ingression by pore diffusion is a rare occasion when the concrete

structure is exposed to continuous wetting–drying cycles by tidal and splash action

(Maekawa et al., 2003). Various model and analysis technology have been proposed

including the condition of cyclic wetting–drying for chloride ions transport in sound

concrete. Most of analyses were based on the condition of chloride penetration into

saturated concrete, however in reality, concrete was often found in an unsaturated

condition rather than a saturation condition especially when subjected to cyclic

wetting–drying (Ye et al., 2012).

Ye et al. (2016) have conducted an experiment on chloride penetration process

in concrete exposed to a cyclic drying-wetting and carbonation environment. Based

on the findings, the chloride penetration profile in concrete was produced by multiple

interactive deteriorating mechanisms, and was dependent on the properties and stress

status of the concrete itself. Their study also claimed that the incorporation of

supplementary cementitious materials have made concrete more vulnerable to chloride

attack under a combined deterioration of cyclic drying-wetting and carbonation, since

the deficiency of portlandite dominates the positive effects such as pore refinement.

2.5.2 Freeze and thaw

Freeze and thaw damages may be caused by internal frost damage or salt-scaling.

Resistance to internal frost damage is enhanced by providing an adequate air void

system—including proper total air void volume as well as proper air void size and

spacing. It can also be enhanced by using low water-cementitious materials ratios and

supplementary cementitious materials to reduce both permeability and, in particular,

24

the number of large pores. Increasing the concrete strength also enhances the

resistance to internal frost damage. Salt-scaling can be prevented by providing an

adequate entrained air void system, reducing the water-cementitious materials ratio,

and providing proper finishing and curing practices. There is some evidence that the

use of fly ash or slag may reduce salt-scaling resistance.

The freeze-thaw durability of self-compacting concrete is frequently

comparable to or better than conventionally placed concrete. The low water-

cementitious materials ratios and with adequate entrain air can enhance the freeze-

thaw resistance. The use of fly ash and slag, however, may reduce salt-scaling

resistance. Persson (2003) found the internal frost resistance of self-compacting

concrete to be better compared to conventionally placed concrete and it also found to

be similar to the salt-scaling resistance Heirman and Vandewalle (2003) found thatthe

freeze-thaw durability was similar however the salt-scaling resistance decreased in

relative to conventionally placed concrete when a variety of fillers were used and the

water-cement ratio was held constant. Audenaert, Boel, and De Schutter (2002) found

that the reduction of water-cement and water-powder ratios in self-compacting

concrete mixtures have improved internal frost resistance. The use of some high range

water reducing admixtures under certain conditions may detrimentally affect the air

content and characteristics of the air void system. Khayat and Assaad (2002), however,

found that the air void characteristics of self-compacting concrete were similar to those

of conventionally placed concrete and the air void stability could be improved by

increasing the cementitious materials content. These will reduce the water-

cementitious materials ratio or adding a viscosity modifying admixtures in mixtures

with low cementitious materials contents and high water-cementitious materials ratios.

2.5.3 Laboratory simulation of wetting and drying cycles

Generally, the mechanism of cyclic wetting and drying allow for deeper penetration

of aggressive ions. For example, the aggressive ions can cause corrosion at rate 20

times higher than the rate achieved by exposure to continuous immersion (McCarter

& Watson, 1997). Obviously, the rate of the ions penetration to the concrete is depends

on the duration of the wetting-drying periods. The simulation of wetting and drying

207

REFERENCES

Abubakar, A. U., & Baharudin, K. S. (2012). Properties of concrete using tanjung bin

power plant coal bottom ash and fly ash. International Journal of Sustainable

Construction Engineering and Technology, 3(2), 56-69.

Aggarwal, P., Aggarwal, Y., & Gupta, S. M. (2007). Effect of bottom ash as

replacement of fine aggregates in concrete. Asian journal of civil engineering

(building and housing), 8(1), 49-62.

Aggarwal, P., Siddique, R., Aggarwal, Y., & Gupta, S. M. (2008). Self-compacting

concrete-procedure for mix design. Leonardo electronic journal of practices and

technologies, 12, 15-24.

Aggarwal, Y., & Aggarwal, P. (2011). Prediction of Compressive Strength of SCC

Containing Bottom Ash using Artificial Neural Networks. World Academy of

Science, Engineering and Technology, 53, 735-740.

Aggarwal, Y., & Siddique, R. (2014). Microstructure and properties of concrete using

bottom ash and waste foundry sand as partial replacement of fine aggregates.

Construction and Building Materials, 54, 210-223.

Ahmadi, M. A., Alidoust, O., Sadrinejad, I., & Nayeri, M. (2007). Development of

mechanical properties of self compacting concrete contain rice husk ash.

International Journal of Computer, Information, and Systems Science, and

Engineering, 1(4), 259-262.

Ahmaruzzaman, M. (2010). A review on the utilization of fly ash. Progress in energy

and combustion science, 36(3), 327-363.

Al-Akhras, N. M. (2006). Durability of metakaolin concrete to sulfate attack. Cement

and concrete research, 36(9), 1727-1734.

Al-Amoudi, O. S. B. (2002). Attack on plain and blended cements exposed to

aggressive sulfate environments. Cement and Concrete Composites, 24(3), 305-

316.

Al-Amoudi, O. S. B. (2002). Durability of plain and blended cements in marine

environments. Advances in Cement Research, 14(3), 89-100.

Al-Dulaijan, S. U., Maslehuddin, M., Al-Zahrani, M. M., Sharif, A. M., Shameem,

M., & Ibrahim, M. (2003). Sulfate resistance of plain and blended cements

208

exposed to varying concentrations of sodium sulfate. Cement and Concrete

Composites, 25(4), 429-437.

Alexander, M., Bertron, A., & De Belie, N. (2013). Performance of cement-based

materials in aggressive aqueous environments. Dordrecht, the Netherlands:

Springer.

Algin, H. M., & Turgut, P. (2008). Cotton and limestone powder wastes as brick

material. Construction and Building Materials, 22(6), 1074-1080.

Al-Salami, A. E. (2012). The Effect of Fly Ash on Resistance of Hardened Cement

Pastes to Sodium Chloride Attack. Journal of Applied Sciences, 12: 84-89.

Andrade, L. B., Rocha, J. C., & Cheriaf, M. (2009). Influence of coal bottom ash as

fine aggregate on fresh properties of concrete. Construction and Building

Materials, 23(2), 609-614.

Andrade, L., Rocha, J. C., & Cheriaf, M. (2007). Evaluation of concrete incorporating

bottom ash as a natural aggregates replacement. Waste Management, 27(9), 1190-

1199.

Arshad, M. F. (2009). Influence of multiple blended binders on properties and

performance of concrete, Ph.D Thesis, School of Civil Engineering, Universiti

Sains Malaysia.

Arumugam, K., Ilangovan, R., & Manohar, D. J. (2011). A study on characterization

and use of Pond Ash as fine aggregate in Concrete. International Journal of Civil

& Structural Engineering, 2(2), 466-474.

Arya, C., & Xu, Y. (1995). Effect of cement type on chloride binding and corrosion

of steel in concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 25(4), 893-902.

ASTM C1202-12, Standard Test Method for Electrical Indication of Concrete's

Ability to Resist Chloride Ion Penetration, ASTM International, West

Conshohocken, PA, 2012, www.astm.org

ASTM C331 / C331M-14, Standard Specification for Lightweight Aggregates for

Concrete Masonry Units, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014,

www.astm.org

ASTM C494 / C494M-15a, Standard Specification for Chemical Admixtures for

Concrete, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2015, www.astm.org

ASTM C618-15, Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw or Calcined

Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete, ASTM International, West Conshohocken,

PA, 2015, www.astm.org

http://www.astm.org/

209

ASTM C690-09 (2014), Standard Test Method for Particle Size Distribution of

Alumina or Quartz Powders by Electrical Sensing Zone Technique, ASTM

International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2014, www.astm.org

ASTM D2320-98 (2012), Standard Test Method for Density (Relative Density) of

Solid Pitch (Pycnometer Method), ASTM International, West Conshohocken,

PA, 2012, www.astm.org

Azeredo, G., & Diniz, M. (2013). Self-compacting concrete obtained by the use of

kaolin wastes. Construction and Building Materials, 38, 515–523.

doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.08.027

Bai, Y., Darcy, F., & Basheer, P. A. M. (2005). Strength and drying shrinkage

properties of concrete containing furnace bottom ash as fine aggregate.

Construction and Building materials, 19(9), 691-697.

Bassuoni, M. T., & Nehdi, M. L. (2009). Durability of self-consolidating concrete to

sulfate attack under combined cyclic environments and flexural loading. Cement

and Concrete Research, 39(3), 206-226.

Behfarnia, K., & Farshadfar, O. (2013). The effects of pozzolanic binders and

polypropylene fibers on durability of SCC to magnesium sulfate attack.


Berg, E.R., Neal, F.A., 1998. Municipal solid waste bottom ash as portland cement

concrete ingredient. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering.

Bertolini, L., Carsana, M., Cassago, D., Curzio, A. Q., & Collepardi, M. (2004).

MSWI ashes as mineral additions in concrete. Cement and Concrete Research,

34(10), 1899-1906.

Bharatkumar, B. H., Narayanan, R., Raghuprasad, B. K., & Ramachandramurthy, D.

S. (2001). Mix proportioning of high performance concrete. Cement and Concrete

Composites, 23(1), 71-80.

BIBM, C., & ERMCO, E. EFNARC. 2005. The European guidelines for Self-

compacting concrete: specification, production and use. SCC European Project

Group.

Bilir, T. (2012). Effects of non-ground slag and bottom ash as fine aggregate on

concrete permeability properties. Construction and Building Materials, 26(1),

730-734.

210

Bilir, T. (2012). Effects of non-ground slag and bottom ash as fine aggregate on

concrete permeability properties. Construction and Building Materials, 26(1),

730-734.

Boukendakdji, O., Kadri, E. H., & Kenai, S. (2012). Effects of granulated blast furnace

slag and superplasticizer type on the fresh properties and compressive strength of

self-compacting concrete. Cement and concrete composites, 34(4), 583-590.

Bouzoubaa, N., & Lachemi, M. (2001). Self-compacting concrete incorporating high

volumes of class F fly ash: Preliminary results. Cement and Concrete Research,

31(3), 413-420.

British Standards Institute. (2000). BS EN 12390-4:2000. Testing hardened concrete.

Compressive strength. Specification for testing machines. Retrieved from

https://bsol.bsigroup.com

British Standards Institute. (2000). BS EN 410-1. Test sieves. Technical requirements

and testing. Test sieves of metal wire cloth. Retrieved from


British Standards Institute. (2002). BS EN 1008. Mixing water for concrete.

Specification for sampling, testing and assessing the suitability of water,

including water recovered from processes in the concrete industry, as mixing

water for concrete. Retrieved from https://bsol.bsigroup.com

British Standards Institute. (2003). BS EN 13925-1. Non-destructive testing. X-ray

diffraction from polycrystalline and amorphous materials. General principles.

Retrieved from https://bsol.bsigroup.com

British Standards Institute. (2006). BS EN 14630. Products and systems for the

protection and repair of concrete structures. Test methods. Determination of

carbonation depth in hardened concrete by the phenolphthalein method..


British Standards Institute. (2008). BS EN 933-4. Tests for geometrical properties of

aggregates. Determination of particle shape. Shape index. Retrieved from


British Standards Institute. (2009). BS EN 12390-3. Testing hardened concrete.

Compressive strength of test specimens. Retrieved from



Flexural strength of test specimens. Retrieved from https://bsol.bsigroup.com

https://bsol.bsigroup.com/




211

British Standards Institute. (2009). BS EN 12390-6. Testing hardened concrete.

Tensile splitting strength of test specimens. Retrieved from



Tensile splitting strength of test specimens. Retrieved from


British Standards Institute. (2010). BS EN 1097-2. Tests for mechanical and physical

properties of aggregates. Methods for the determination of resistance to

fragmentation. Retrieved from https://bsol.bsigroup.com

British Standards Institute. (2010). BS EN 12350-10. Testing fresh concrete. Self-

compacting concrete. L box test. Retrieved from https://bsol.bsigroup.com


compacting concrete. Sieve segregation test. Retrieved from



compacting concrete. Slump-flow test. Retrieved from https://bsol.bsigroup.com

British Standards Institute. (2011). BS 1881-122. Testing concrete. Method for

determination of water absorption. Retrieved from https://bsol.bsigroup.com

British Standards Institute. (2011). BS EN 197-1. Cement. Composition,

specifications and conformity criteria for common cements. Retrieved from


British Standards Institute. (2011). BS EN ISO 12677. Chemical analysis of refractory

products by X-ray fluorescence (XRF). Fused cast-bead method. Retrieved from


British Standards Institute. (2012). BS EN 933-3. Tests for geometrical properties of

aggregates. Determination of particle shape. Flakiness index. Retrieved from


British Standards Institute. (2013). BS EN 1097-6. Tests for mechanical and physical

properties of aggregates. Determination of particle density and water absorption.


British Standards Institute. (2013). BS EN 12620. Aggregates for concrete. Retrieved

from https://bsol.bsigroup.com

British Standards Institute. (2013). BS EN 206. Concrete. Specification, performance,

production and conformity. Retrieved from https://bsol.bsigroup.com



212

Cabrera, J. G., & Lynsdale, C. J. (1988). A new gas permeameter for measuring the

permeability of mortar and concrete. Magazine of Concrete Research, 40(144),

177-182.

Cachim, P. B. (2009). Mechanical properties of brick aggregate concrete. Construction

and Building Materials, 23(3), 1292-1297.

Cachim, P., Velosa, A. L., & Ferraz, E. (2014). Substitution materials for sustainable

concrete production in Portugal. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 18(1), 60-

66.

Chatveera, B., & Lertwattanaruk, P. (2009). Evaluation of sulfate resistance of cement

mortars containing black rice husk ash. Journal of environmental management,

90(3), 1435-1441.

Chen, Y., Gao, J., Tang, L., & Li, X. (2016). Resistance of concrete against combined

attack of chloride and sulfate under drying–wetting cycles. Construction and

Building Materials, 106, 650-658.

Cheng, Y., Huang, F., Li, G. L., Xu, L., & Hou, J. (2014). Test research on effects of

ceramic polishing powder on carbonation and sulphate-corrosion resistance of

concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 55, 440-446.

Chidiac, S. E., Maadani, O., Razaqpur, A. G., & Mailvaganam, N. P. (2003).

Correlation of rheological properties to durability and strength of hardened

concrete. Journal of materials in civil engineering, 15(4), 391-399.

China Microsilica Union. Addition of Topken Microsilica to Portland cement. Article

online published 16th March 2011, retrieved at

http://chinamicrosilica.com/tech/54.html

Chindaprasirt, P., Kanchanda, P., Sathonsaowaphak, A., & Cao, H. T. (2007). Sulfate

resistance of blended cements containing fly ash and rice husk ash. Construction


Chotetanorm, C., Chindaprasirt, P., Sata, V., Rukzon, S., & Sathonsaowaphak, A.

(2012). High-calcium bottom ash geopolymer: sorptivity, pore size, and

resistance to sodium sulfate attack. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering,

25(1), 105-111.

Chun, L. B., Sung, K. J., Sang, K. T., & Chae, S. T. (2008). A study on the fundamental

properties of concrete incorporating pond-ash in Korea. In The 3rd ACF

international conference-ACF/VCA (pp. 401-408).

213

Claisse, P., & Dean, C. (2012). Compressive strength of concrete after early loading.

Proceedings of the ICE-Construction Materials, 166(3), 152-157.

Csizmadia, J., Balázs, G., & Tamás, F. D. (2001). Chloride ion binding capacity of

aluminoferrites. Cement and Concrete Research, 31(4), 577-588.

De Schutter, G. (2005). Guidelines for testing fresh self-compacting concrete.

European Research Project.

Dehn, F., Holschemacher, K., & Weiße, D. (2000). Self-compacting concrete (SCC)

time development of the material properties and the bond behaviour.

Selbstverdichtendem Beton.

Domone, P. L. (2006). Self-compacting concrete: An analysis of 11 years of case

studies. Cement and Concrete Composites, 28(2), 197-208.

Domone, P. L. (2007). A review of the hardened mechanical properties of self-

compacting concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites, 29(1), 1-12.

Domone, P., & Illston, J. (Eds.). (2010). Construction materials: their nature and

behaviour. CRC Press.

Dotto, J. M. R., De Abreu, A. G., Dal Molin, D. C. C., & Müller, I. L. (2004). Influence

of silica fume addition on concretes physical properties and on corrosion

behaviour of reinforcement bars. Cement and Concrete Composites, 26(1), 31-39.

Druta, C. (2003). Tensile strength and bonding characteristics of self-compacting

concrete (Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of the Louisiana State University and

Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for

the degree of Master of Science in Engineering Science in The Department of

Engineering Science by Cristian Druta BS (Mechanical Eng.), Polytechnic

University of Bucharest).

Dubey, R., & Kumar, P. (2012). Effect of superplasticizer dosages on compressive

strength of self compacting concrete. International Journal of Civil and Structural

Engineering, 3(2), 360.

EFNARC, S. (2002). Guidelines for self-compacting concrete. London, UK:

Association House, 32-34.

Ekolu, S. O., Thomas, M. D. A., & Hooton, R. D. (2006). Pessimum effect of

externally applied chlorides on expansion due to delayed ettringite formation:

Proposed mechanism. Cement and concrete research, 36(4), 688-696.

Escalante, E. (1990). Effectiveness of potential measurements for estimating corrosion

of steel in concrete. Elsevier Applied Science, 281-292.

214

Ettu, L. O., Ezeh, J. C., Anya, U. C., Nwachukwu, K. C., & Njoku, K. O. (2013).

Strength of Ternary Blended Cement Concrete Containing Afikpo Rice Husk Ash

and Saw Dust Ash. International Journal of Engineering Science Invention, 38-

42.

Evangelista, L., & De Brito, J. (2007). Mechanical behaviour of concrete made with

fine recycled concrete aggregates. Cement and Concrete Composites, 29(5), 397-

401.

Famy, C., & Taylor, H. F. (2001). Ettringite in hydration of Portland cement concrete

and its occurrence in mature concretes. Materials Journal, 98(4), 350-356.

Farzadnia, N., Ali, A., Abdullah, A., & Demirboga, R. (2011). Incorporation of

mineral admixtures in sustainable high performance concrete. International

Journal of Sustainable Construction, 2(1), 1-13.

Fattuhi N.J., “Carbonation of Concrete as Affected by Mix Constituents and Initial

Water Curing Period,” Materials of Constructions, Vol. 19, No. 110, pp. 131- 136

(1986).

Ferreira, R. M., Liu, G., Nilsson, L., & Gjørv, O. E. (2004). Blast-furnace slag cements

for concrete durability in marine environment.

Fu, X., Wang, Z., Tao, W., Yang, C., Hou, W., Dong, Y., & Wu, X. (2002). Studies

on blended cement with a large amount of fly ash. Cement and Concrete Research,

32(7), 1153-1159.

Gambhir, M. L. (2006). Fundamentals of reinforced concrete design. PHI Learning

Pvt. Ltd.

Ganesh Prabhu, G., Bang, J. W., Lee, B. J., Hyun, J. H., & Kim, Y. Y. (2015).

Mechanical and Durability Properties of Concrete Made with Used Foundry Sand

as Fine Aggregate. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering.

Ganjian, E., & Pouya, H. S. (2005). Effect of magnesium and sulfate ions on durability

of silica fume blended mixes exposed to the seawater tidal zone. Cement and

concrete research, 35(7), 1332-1343.

Ganjian, E., & Pouya, H. S. (2009). The effect of Persian Gulf tidal zone exposure on

durability of mixes containing silica fume and blast furnace slag. Construction


Gao, J., Yu, Z., Song, L., Wang, T., & Wei, S. (2013). Durability of concrete exposed

to sulfate attack under flexural loading and drying–wetting cycles. Construction

and Building Materials, 39, 33-38.

215

Ghafoori, N., & Bucholc, J. (1996). Investigation of lignite-based bottom ash for

structural concrete. Journal of materials in civil engineering, 8(3), 128-137.

Ghafoori, N., & Bucholc, J. (1996). Investigation of lignite-based bottom ash for

structural concrete. Journal of materials in civil engineering, 8(3), 128-137.

Ghafoori, N., & Bucholc, J. (1997). Properties of high-calcium dry bottom ash

concrete. ACI Materials Journal, 94(2), 90-101.

Ghafoori, N., & Cai, Y. (1998a). Laboratory-Made RCC containing Dry Bottom Ash:

Part I—Mechanical Properties. Materials Journal, 95(2), 121-130.

Ghafoori, N., & Cai, Y. (1998b). Laboratory-made roller compacted concretes

containing dry bottom ash: Part ii—long-term durability. Materials Journal, 95(3),

244-251.

Giaccio, G., de Sensale, G. R., & Zerbino, R. (2007). Failure mechanism of normal

and high-strength concrete with rice-husk ash. Cement and concrete composites,

29(7), 566-574.

Glasser, F. P., Marchand, J., & Samson, E. (2008). Durability of concrete—

degradation phenomena involving detrimental chemical reactions. Cement and

Concrete Research, 38(2), 226-246.

Hadiwidodo, Y., & Mohd, S. (2005). Review of testing methods for self compacting

concrete. In International Conference on Construction and Building Technology

2008–A–(05) (pp. 69-82).

Hamzah, A. F., Ibrahim, W., Haziman, M., Jamaluddin, N., Jaya, R. P., Abidin, Z., &

Ernida, N. (2015, October). Fresh Properties of Self-Compacting Concrete

Integrating Coal Bottom Ash as a Replacement of Fine Aggregates. In Advanced

Materials Research (Vol. 1125, pp. 370-376). Trans Tech Publications.

Hekal, E. E., Kishar, E., & Mostafa, H. (2002). Magnesium sulfate attack on hardened

blended cement pastes under different circumstances. Cement and Concrete

Research, 32(9), 1421-1427.

Hewlett, P. (2003). Lea's chemistry of cement and concrete. Butterworth-Heinemann.

Hong, K. (1998). Cyclic wetting and drying and its effects on chloride ingress in

concrete.

Hong, K., & Hooton, R. D. (1999). Effects of cyclic chloride exposure on penetration

of concrete cover. Cement and Concrete Research, 29(9), 1379-1386.

216

Hossain, K. M. A., & Lachemi, M. (2006). Performance of volcanic ash and pumice

based blended cement concrete in mixed sulfate environment. Cement and


Irassar, E. F., Bonavetti, V. L., Trezza, M. A., & González, M. A. (2005). Thaumasite

formation in limestone filler cements exposed to sodium sulphate solution at 20

C. Cement and Concrete Composites, 27(1), 77-84.

Islam, M. M., Islam, M. S., Mondal, B. C., & Islam, M. R. (2010). Strength behavior

of concrete using slag with cement in sea water environment. Journal of Civil

Engineering (IEB), 38(2), 129-140.

Jang, J. G., Kim, H. J., Kim, H. K., & Lee, H. K. (2016). Resistance of coal bottom

ash mortar against the coupled deterioration of carbonation and chloride

penetration. Materials & Design, 93, 160-167.

Janković, K., Nikolić, D., Bojović, D., Lončar, L., & Romakov, Z. (2011). The

estimation of compressive strength of normal and recycled aggregate concrete.

Facta universitatis-series: Architecture and Civil Engineering, 9(3), 419-431.

Jaturapitakkul, C., & Cheerarot, R. (2003). Development of bottom ash as pozzolanic

material. Journal of materials in civil engineering, 15(1), 48-53.

Jawahar, J. G., Sashidhar, C., Reddy, I. R., & Peter, J. A. (2012). A simple tool for

self compacting concrete mix design. International Journal of Advances in

Engineering & Technology, 3(2), 550.

Jaya, R. P., Bakar, B. H. A., Johari, M. A. M., Ibrahim, M. H. W., Hainin, M. R., &

Jayanti, D. S. (2014). Strength and microstructure analysis of concrete containing

rice husk ash under seawater attack by wetting and drying cycles. Advances in

Cement Research, 26(3), 145-154.

Jaya, R., Bakar, B., Johari, M., & Ibrahim, M. (2011). Strength and permeability

properties of concrete containing rice husk ash with different grinding time. Open

Engineering, 1(1), 103-112.

Kadam, M. P., & Patil, Y. D. (2013). Effect of coal bottom ash as sand replacement

on the properties of concrete with different w/c ratio. International Journal of

Advanced Technology in Civil Engineering, ISSN, 2231-5721.

Kartini, K. (2009). Mechanical, time-dependent and durability properties of Grade 30

rice husk ash concrete. Unpublished Ph. D Thesis, University of Malaya,

Malaysia, 1-324.

217

Kartini, K., Hamidah, M. S., Norhana, A. R., & Nur, H. A. R. (2014). Quarry dust fine

powder as substitute for ordinary Portland cement in concrete mix. Journal of

Engineering Science and Technology, 9(2), 191-205.

Kasemchaisiri, R., & Tangtermsirikul, S. (2008). Properties of self-compacting

concrete in corporating bottom ash as a partial replacement of fine aggregate.

Science Asia, 34, 87-95.

Katz, A. (2003). Properties of concrete made with recycled aggregate from partially

hydrated old concrete. Cement and concrete Research, 33(5), 703-711.

Khatib, J. M. (2005). Properties of concrete incorporating fine recycled aggregate.

Cement and Concrete Research, 35(4), 763-769.

Khayat, K. H. (2000). Optimization and performance of air-entrained, self-

consolidating concrete. Materials Journal, 97(5), 526-535.

Kim, H. K., & Lee, H. K. (2011). Use of power plant bottom ash as fine and coarse

aggregates in high-strength concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 25(2),

1115-1122.

Kim, H. K., Jang, J. G., Choi, Y. C., & Lee, H. K. (2014). Improved chloride resistance

of high-strength concrete amended with coal bottom ash for internal curing.


Kim, H. K., Jang, J. G., Choi, Y. C., & Lee, H. K. (2014). Improved chloride resistance

of high-strength concrete amended with coal bottom ash for internal curing.


Kou, S. C., & Poon, C. S. (2009). Properties of concrete prepared with crushed fine

stone, furnace bottom ash and fine recycled aggregate as fine aggregates.

Construction and Building Materials, 23(8), 2877-2886.

Kula, I., Olgun, A., Erdogan, Y., & Sevinc, V. (2002b). Effects of colemanite waste,

cool bottom ash, and fly ash on the properties of cement. Cement and Concrete

Research, 31(3), 491-494.

Kula, I., Olgun, A., Sevinc, V., & Erdogan, Y. (2002a). An investigation on the use of

tincal ore waste, fly ash, and coal bottom ash as Portland cement replacement

materials. Cement and Concrete Research, 32(2), 227-232.

Kung, P. Sensing & Measurement Fiber optic sensors to monitor reinforced concrete

corrosion. 15 April 2014, SPIE Newsroom. DOI: 10.1117/2.1201404.005448.

Kurama, H., & Kaya, M. (2008). Usage of coal combustion bottom ash in concrete

mixture. Construction and building materials, 22(9), 1922-1928.

218

Kurama, H., Topçu, İ.B. and Karakurt, C., (2009). Properties of the autoclaved aerated

concrete produced from coal bottom ash. Journal of Materials Processing

Technology, 209(2), pp.767–773.

Lachemi, M. (2001). Self Compacting Concrete Incorporating High-Volumes of Class

F Fly Ash : Preliminary Results, 31(3), 413–420.

Lay, S., Liebl, S., Hilbig, H., & Schießl, P. (2004). New method to measure the rapid

chloride migration coefficient of chloride-contaminated concrete. Cement and


Lee, S. T., Moon, H. Y., Hooton, R. D., & Kim, J. P. (2005). Effect of solution

concentrations and replacement levels of metakaolin on the resistance of mortars

exposed to magnesium sulfate solutions. Cement and concrete research, 35(7),

1314-1323.

Leng, F., Feng, N., & Lu, X. (2000). An experimental study on the properties of

resistance to diffusion of chloride ions of fly ash and blast furnace slag concrete.


Li, G. (2004). Properties of high-volume fly ash concrete incorporating nano-SiO 2.

Cement and Concrete research, 34(6), 1043-1049.

Madandoust, R., & Mousavi, S. Y. (2012). Fresh and hardened properties of self-

compacting concrete containing metakaolin. Construction and Building

Materials, 35, 752–760. doi:10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.04.109

Maekawa K, Ishida T, Kishi T. Multi-scale modeling of concrete performance. J Adv

Concr Technol 2003;1(2):91–126.

Maes, M., & De Belie, N. (2014). Resistance of concrete and mortar against combined

attack of chloride and sodium sulphate. Cement and Concrete Composites, 53,

59-72.

Malaysia Energy Comission. (2014). Peninsular Malaysia Electricity Supply. Industry

Outlook. Commission. Putrajaya. ISSN : 2289-7666.

Malaysian Meteorological Department. (2010). Malaysia tide forecast,

www.met.gov.my.

Malhorta, V.M., Durability of Concrete, Chapter 26, Uhlig's Corrosion Handbook

Second Edition, R.W. Revie Ed., Wiley, 2000.

Marchand, J., Samson, E., Maltais, Y., & Beaudoin, J. J. (2002). Theoretical analysis

of the effect of weak sodium sulfate solutions on the durability of concrete.

Cement and Concrete Composites, 24(3), 317-329.

http://www.met.gov.my/

219

Mardani-Aghabaglou, A., Tuyan, M., & Ramyar, K. (2015). Mechanical and

durability performance of concrete incorporating fine recycled concrete and glass

aggregates. Materials and Structures, 48(8), 2629-2640.

McCarter, W. J., & Watson, D. (1997). Wetting and drying of cover-zone concrete.

Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Structures and buildings,

122(2), 227-236.

McCarthy, M. J., Tittle, P. A. J., Kii, K. H., & Dhir, R. K. (2001). Mix proportioning

and engineering properties of conditioned PFA concrete. Cement and concrete

research, 31(2), 321-326.

McKnight, T. L., & Hess, D. (2000). Climate zones and types: the Köppen system.

Physical Geography: A Landscape Appreciation. Upper Saddle River, NJ:

Prentice Hall, 235-7.

Medeiros, M. H. F., Gobbi, A., Réus, G. C., & Helene, P. (2013). Reinforced concrete

in marine environment: Effect of wetting and drying cycles, height and

positioning in relation to the sea shore. Construction and Building Materials, 44,

452-457.

Medeiros, M. H. F., Hoppe Filho, J., & Helene, P. (2009). Influence of the slice

position on chloride migration tests for concrete in marine conditions. Marine

structures, 22(2), 128-141.

Mehta, P. K. (2004). HIGH-PERFORMANCE , HIGH-VOLUME FLY ASH

CONCRETE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT. International Workshop

on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology, 3–14.

Mehta, P. K., & Monteiro, P. J. M. (2006). Microstructure and properties of hardened

concrete. Concrete: Microstructure, properties and materials, 41-80.

Mehta, P. K., & Monteiro, P. J. M. (2006). Microstructure and properties of hardened

concrete. Concrete: Microstructure, properties and materials, 41-80.

Mehta, P. K., (1991), Concrete in the marine environment, Elsevier Applied Science.

Memon, A. H., Radin, S. S., Zain, M. F. M., & Trottier, J. F. (2002). Effects of mineral

and chemical admixtures on high-strength concrete in seawater. Cement and


Memon, A. H., Radin, S. S., Zain, M. F. M., & Trottier, J. F. (2002). Effects of mineral

and chemical admixtures on high-strength concrete in seawater. Cement and


220

Mewah, T. S., & Ehsan, S. D. (2002). THE READY MIX INDUSTRY – WHAT

NOW ? By Ir . Dr . Kribanandan Gurusamy Naidu B . Sc ., Ph . D ., C . Eng ,

MICE , P . Eng , MIEM, (July), 1–20.

Mohd Amizan. M., and Kartini, K. “Empty Fruit Bunch Ash (EFBash) Concrete” –

Advances in Concrete Engineering and Technology. International 10th

International Conference on Concrete Engineering and Technology 2009-

CONCET’09, INTEKMA Resort, Shah Alam, CD Version, ISBN 978-983-9414-

85-1, 2 - 4 March 2009.

Mohd Sani, M. S. H., Muftah, F., & Muda, Z. (2010). The Properties of Special

Concrete Using Bottom Ash (WBA) as Partial Sand Replacement. International

Journal of Sustainable Construction Engineering & Technology, 2, 65-76.

Mohr, B. J., Nanko, H., & Kurtis, K. E. (2005). Durability of thermomechanical pulp

fiber-cement composites to wet/dry cycling. Cement and concrete research, 35(8),

1646-1649.

Monteiro, P. J., & Kurtis, K. E. (2003). Time to failure for concrete exposed to severe

sulfate attack. Cement and Concrete Research, 33(7), 987-993.

Montemor, M. F., Simoes, A. M. P., & Ferreira, M. G. S. (2003). Chloride-induced

corrosion on reinforcing steel: from the fundamentals to the monitoring

techniques. Cement and Concrete Composites, 25(4), 491-502.

Murthy, K., Rao, N., Reddy, R., & Sekhar, V. V. (2012). Mix design procedure for

self-compacting concrete. IOSR Journal of Engineering, 2(9), 33-41.

Naik, T. R., Kraus, R. N., Siddique, R., & Chun, Y. M. (2004). Properties of controlled

low-strength materials made with wood fly ash. In Innovations in Controlled

Low-Strength Material (Flowable Fill). ASTM International.

Naik, T. R., Patel, V. M., Parikh, D. M., & Tharaniyil, M. P. (1994). Utilization of

used foundry sand in concrete. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 6(2),

254-263.

Najimi, M., Sobhani, J., & Pourkhorshidi, A. R. (2011). Durability of copper slag

contained concrete exposed to sulfate attack. Construction and Building materials,

25(4), 1895-1905.

Najimi, M., Sobhani, J., Ahmadi, B., & Shekarchi, M. (2012). An experimental study

on durability properties of concrete containing zeolite as a highly reactive natural

pozzolan. Construction and Building Materials, 35, 1023-1033.

221

Nehdi, M. L., & Bassuoni, M. T. (2008). Durability of self-consolidating concrete to

combined effects of sulphate attack and frost action. Materials and structures,

41(10), 1657-1679.

Nehdi, M., & Hayek, M. (2005). Behavior of blended cement mortars exposed to

sulfate solutions cycling in relative humidity. Cement and Concrete Research,

35(4), 731-742.

Neville, A. (2004). The confused world of sulfate attack on concrete. Cement and


Neville, A. M. (2002). Properties of Concrete, Pearson Prentice Hall.

Norazlan, H. (2008). Study on combustion characteristics of different compositions of

LPG (Doctoral dissertation, Universiti Malaysia Pahang).

NT BUILD 492. (1999). Concrete, mortar and cement-based repair materials:

Chloride migration coefficient from non-steady state migration experiments.

Nordtest, Espoo, Finland.

Nuaklong, P., Sata, V., & Chindaprasirt, P. (2016). Influence of recycled aggregate on

fly ash geopolymer concrete properties. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, 2300-

2307.

Nwofor, T. C., & Ukpaka, C. (2016). Assessment of Concrete Produced with Foundry

Waste as Partial Replacement for River Sand. Journal of Civil Engineering

Research, 6(1), 1-6.

Ogunbode, E. B., Akanmu, W. P., Moses, D. W., Akaleme, M. C., & Idris, H. (2013).

Performance of fly ash blended cement laterized concrete in sulphate

environment. International Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering and

Development Issue 3, Vol.2. Retrived at

http://rspublication.com/ijeted/march13/19.pdf

Okamura, H., & Ouchi, M. (2003). Self-compacting concrete. Journal of advanced

concrete technology, 1(1), 5-15.

Oner, A., & Akyuz, S. (2007). An experimental study on optimum usage of GGBS for

the compressive strength of concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites, 29(6),

505-514.

Ozawa, K., Maekawa, K., & Okamura, H. (1990, May). High performance concrete

with high filling capacity. In Admixtures for Concrete-Improvement of

Properties: Proceedings of the International RILEM Symposium (Vol. 5, p. 60).

CRC Press.

222

Papadakis, V. G. (2000). Effect of supplementary cementing materials on concrete

resistance against carbonation and chloride ingress. Cement and concrete

research, 30(2), 291-299.

Papadakis, V. G. (2000). Effect of supplementary cementing materials on concrete

resistance against carbonation and chloride ingress. Cement and concrete

research, 30(2), 291-299.

Pathak, N., & Siddique, R. (2012). Properties of self-compacting-concrete containing

fly ash subjected to elevated temperatures. Construction and building materials,

30, 274-280.

Pathak, N., & Siddique, R. (2012). Properties of self-compacting-concrete containing

fly ash subjected to elevated temperatures. Construction and building materials,

30, 274-280.

Persson, B. (2001). A comparison between mechanical properties of self-compacting

concrete and the corresponding properties of normal concrete. Cement and

concrete Research, 31(2), 193-198.

Pipilikaki, P., Katsioti, M., & Gallias, J. L. (2009). Performance of limestone cement

mortars in a high sulfates environment. Construction and Building Materials,

23(2), 1042-1049.

Pipilikaki, P., Papageorgiou, D., Teas, C., Chaniotakis, E., & Katsioti, M. (2008). The

effect of temperature on thaumasite formation. Cement and Concrete Composites,

30(10), 964-969.

Polder, R. B., & Peelen, W. H. (2002). Characterisation of chloride transport and

reinforcement corrosion in concrete under cyclic wetting and drying by electrical

resistivity. Cement and Concrete Composites, 24(5), 427-435.

Prasad, J., Jain, D. K., & Ahuja, A. K. (2006). Factors influencing the sulphate

resistance of cement concrete and mortar. Asian Journal of civil engineering

(Building and housing), 7(3), 259-268.

Proske, T. & Carl-Alexander Graubner. Influence of the coarse aggregates on the fresh

concrete properties. Darmstadt Concrete 18 (2003). Retrieved on July 16th, 2016

at http://www.massivbau.tu-

darmstadt.de/media/massivbau_fgm/pdf_cag/pdf_02_team_cag/team_cag_prosk

e/DACON2003_Gestein.pdf

Qian, B., Hou, B., & Zheng, M. (2013). The inhibition effect of tannic acid on mild

steel corrosion in seawater wet/dry cyclic conditions. Corrosion Science, 72, 1-9.

http://www.massivbau.tu-darmstadt.de/media/massivbau_fgm/pdf_cag/pdf_02_team_cag/team_cag_proske/DACON2003_Gestein.pdf



223

Ragab, A. M., Elgammal, M. A., Hodhod, O. A., & Ahmed, T. E. (2016). Evaluation

of field concrete deterioration under real conditions of seawater attack.


Ramadhansyah, P. J., Salwa, M. Z. M., Mahyun, A. W., Abu Bakar, B. H., Megat

Johari, M. A., & Che Norazman, C. W. (2012). Properties of concrete containing

rice husk ash under sodium chloride subjected to wetting and drying. Procedia

Engineering, 50, 305-313.

Ramanathan, P., Baskar, I., Muthupriya, P., & Venkatasubramani, R. (2013).

Performance of self-compacting concrete containing different mineral

admixtures. KSCE journal of Civil Engineering, 17(2), 465-472.

Reinhardt, H. W., & Stegmaier, M. (2006). Influence of heat curing on the pore

structure and compressive strength of self-compacting concrete (SCC). Cement


RILEM, T. (2000). 174 SCC.“Self compacting concrete State-of-the-art report of

RILEM technical committe 174-SCC”. Skarendahl A, Petersson O, editors.

Roy, D. M., Arjunan, P., & Silsbee, M. R. (2001). Effect of silica fume, metakaolin,

and low-calcium fly ash on chemical resistance of concrete. Cement and Concrete

Research, 31(12), 1809-1813.

Rozière, E., Loukili, A., El Hachem, R., & Grondin, F. (2009). Durability of concrete

exposed to leaching and external sulphate attacks. Cement and Concrete

Research, 39(12), 1188-1198.

Sahmaran, M., Erdem, T. K., & Yaman, I. O. (2007). Sulfate resistance of plain and

blended cements exposed to wetting–drying and heating–cooling environments.

Construction and Building Materials, 21(8), 1771-1778.

Sahmaran, M., & Yaman, I. O. (2007). Hybrid fiber reinforced self-compacting

concrete with a high-volume coarse fly ash. Construction and Building Materials,

21(1), 150-156.

Sahmaran, M., Li, M., & Li, V. C. (2007). Transport properties of engineered

cementitious composites under chloride exposure. ACI Materials Journal, 104(6),

604-611.

Santhanam, M., Cohen, M. D., & Olek, J. (2002). Modeling the effects of solution

temperature and concentration during sulfate attack on cement mortars. Cement


224

Santhanam, M., Cohen, M. D., & Olek, J. (2003). Effects of gypsum formation on the

performance of cement mortars during external sulfate attack. Cement and


Saraswathy, V., & Song, H. W. (2007). Corrosion performance of rice husk ash

blended concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 21(8), 1779-1784.

Schwartzentruber, L. A., Le Roy, R., & Cordin, J. (2006). Rheological behaviour of

fresh cement pastes formulated from a Self Compacting Concrete (SCC). Cement


Sekar, A. S. S. & Sarasvathy, V. (2008). Characteristic analysis of fly ash and micro

silica with reference to structural and corrosion aspects. New Building Materials

& Construction World (NBMCW), NBM Media Pvt. Ltd.

Senaratne, S., Gerace, D., Mirza, O., Tam, V. W., & Kang, W. H. (2016). The costs

and benefits of combining recycled aggregate with steel fibres as a sustainable,

structural material. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, 2318-2327.

Shayan, A., Xu, A., Chirgwin, G., & Morris, H. (2010). Effects of seawater on AAR

expansion of concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, 40(4), 563-568.

Siddique, R. (2003). Effect of fine aggregate replacement with Class F fly ash on the

mechanical properties of concrete. Cement and Concrete research, 33(4), 539-

547.

Siddique, R., Aggarwal, P., & Aggarwal, Y. (2012). Influence of water/powder ratio

on strength properties of self-compacting concrete containing coal fly ash and

bottom ash. Construction and Building Materials, 29, 73-81.

Siddique, R., Aggarwal, P., & Aggarwal, Y. (2012). Influence of water/powder ratio

on strength properties of self-compacting concrete containing coal fly ash and

bottom ash. Construction and Building Materials, 29, 73-81.

Siddique, R., De Schutter, G., & Noumowe, A. (2009). Effect of used-foundry sand

on the mechanical properties of concrete. Construction and Building Materials,

23(2), 976-980.

Singh, M., & Siddique, R. (2013). Effect of coal bottom ash as partial replacement of

sand on properties of concrete. Resources, conservation and recycling, 72, 20-32.

Singh, M., & Siddique, R. (2014). Strength properties and micro-structural properties

of concrete containing coal bottom ash as partial replacement of fine aggregate.


225

Singh, M., & Siddique, R. (2015). Properties of concrete containing high volumes of

coal bottom ash as fine aggregate. Journal of Cleaner Production, 91, 269-278.

Sonebi, M. (2004). Medium strength self-compacting concrete containing fly ash:

Modelling using factorial experimental plans. Cement and Concrete research,

34(7), 1199-1208.

Sruthee, P., Vigneshwari, M., Lalitha, M., Murali, G., Mohan, B. (2012) Enhancing

Tensile strength of concrete by using bottom ash partial replacment of fine

aggregate. International Journal of Advance Scientific Research and Technology,

Vol.3, pp. 356-358.

Tang, P., Yu, Q. L., Yu, R., & Brouwers, H. J. H. (2014). The application of MSWI

bottom ash fines in high performance concrete. Sustainable Construction

Materials, 435-438.

Topçu, İ. B., & Bilir, T. (2009). Experimental investigation of some fresh and

hardened properties of rubberized self-compacting concrete. Materials & Design,

30(8), 3056-3065.

Topçu, I. B., & Bilir, T. (2010). Effect of Bottom Ash as Fine Aggregate on Shrinkage

Cracking of Mortars. ACI Materials Journal, 107(1).

Topçu, İ. B., Toprak, M. U., & Uygunoğlu, T. (2014). Durability and microstructure

characteristics of alkali activated coal bottom ash geopolymer cement. Journal of

Cleaner Production, 81, 211-217.

Toth, P. S., Chan, H. T., & Cragg, C. B. (1988). Coal ash as structural fill, with special

reference to Ontario experience. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, 25(4), 694-704.

Turgut, P., & Algin, H. M. (2007). Limestone dust and wood sawdust as brick

material. Building and Environment, 42(9), 3399-3403.

Turk, K. (2012). Viscosity and hardened properties of self-compacting mortars with

binary and ternary cementitious blends of fly ash and silica fume. Construction

and Building Materials, 37, 326-334.

USGS, A Coal-Fired Thermoelectric Power Plant. Article online last modified 2nd

May 2016, retrieved at http://water.usgs.gov/edu/wupt-coalplant-diagram.html.

Varughese, K. T., & Chaturvedi, B. K. (1996). Fly ash as fine aggregate in polyester

based polymer concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites, 18(2), 105-108.

Vuk, T., Gabrovšek, R., & Kaučič, V. (2002). The influence of mineral admixtures on

sulfate resistance of limestone cement pastes aged in cold MgSO 4 solution.


http://water.usgs.gov/edu/wupt-coalplant-diagram.html

226

Wan Ibrahim, M. H., Hamzah, A. F., Jamaluddin, N., Ramadhansyah, P. J., & Fadzil,

A. M. (2015). Split Tensile Strength on Self-compacting Concrete Containing

Coal Bottom Ash. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 195, 2280-2289.

Wan Ibrahim, M. H., Zainal Abidin, N. E., Jamaluddin, N., Kamaruddin, K., &

Hamzah, A. F. (2016). Bottom ash–potential use in self-compacting concrete as

fine aggregate. ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences. Vol. 11, No.

4, Feb 2016.

Wee, T. H., Suryavanshi, A. K., Wong, S. F., & Rahman, A. A. (2000). Sulfate

resistance of concrete containing mineral admixtures. Materials Journal, 97(5),

536-549.

West, R. P. (2003). Self-compacting concrete. Concrete today, Magazine of the Irish

concrete federation, 7-9.

Xu, J., Jiang, L., & Wang, J. (2009). Influence of detection methods on chloride

threshold value for the corrosion of steel reinforcement. Construction and

Building Materials, 23(5), 1902-1908.

Yassine, S., Mohamed, M., Hamid, K., & Sofiane, B. A. (2010). Sulfate attack of

Algerian cement-based material with crushed limestone filler cured at different

temperatures. Turkish Journal of Engineering and Environmental Sciences, 34(2),

131-143.

Ye, H., Jin, N., Jin, X., & Fu, C. (2012). Model of chloride penetration into cracked

concrete subject to drying–wetting cycles. Construction and Building Materials,

36, 259-269.

Ye, H., Jin, X., Fu, C., Jin, N., Xu, Y., & Huang, T. (2016). Chloride penetration in

concrete exposed to cyclic drying-wetting and carbonation. Construction and

Building Materials, 112, 457-463.

Yu, Z. W., Ding, F. X., & Cai, C. S. (2007). Experimental behavior of circular

concrete-filled steel tube stub columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research,

63(2), 165-174.

Yuan, Q. (2009). Fundamental Studies on Test Methods for the Transport of Chloride

Ions in Cementitious Materials (Doctoral dissertation, Ghent University).

Yuan, Q., Shi, C., De Schutter, G., Audenaert, K., & Deng, D. (2009). Chloride

binding of cement-based materials subjected to external chloride environment–a

review. Construction and Building Materials, 23(1), 1-13.

227

Yüksel, İ. & Bilir, T. (2007). Usage of industrial by-products to produce plain concrete

elements. Construction and Building Materials, 21(3): 686-694.

Yuksel, I., & Genc, A. (2007). Properties of concrete containing nonground ash and

slag as fine aggregate. ACI materials journal, 104(4), 397.

Yüksel, İ., Bilir, T., & Özkan, Ö. (2007). Durability of concrete incorporating non-

ground blast furnace slag and bottom ash as fine aggregate. Building and

Environment, 42(7), 2651-2659.

Zacarias, P. (2007, January). Alternative cements for durable concrete in offshore

environments. In Offshore Mediterranean Conference and Exhibition. Offshore

Mediterranean Conference.

Zacarias, P. (2007, January). Alternative cements for durable concrete in offshore

environments. In Offshore Mediterranean Conference and Exhibition. Offshore

Mediterranean Conference.

Zainal Abidin, N. E., Wan Ibrahim, M. H., Jamaluddin, N., Kamaruddin, K., &

Hamzah, A. F. (2015, July). The Strength Behavior of Self-Compacting Concrete

incorporating Bottom Ash as Partial Replacement to Fine Aggregate. In Applied

Mechanics and Materials (Vol. 773, pp. 916-922).

Zainal Abidin, N. E., Wan Ibrahim, M. H., Jamaluddin, N., Kamaruddin, K., &

Hamzah, A. F. (2014). The effect of bottom ash on fresh characteristic,

compressive strength and water absorption of self-compacting concrete. Applied

Mechanics and Materials, 660, 145-151.

Zhao, H., Sun, W., Wu, X., & Gao, B. (2012). The effect of coarse aggregate gradation

on the properties of self-compacting concrete. Materials & Design, 40, 109-116.

Zhao, Y., Yu, J., Hu, B., & Jin, W. (2012). Crack shape and rust distribution in

corrosion-induced cracking concrete. Corrosion science, 55, 385-393.

Zhu, W., & Bartos, P. J. (2003). Permeation properties of self-compacting concrete.


Zuquan, J., Wei, S., Yunsheng, Z., Jinyang, J., & Jianzhong, L. (2007). Interaction

between sulfate and chloride solution attack of concretes with and without fly ash.


iii durability of self-compacting concrete with...

Documents