I.I. Fishes - BehaviorFishes - Behavior

B.B. MigrationMigration1.1. AnadromousAnadromous

• Spawn in fresh waterSpawn in fresh water• Spend most of life in oceanSpend most of life in ocean• ExEx – Salmon (seven species) in Pacific Ocean – Salmon (seven species) in Pacific Ocean

• Spawn in shallow areas of rivers/streamsSpawn in shallow areas of rivers/streams• SemelparousSemelparous (adults die after spawning) (adults die after spawning)• Young migrate downstream to ocean after Young migrate downstream to ocean after

0-5 years0-5 years• Spend 3-7 years in ocean before returning Spend 3-7 years in ocean before returning

to home streamto home stream• Homing behavior enabled by olfactory Homing behavior enabled by olfactory

imprintingimprinting• Habitat degradation and loss has greatly Habitat degradation and loss has greatly

reduced salmon populationsreduced salmon populations

Fig. 8.22

I.I. Fishes - BehaviorFishes - Behavior

B.B. MigrationMigration2.2. CatadromousCatadromous

• Spawn in oceanSpawn in ocean• Spend most of life in fresh waterSpend most of life in fresh water• ExEx – Eels (16 species) in Atlantic Ocean – Eels (16 species) in Atlantic Ocean

• Spawn in Sargasso Sea (400-700 m or Spawn in Sargasso Sea (400-700 m or deeper)deeper)

• SemelparousSemelparous• Eggs hatch into Eggs hatch into leptocephalusleptocephalus larvae larvae• Larvae spend a year or more as plankton Larvae spend a year or more as plankton

then undergo then undergo metamorphosismetamorphosis into juveniles into juveniles• Adults spend 10-15 years in fresh water Adults spend 10-15 years in fresh water

before migrating to Sargasso Sea to spawnbefore migrating to Sargasso Sea to spawn

Fig. 8.24

Fig. 9.1

II.II. Marine ReptilesMarine Reptiles

• Secondarily marineSecondarily marine• Ectotherms and poikilothermsEctotherms and poikilotherms

A.A. Sea TurtlesSea Turtles• Unable to retract head or legs into shellUnable to retract head or legs into shell• Legs modified as flippers for swimmingLegs modified as flippers for swimming• Eight species – Mainly warm waterEight species – Mainly warm water

• Some migrate or may appear in temperate watersSome migrate or may appear in temperate waters• Diet varies among speciesDiet varies among species

1)1) Benthic invertebrates – Kemp’s ridley, loggerhead, Benthic invertebrates – Kemp’s ridley, loggerhead, flatback (also jellyfish)flatback (also jellyfish)

2)2) Sponges – HawksbillSponges – Hawksbill

3)3) Jellyfish – LeatherbackJellyfish – Leatherback

4)4) Sea grasses – Green, black (also jellyfish)Sea grasses – Green, black (also jellyfish)

5)5) Diverse – Olive ridley (crustaceans, jellyfish, algae)Diverse – Olive ridley (crustaceans, jellyfish, algae)

II.II. Marine ReptilesMarine Reptiles

A.A. Sea TurtlesSea Turtles• Mate offshoreMate offshore• Lay eggs on land at nightLay eggs on land at night

• Dig hole in sand and lay up to 160 eggsDig hole in sand and lay up to 160 eggs• Incubation period ~ two monthsIncubation period ~ two months

• Gender of hatchlings determined by incubation Gender of hatchlings determined by incubation temperaturetemperature

• Warm Warm Females Females• Cool Cool Males Males

• Females return to same beach each yearFemales return to same beach each year• DNA evidence that site fidelity spans generationsDNA evidence that site fidelity spans generations

• Require 10+ years to reach sexual maturityRequire 10+ years to reach sexual maturity• All species endangered or threatenedAll species endangered or threatened

1)1) Overhunting – shell, meatOverhunting – shell, meat2)2) Development – Loss of beachesDevelopment – Loss of beaches3)3) Accidents – Collisions with boats, entanglement in Accidents – Collisions with boats, entanglement in

nets, etc.nets, etc.• Use of TEDsUse of TEDs

II.II. Marine ReptilesMarine Reptiles

B.B. Sea SnakesSea Snakes• 55 species – Mainly tropical (Indian, Pacific)55 species – Mainly tropical (Indian, Pacific)

• Coral reefs, open oceanCoral reefs, open ocean• Bodies flattened laterally (3-4 feet long at Bodies flattened laterally (3-4 feet long at

maturity)maturity)• Paddle-shaped tailPaddle-shaped tail

• Immense lungs (extend into tail)Immense lungs (extend into tail)• Can dive to 150 m (typically ~5 m)Can dive to 150 m (typically ~5 m)• Can hold breath for 2+ hours!Can hold breath for 2+ hours!

• OvoviviparousOvoviviparous• Few species lay eggs on shoreFew species lay eggs on shore

• VenomousVenomous• Closely related to cobrasClosely related to cobras• Venom typically used to kill small prey (fishes, squids)Venom typically used to kill small prey (fishes, squids)• May hunt in schoolsMay hunt in schools• Some actively trap prey; others lie in waitSome actively trap prey; others lie in wait• Not aggressive – humans rarely bittenNot aggressive – humans rarely bitten

• Few natural predators (seabirds, sharks, saltwater Few natural predators (seabirds, sharks, saltwater crocodiles) – threatened by humanscrocodiles) – threatened by humans

II.II. Marine ReptilesMarine Reptiles

C.C. Marine IguanaMarine Iguana• One species – Galápagos IslandsOne species – Galápagos Islands

• Males colored more brightly than femalesMales colored more brightly than females• Different populations (different coloration) on various Different populations (different coloration) on various

islandsislands• Feed on algaeFeed on algae

• Can dive to 15+ mCan dive to 15+ m• Can hold breath for 30-60 minutesCan hold breath for 30-60 minutes• Eliminate salt through Eliminate salt through salt glandssalt glands near nostrils near nostrils

• Good swimmersGood swimmers• Long, laterally flattened tailLong, laterally flattened tail

• TerritorialTerritorial• Males fight to establish territoriesMales fight to establish territories• Males maintain haremsMales maintain harems• Females dig nests in sand for eggsFemales dig nests in sand for eggs

II.II. Marine ReptilesMarine Reptiles

D.D. Saltwater CrocodileSaltwater Crocodile• One species – E Indian Ocean, W Pacific, One species – E Indian Ocean, W Pacific,

AustraliaAustralia• Mostly inhabit mangrove forestsMostly inhabit mangrove forests• Largest crocodile species - Males larger than Largest crocodile species - Males larger than

femalesfemales• May reach 23+ feet and 1000+ kgMay reach 23+ feet and 1000+ kg

• Diverse dietDiverse diet• Crustaceans, snakes, birds, mammalsCrustaceans, snakes, birds, mammals

• Aggressive and potentially dangerous to Aggressive and potentially dangerous to peoplepeople

• Slow to reach sexual maturitySlow to reach sexual maturity• Males mature at 15-16 years; females at 10-12 Males mature at 15-16 years; females at 10-12

yearsyears

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

• About 300 speciesAbout 300 species• Spend a significant part of life at seaSpend a significant part of life at sea• Feed on marine organismsFeed on marine organisms• Webbed feet for swimmingWebbed feet for swimming

• Endotherms and homeothermsEndotherms and homeotherms• Allows seabirds to live in a wide variety of conditionsAllows seabirds to live in a wide variety of conditions• Need considerable food to maintain body temperature Need considerable food to maintain body temperature

in cold regionsin cold regions• Feathers help conserve body heatFeathers help conserve body heat

• Gland above base of tail produces oil that birds add to Gland above base of tail produces oil that birds add to feathers with preeningfeathers with preening

• Trapped air provides insulation and buoyancyTrapped air provides insulation and buoyancy• Hollow bonesHollow bones

• Facilitate flightFacilitate flight• Nest on landNest on land

• Often colonialOften colonial• Frequently mate for lifeFrequently mate for life

Gannet

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

A.A. DiversityDiversity1.1. Body FormBody Form

• Flightless penguins with rudimentary wingsFlightless penguins with rudimentary wings• Albatrosses with 12+ foot wingspansAlbatrosses with 12+ foot wingspans• Except for gulls, most seabirds are adapted to life in/on the Except for gulls, most seabirds are adapted to life in/on the

ocean, can’t walk well on land and are vulnerable to mobile ocean, can’t walk well on land and are vulnerable to mobile land predatorsland predators

2.2. LifestyleLifestyle• Flightless cormorantsFlightless cormorants• Frigatebirds that depend completely on extensive flightFrigatebirds that depend completely on extensive flight

3.3. DietDiet• Small zooplankton – PrionsSmall zooplankton – Prions• Fishes – PenguinsFishes – Penguins• Squids – PetrelsSquids – Petrels• Benthic invertebrates – RazorbillBenthic invertebrates – Razorbill• Other birds – PetrelsOther birds – Petrels• Resource partitioningResource partitioning is common (minimizes competition) is common (minimizes competition)

4.4. Geographic RangeGeographic Range• Restricted to limited region – Storm petrelsRestricted to limited region – Storm petrels• Traverse thousands of kilometers – AlbatrossesTraverse thousands of kilometers – Albatrosses

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

B.B. Beak ShapeBeak Shape1.1. Short, heavy, hooked beakShort, heavy, hooked beak

• Holding and tearing prey too large to be eaten wholeHolding and tearing prey too large to be eaten whole• Best for shallow feeding and eating other birdsBest for shallow feeding and eating other birds• ExEx - Petrels - Petrels

2. Short, heavy, streamlined beak• Grabbing prey, usually to ingest whole• Streamlined shape doesn’t interfere with swimming• Ex – Penguins, razorbills

3. Straight, narrow beak• Grabbing prey to ingest whole• Used by plunge divers – doesn’t interfere with dive• Ex – Boobies, terns

4. Elongated lower beak• Used for feeding while flying• Lower beak used to catch prey• Ex - Skimmers

Fig. 9.7

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

B.B. Beak ShapeBeak Shape1.1. Short, heavy, hooked beakShort, heavy, hooked beak

• Holding and tearing prey too large to be eaten whole• Best for shallow feeding and eating other birds• Ex - Petrels

2.2. Short, heavy, streamlined beakShort, heavy, streamlined beak• Grabbing prey, usually to ingest wholeGrabbing prey, usually to ingest whole• Streamlined shape doesn’t interfere with swimmingStreamlined shape doesn’t interfere with swimming• ExEx – Penguins, razorbills – Penguins, razorbills

3. Straight, narrow beak• Grabbing prey to ingest whole• Used by plunge divers – doesn’t interfere with dive• Ex – Boobies, terns

4. Elongated lower beak• Used for feeding while flying• Lower beak used to catch prey• Ex - Skimmers

Fig. 9.7

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

B.B. Beak ShapeBeak Shape1.1. Short, heavy, hooked beakShort, heavy, hooked beak

• Holding and tearing prey too large to be eaten whole• Best for shallow feeding and eating other birds• Ex - Petrels

2.2. Short, heavy, streamlined beakShort, heavy, streamlined beak• Grabbing prey, usually to ingest whole• Streamlined shape doesn’t interfere with swimming• Ex – Penguins, razorbills

3.3. Straight, narrow beakStraight, narrow beak• Grabbing prey to ingest wholeGrabbing prey to ingest whole• Used by plunge divers – doesn’t interfere with diveUsed by plunge divers – doesn’t interfere with dive• ExEx – Boobies, terns – Boobies, terns

4. Elongated lower beak• Used for feeding while flying• Lower beak used to catch prey• Ex - Skimmers

Fig. 9.7

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

B.B. Beak ShapeBeak Shape1.1. Short, heavy, hooked beakShort, heavy, hooked beak

• Holding and tearing prey too large to be eaten whole• Best for shallow feeding and eating other birds• Ex - Petrels

2.2. Short, heavy, streamlined beakShort, heavy, streamlined beak• Grabbing prey, usually to ingest whole• Streamlined shape doesn’t interfere with swimming• Ex – Penguins, razorbills

3.3. Straight, narrow beakStraight, narrow beak• Grabbing prey to ingest whole• Used by plunge divers – doesn’t interfere with dive• Ex – Boobies, terns

4.4. Elongated lower beakElongated lower beak• Used for feeding while flyingUsed for feeding while flying• Lower beak used to catch preyLower beak used to catch prey• ExEx - Skimmers - Skimmers

Fig. 9.7

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

C.C. Prey CapturePrey Capture1.1. Aerial pursuitAerial pursuit

• Chase other birds; harass them into dropping prey• Ex – Jaegers, frigatebirds

2.2. Surface plungingSurface plunging• Dive to capture near-surface prey• Ex – Pelicans, boobies

3.3. DippingDipping• Snatch near-surface prey• Ex – Gulls

4.4. PatteringPattering• ““Walk” along surface, grabbing near-surface preyWalk” along surface, grabbing near-surface prey• Ex – Storm petrelsEx – Storm petrels

5.5. Pursuit plungingPursuit plunging• Shallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwaterShallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwater• Ex – ShearwatersEx – Shearwaters

6.6. Pursuit diving with wingsPursuit diving with wings• Pursue prey underwater using wings to swimPursue prey underwater using wings to swim• Ex – Penguins, puffinsEx – Penguins, puffins

7.7. Pursuit diving with feetPursuit diving with feetIII.III. Pursue prey underwater using feet to swimPursue prey underwater using feet to swimIV.IV. Ex – CormorantsEx – Cormorants

Fig. 9.8

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

C.C. Prey CapturePrey Capture1.1. Aerial pursuitAerial pursuit

• Chase other birds; harass them into dropping prey• Ex – Jaegers, frigatebirds

2.2. Surface plungingSurface plunging• Dive to capture near-surface prey• Ex – Pelicans, boobies

3.3. DippingDipping• Snatch near-surface prey• Ex – Gulls

4.4. PatteringPattering• ““Walk” along surface, grabbing near-surface preyWalk” along surface, grabbing near-surface prey• Ex – Storm petrelsEx – Storm petrels

5.5. Pursuit plungingPursuit plunging• Shallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwaterShallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwater• Ex – ShearwatersEx – Shearwaters

6.6. Pursuit diving with wingsPursuit diving with wings• Pursue prey underwater using wings to swimPursue prey underwater using wings to swim• Ex – Penguins, puffinsEx – Penguins, puffins

7.7. Pursuit diving with feetPursuit diving with feetIII.III. Pursue prey underwater using feet to swimPursue prey underwater using feet to swimIV.IV. Ex – CormorantsEx – Cormorants

Fig. 9.8

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

C.C. Prey CapturePrey Capture1.1. Aerial pursuitAerial pursuit

• Chase other birds; harass them into dropping prey• Ex – Jaegers, frigatebirds

2.2. Surface plungingSurface plunging• Dive to capture near-surface prey• Ex – Pelicans, boobies

3.3. DippingDipping• Snatch near-surface prey• Ex – Gulls

4.4. PatteringPattering• ““Walk” along surface, grabbing near-surface preyWalk” along surface, grabbing near-surface prey• Ex – Storm petrelsEx – Storm petrels

5.5. Pursuit plungingPursuit plunging• Shallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwaterShallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwater• Ex – ShearwatersEx – Shearwaters

6.6. Pursuit diving with wingsPursuit diving with wings• Pursue prey underwater using wings to swimPursue prey underwater using wings to swim• Ex – Penguins, puffinsEx – Penguins, puffins

7.7. Pursuit diving with feetPursuit diving with feetIII.III. Pursue prey underwater using feet to swimPursue prey underwater using feet to swimIV.IV. Ex – CormorantsEx – Cormorants

Fig. 9.8

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

C.C. Prey CapturePrey Capture1.1. Aerial pursuitAerial pursuit

• Chase other birds; harass them into dropping prey• Ex – Jaegers, frigatebirds

2.2. Surface plungingSurface plunging• Dive to capture near-surface prey• Ex – Pelicans, boobies

3.3. DippingDipping• Snatch near-surface prey• Ex – Gulls

4.4. PatteringPattering• ““Walk” along surface, grabbing near-surface preyWalk” along surface, grabbing near-surface prey• ExEx – Storm petrels – Storm petrels

5.5. Pursuit plungingPursuit plunging• Shallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwaterShallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwater• Ex – ShearwatersEx – Shearwaters

6.6. Pursuit diving with wingsPursuit diving with wings• Pursue prey underwater using wings to swimPursue prey underwater using wings to swim• Ex – Penguins, puffinsEx – Penguins, puffins

7.7. Pursuit diving with feetPursuit diving with feetIII.III. Pursue prey underwater using feet to swimPursue prey underwater using feet to swimIV.IV. Ex – CormorantsEx – Cormorants

Fig. 9.8

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

C.C. Prey CapturePrey Capture1.1. Aerial pursuitAerial pursuit

• Chase other birds; harass them into dropping prey• Ex – Jaegers, frigatebirds

2.2. Surface plungingSurface plunging• Dive to capture near-surface prey• Ex – Pelicans, boobies

3.3. DippingDipping• Snatch near-surface prey• Ex – Gulls

4.4. PatteringPattering• ““Walk” along surface, grabbing near-surface preyWalk” along surface, grabbing near-surface prey• Ex – Storm petrelsEx – Storm petrels

5.5. Pursuit plungingPursuit plunging• Shallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwaterShallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwater• ExEx – Shearwaters – Shearwaters

6.6. Pursuit diving with wingsPursuit diving with wings• Pursue prey underwater using wings to swimPursue prey underwater using wings to swim• Ex – Penguins, puffinsEx – Penguins, puffins

7.7. Pursuit diving with feetPursuit diving with feetIII.III. Pursue prey underwater using feet to swimPursue prey underwater using feet to swimIV.IV. Ex – CormorantsEx – Cormorants

Fig. 9.8

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

C.C. Prey CapturePrey Capture1.1. Aerial pursuitAerial pursuit

• Chase other birds; harass them into dropping prey• Ex – Jaegers, frigatebirds

2.2. Surface plungingSurface plunging• Dive to capture near-surface prey• Ex – Pelicans, boobies

3.3. DippingDipping• Snatch near-surface prey• Ex – Gulls

4.4. PatteringPattering• ““Walk” along surface, grabbing near-surface preyWalk” along surface, grabbing near-surface prey• Ex – Storm petrelsEx – Storm petrels

5.5. Pursuit plungingPursuit plunging• Shallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwaterShallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwater• Ex – ShearwatersEx – Shearwaters

6.6. Pursuit diving with wingsPursuit diving with wings• Pursue prey underwater using wings to swimPursue prey underwater using wings to swim• ExEx – Penguins, puffins – Penguins, puffins

7.7. Pursuit diving with feetPursuit diving with feetIII.III. Pursue prey underwater using feet to swimPursue prey underwater using feet to swimIV.IV. Ex – CormorantsEx – Cormorants

Fig. 9.8

III.III. SeabirdsSeabirds

C.C. Prey CapturePrey Capture1.1. Aerial pursuitAerial pursuit

• Chase other birds; harass them into dropping prey• Ex – Jaegers, frigatebirds

2.2. Surface plungingSurface plunging• Dive to capture near-surface prey• Ex – Pelicans, boobies

3.3. DippingDipping• Snatch near-surface prey• Ex – Gulls

4.4. PatteringPattering• ““Walk” along surface, grabbing near-surface preyWalk” along surface, grabbing near-surface prey• Ex – Storm petrelsEx – Storm petrels

5.5. Pursuit plungingPursuit plunging• Shallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwaterShallow dive with some pursuit of prey underwater• Ex – ShearwatersEx – Shearwaters

6.6. Pursuit diving with wingsPursuit diving with wings• Pursue prey underwater using wings to swimPursue prey underwater using wings to swim• Ex – Penguins, puffinsEx – Penguins, puffins

7.7. Pursuit diving with feetPursuit diving with feetIII.III. Pursue prey underwater using feet to swimPursue prey underwater using feet to swimIV.IV. ExEx – Cormorants – Cormorants

Fig. 9.8