ib contemporary world history mr. blackmon hitler: the ...teachers.dadeschools.net/dblackmon/ib...

IB Contemporary World History Mr. Blackmon

Hitler: The Rise to Power

I. The First National Socialist PartyA. The forebear of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (National-

Sozialistische Deutsche Arbeiter Partei) or NSDAP or Nazi Party is the GermanWorkers' Party, founded in 1904 in Bohemia. It is therefore the product of thesharp clash of nationalities in the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and originates in aregion where Germans had been economically if not numerically dominant, butwere losing their position.1. The position of German industrial workers in this region was threatened by

Czechs, who would work for less pay.B. This party changed its name in 1918 to German National Socialist Workers' Party.

Its program states in part:1. "The German National Socialist Workers' Party is not a narrow class party,

but defends the interests of all those engaged in honest productive work. The party is libertarian and strictly völkisch, and it opposes all reactionarytendencies, the privileges of church, nobility and capitalists, and all alieninfluences, but above all the overwhelming power of the Jewish tradingspirit in all spheres of public life. . . " (Carsten 83)

2. Völkisch will be an important term for this unit. Some writers translate theword as "racist" or "racial." This, however, distorts the precise meaningof some documents which use it. The word has very heavy emotionalovertones, and is difficult to translate with a single word. The origin ofthe word is the noun "das Volk" (plural form "die Völker") which isdefined in a dictionary as "people, nation, tribe, race." It is the word usedin Volkswagen--the word implies an automobile that is cheap enough forordinary people to own. The concept of people, nation, or tribe is organic;the Volk is greater than the sum of individuals. The word implies acommonalty of language, customs, religion, and values as well as blood. The word is applied to all nations, hence, the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 iscalled the Völkerschlacht or Battle of Nations. Applied to the Germanpeople, it carries intense patriotic emotions. The German people were notand are not concentrated in a single nation-state. Not even Bismarckachieved that dream. Germans (thought of as an ethnic group) live inAustria, Luxembourg, Liechtenstein, Bohemia, Poland, the Baltic States,Switzerland, and the Tyrol. Beginning with the Napoleonic Wars, there isan enormous literature that glorifies the German Volk, which at least inpart represents a yearning for national unity. It is not always a pejorativeterm; the study of folk customs and folklore is "Volkskunde:" Grimm'scollection of fairy tales are "Volksmärchen." However, in the contextwith which the word is used in this unit, it would typically also meanGerman racism and (usually) anti-Semitism. The Nazis will push thismeaning of the word to its uttermost extremes.

C. The program was distinctly socialist in some areas: the state was to take overtransportation, mines, insurance, and advertising; the power of Jewish banks wasto be broken and Volksbanks established; monopolies, department stores, andlarge estates were to be nationalized (some of the largest German department

IB Contemporary World History Mr. BlackmonHitler: the Rise to Power

stores were Jewish owned; these stores are a serious threat to small shopkeepers).D. Their slogan was "The common weal comes before private interest." (Carsten 83)E. This party did not have a Führer ("leader") and was not authoritarian.F. There were numerous völkisch clubs and paramilitary organizations within Austria.

This party is small and relatively unimportant. None of Hitler's ideas wereoriginal. All of them were common to the mix of nationalist, socialist, andvölkisch groups swirling around Vienna at the turn of the century.

II. The German Workers' Party at MunichA. The German-Workers' Party is founded in Munich on January 5, 1919 by Anton

Drexler, a locksmith, and a small group of friends.1. This time period coincides with the Bavarian Communist government of Kurt

Eisner, who you will recall was a Jew. 2. Their views are represented by the resolution taken on January 30 that "The

Jews and their helpers are responsible for the loss of the war." (Carsten92)

B. The chaos and fighting in Munich intensified their views and encouraged them. Munich emerged from the strife as a polarized city with a right-wing governmentwhich viewed all nationalist organizations with benevolence.

C. New people are brought in:1. Gottfried Feder, an engineer who wrote anti-Semitic pamphlets on

economics2. Dietrich Eckart, a writer3. Ernst Röhm, then still a Captain in the army. Tough, brutal, and ruthless,

he is an enormously important figure in the rise of the Nazis. At this time,he is acting as a political officer for the Munich garrison, which is notunlike Hitler's duties at the same time. He was interested in numerousparamilitary organizations, and eventually dreams of restructuring theGerman Army as a political army (his desire for a party militia resemblesTrotsky's views). Röhm is the founder of the Sturmabteilung, or SA,Hitler's Stormtroopers or Brownshirtsa. Do NOT confuse the SA with the SS!!! This is an easy mistake to

make, but since Hitler used Himmler's SS to shoot Röhm and theleaders of the SA, it is a serious factual error that will certainly bepenalized on an essay!!!

b. The SA were vicious street thugs; the SS make the SA look like choirboys. The SS were elite troops, savagely disciplined, brutally andthoroughly trained, fanatical, merciless, sadists and killers oncommand. SS veterans and their apologists after the war claimthat they were “just soldiers” doing their job, like anyone else. Donot believe these self-serving claims. Movement within the SSfrom Allgemeine to Totenkopf to Waffen SS was frequent andextensive; and anywhere the SS went, the most terrible atrocitiesoccurred. Everywhere. Those are the facts. That is the historicalrecord. So far as I am concerned, any member of the SS was a warcriminal. There were no innocent members of the SS. The other


consideration, however, is not to believe the lie that ALL atrocitieswere committed by the SS, or the Gestapo.

III. Discovery of Adolf HitlerA. At the outbreak of World War I, Hitler was living in Munich, having emigrated from

Vienna in order to escape military service in the Austro-Hungarian army. (Fest61) He was arrested by the Austrian police in 1914, was examined, and releasedas too weak and unfit for military service. (Fest 62) When Germany declared warin 1914, Hitler voluntarily enlisted in the Bavarian Army (since he was not aGerman citizen, this required a special petition (Fest 65).

B. Hitler entered the List Regiment, and first saw action at Ypres in 1914. It was asevere baptism by fire: the regiment lost 1,800 of 3,500 men in 4 days. (Fest 67) It would be pleasant to say that Hitler was a poor soldier and a coward. Unfortunately, it wouldn't be true. He conducted himself with such courage andinitiative on the first day to be promoted to corporal by his second day in combat. (Flood 15) He became a courier, which was in fact a very dangerous job,requiring him to carry messages under fire over all sorts of grounds, open as wellas entrenched. He refused promotion once, and awarded the Iron Cross (SecondClass) following his first major battle, (Flood 18) and the Iron Cross (First Class)in 1918 for his entire service since 1914. His citation stated that "invariably hehas shown himself ready to volunteer for tasks . . . at danger to himself." (Flood25) [It was quite unusual for an enlisted man to receive the Iron Cross (FirstClass); it is the same decoration awarded, for example, to Generals Ludwig Beckand Werner von Fritsch during the First World War, when both were members ofthe elite General Staff (Barnett 40-41). Hitler evidently was seconded by severalofficers; ironically, the paperwork was pushed through by Assistant AdjutantHugo Gutmann--whom Hitler hated because he was a Jew. (Flood 19-20, 24-25,Fest 68-69)] His regiment was his home; he rarely took leave. (Flood 18) Hewas wounded on the Somme in 1916 and gassed in Ypres on October 13, 1918. The gas attack blinded him and he was evacuated to hospital for the duration ofthe war. He served 52 months in wartime, spent 45 months at the front, andengaged in 36 major battles. His regiment first went into action with 3,500 men,and suffered 3,754 men killed over the course of the war. (Flood 25)

C. The officers of the Bavarian garrison discovered Hitler's fiery oratory and fanaticalnationalism and assigned him to political indoctrination. He was ordered toattend the meetings of various groups.

D. He attended the German Workers' Party meeting under orders, and joined the partysoon after.

E. A membership list at this time shows 193 members: 10 students, 22 soldiers, 4doctors, 5 engineers, 4 journalists, 3 writers, 3 sculptors, 3 directors, 4 factoryowners, 1 professor, 1 teacher, 1 architect, 1 composer, 1 publisher, 19 tradesmen,3 shopkeepers, 16 white-collar workers, 46 craftsmen, 5 master craftsmen. Membership therefore seems a cross-section of society, rather than limited to asingle class.

F. Eckart and Röhm take an interest in Hitler, introducing him into bourgeois society. Hitler was discharged in 1920 and becomes a professional politician, devotinghimself wholly to the party.


IV. Hitler and the National SocialistsA. Hitler soon dominates the party through force of personalityB. He establishes contact with Austrian groups. From their suggestion, he changes the

name of the party to National Socialist German Workers' Party, and adopts theswastika, a völkisch symbol of Aryan Germanism, as the party symbol. (Carsten95)

C. Hitler personally designed the flag. He uses the black-white-red colors of ImperialGermany, which for Weimar Germany implied a rejection of the republic, whosecolors were black-red-gold. The field is red, to emphasize revolutionarysocialism. The swastika links the party to völkisch groups, and especially to thefamous Ehrhardt Brigade, which had helped reconquer Munich.1. Hitler's sensitivity to symbols, uniforms and ritual are extraordinary. His

appeal to emotions and to the irrational streak that runs like a blood-redthreat through German history is without parallel.

D. The Twenty Five Points: February 24, 19201. The union of all Germans into a single Reich on the basis of self-

determination2. The acquisition of land and colonies3. The annulment of the Treaty of Versailles4. The annulment of the Treaty of St. Germain, which forbade Anschluss of

Germany and Austria.5. Only those of German blood could be "comrades of the people" and the state.6. Only those of German blood could vote or hold official posts.7. The abolition of income not earned by work8. "breaking the shackles of interest" 9. nationalization of many businesses10. communalization of department stores with leases to small shopkeepers11. confiscation of land for the common good without compensation12. prohibition of all land speculation. (Carsten 96)

E. The party buys the Völkischer Beobachter, a racialist newspaper, as theirmouthpiece in 1920. The price was RM 120,000 cash. RM 56,500 were suppliedby Dr. Gottfried Grandel, an industrialist who supported various völkischactivities, and RM 60,000 was supplied by Col. Franz Ritter von Epp, presumablyout of Reichswehr funds under the guise of a personal loan. (Flood 165-6)

F. Hitler first organizes the SA in the fall of 1920 under the guise of the"Sportabteilung" (Sports Organization) under the command of Emil Maurice, aFreikorps veteran. This group evolved out of Hitler's bouncers.1. In August 1921, Hitler reorganizes the SA, and soon changes the name to

Sturmabteilung ("Stormsection," a clear reference to World War I stormtroopers). Command is given to Hans Ulrich Klintzsch, a former memberof the Ehrhardt Brigade, participant in the Kapp Putsch, and member ofthe Organization Consul, the terrorist murder organization. (Flood 209-10) The SA had the function of protecting Nazi meetings (against, for examplethe Social Democratic Erhard Auer Guard; Fest concedes that the Leftactively confronted the Nazis (143). Hitler welcomed it, sought it.


Furthermore, he always conceived of the SA as a political spearhead to beused violently against his opponents.

G. At about this time, Hitler asks Captain Ehrhardt to lend him some of his officers toorganize and train his own paramilitary organization, the SA, whose purpose wasto protect Nazi meetings and break up the meetings of rivals.1. The SA was one of a number of völkisch paramilitary organizations, all of

which were supported by the Reichswehr with money and weapons. TheReichswehr saw them as supplemental military formations which could becalled upon in an emergency to expand the 100,000 man Army.

2. Hitler saw the SA as essentially a political formation whose purpose was toconquer the streets.

3. At the end of 1922, the SA had about 700 members in Munich, with another300 in Landshut under the command of Gregor Strasser

4. In 1923 the size of the SA grows quickly, and Hitler names Herman Göring(or Goering, they are alternative spellings), a World War I flying aceand hero, the last commander of the Richthofen Flying Circus, ascommander.

V. Rival GroupsA. There was a German-Socialist Party in Düsseldorf which was much more socialist.

Another group at Nuremberg included Julius Streicher. In all, there were about adozen small groups.1. Various groups complained that Streicher was exaggeratedly anti-Semitic,

even by their standards.B. In 1920, there was a meeting of groups from Germany, Austria and Bohemia. Hitler

argued that his party was the largest, and the others should join him. He will notaccept joining any of the others.1. Several groups do dissolve themselves and join the Nazis, including

Streicher's.C. Hitler also fends off an attempt by Drexler to regain control of the party. It fails, and

Hitler fixes his iron grip more tightly on the party than ever.D. The Nazis pick up adherents when "German Racialist Defense and Offense League"

(the Schutz und Trutz Bund), the chief agent of anti-Semitic propaganda innorthern Germany, was dissolved by the government. Most joined the Nazis.

E. The difference between Hitler and all the other völkisch parties may be summed up: "What mattered most of all to the Völkische was the liberation of Germany fromits internal and external enemies, from the shackles of the Treaty of Versailles,from the French who occupied the Rhineland and fostered separatist movementsthere. What mattered most to Hitler was not nationalism, but the fight against theJews and their friends and protectors, the Marxists and democrats." (Carsten 107)1. Between Hitler and the bourgeois Völkische there existed mutual contempt.

VI. The Crisis of 1923A. On January 11, the French and the Belgians declared the German government to be

in default of its reparations, and marched troops into the Ruhr. The occupation ofthe Ruhr in January by the French and Belgians created a decisive crisis.1. The French established a customs barrier between the heart of the German


economy and the rest of the nation.2. The government declared a policy of passive resistance. There is a massive

strike in the Ruhr. The French use troops to run the mines and railroads,but at greatly reduced efficiency. The entire nation was enraged.

3. The government commits itself to providing for the welfare of the strikingworkers. This is an enormous financial burden, coupled with a drastic lossof income from the Ruhr. The German mark was already in serioustrouble, but this is the last straw.

4. Freikorps fighters flocked to the Ruhr to commit sabotage.B. Hitler opposed the participation of his followers in the sabotage, since he wanted to

overthrow the Weimar government as well as the French. This is a veryinteresting stance, and was unpopular at the time. Fest notes "It has becomestandard to see Hitler's behavior as totally unscrupulous and unprincipled. Buthere is an instance in which he stood steadfastly by his principles, even thoughthis meant exposing himself to unpopularity and misunderstanding. . . . His alliesand backers . . . always looked upon him as one of their own, as nationalist andconservative as themselves. But in his very first political decision of anymagnitude, Hitler brushed away all the false alliances, from Kahn to Paper, andshowed that when the chips were down he would act like a true revolutionary. Without hesitation he took a revolutionary posture rather than a nationalisticone." (164)1. Inevitably, passive resistance leads to bloodshed and sabotage. On March

31, a French squad inspecting the Krupp works fired on and killed 13workers, wounding 52. Half a million workers turned out for the funeral. The French imprisoned Gustav Krupp for "inciting a riot." (Flood 362)

2. One former Freikorps officer and saboteur, a man named Schlageter, joinedthe Nazis shortly before going to the Ruhr. He was caught and executedby the French. Schlageter became a nationalist martyr. Hitler was notslow to capitalize on this. Eventually, he will erect a monument toSchlageter.

C. Passive resistance resulted in unbelievable inflation. 1. In October 1921, the mark had stood at M 200:$1; 2. in October 1922 it was M4,500:$1;3. on May 13, it was M46,000:$1;4. On May 22 in the morning, it was M51,000:$1; in the afternoon it was

M52,500:$1;5. On June 1, it was M70,000:$1;6. On June 13, it was M100,000:$1;7. On June 28, it was M152,617:$1;8. On August 1, it was M1,000,000:$1;9. On August 8, it was M3,500,000:$1;10. On August 9, it was M6,000,000:$1;11. In the beginning of October it was M2,000,000,000:$112. In mid-October, it was M25,000,000,000:$1. 13. In November of 1923, when the inflation bottomed out with Stresemann's


introduction of the Rentenmark, it was M 4,200,000,000,000:$1.(Flood382, 392, 414 Passant 192)

14. German society is profoundly undermined15. All wage earners or those on a fixed salary suffer very intensely, since

wages could not rise fast enough to make up for the inflation.16. Pensioners and those on fixed incomes are hit even harder, and have to sell

their last belongings just to survive.17. The value of all savings accounts are wiped out.18. Industrialists such as Hugo Stinnes could pay off mortgages in worthless

marks and thus gain total control of their holdings.19. Speculative gains could be made for the lucky very few with cash. Alfred

Hugenberg builds up his enormous media empire in this way.D. Political unrest

1. As one might imagine, destructive inflation of this magnitude, coupled withweakness in the face of foreign occupation and the fact that largesegments of the population were not supportive of the government in thefirst place, led to violent disorders.

2. On September 23, the Black Reichswehr (made up mostly of Freikorps) rosein revolt. Seeckt quickly mobilized the Reichswehr to crush them.

3. The Soviet Union sent 25 specialists to Germany to help organize a "GermanOctober." The attempt was well organized, and seized mid-October hadseized control or partial control in Saxony and Thuringia. There was aCommunist uprising in Hamburg on October 23. The efforts ultimatelywill fail because of several factors:a. The German workers did not support a violent overthrow of the

Weimar Republic. At a genuinely representative meeting ofworkers at Chemnitz, the Communists received sympathy, butthere was no consensus for an immediate general strike. TheCommunists had counted on a massive uprising of workers oncethey started a revolution. (One historian I have read described theCommunists as one of two possible "democratic revolutions." Such a definition of "democratic" strains the imagination since thesubmission of decisions to the will of the people or masses or evenproletariat is never contemplated)

b. Seeckt ordered the Reichswehr to restore order, and by October 25,with the assistance of the Social Democratic paramilitary forces,had crushed the rebellions.(Flood 409-17)

4. Working class groups turn to the Left and Red governments are formed inSaxony and Thuringia.

5. The middle and lower middle classes turn to the Right.E. In Munich, the Bavarian government was the most right-wing in Germany and gave

active support to nationalist and völkisch groups.1. On September 26, Stresemann is forced to break off the passive resistance.

This arouses the insane wrath of the nationalists.2. The Völkischer Beobachter on September 27 publishes an attack on the


"traitors Stresemann and Seeckt." a. There is an interesting by-lay to this. The article claimed "Seeckt's

wife like Stresemann's is a Jewess and influences Seecktpolitically." It was true that Seeckt's father in law was Jewish;there seems no evidence that Frau von Seeckt possessed politicalopinions at all, much less influenced her husband.(Flood 429) What I find interesting about the item is that Seeckt is the epitomeof a Junker, a Prussian aristocrat, and he is married to a Jew. ThePrussian officer caste had extremely strict views on maritalpropriety. Officers who violated the code of honor wereostracized. This is precisely what happened to Werner vonBlomberg. Seeckt's marriage to a Jew implies a fairly high degreeof integration into German society than is usually imagined. Whenone couples this note with the fact that Goering's god-father, whomhe admired immensely, was also a Jew (Goering's wife was hislong-term mistress) and recall the tortured pedigree of Arco aufValley (the man who assassinated Kurt Eisner), then it seems thatGerman-Jewish relations in Wilhelmine Germany have someambiguities that are worth exploring.(1) I have just come across another item that I can't help

inserting, although it is something of a red-herring in thiscontext. The information comes from a historical novel,entitled The Ghosts of Africa, by William Stevenson, thebiographer of Sir William Stephenson in A Man CalledIntrepid (whose life is improbable by Hollywoodstandards). The novel includes a factual prelude andepilogue on the real persons dealt with in his novel of theFirst World War in German East Africa. The Germancommander was Colonel Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck, whoseexploits make him the most remarkable German soldier ofthe war, and remarkable by any standard whatsoever. Agrateful Kaiser awarded him the Pour le Merite. He earnedthe unreserved admiration of friend and foe alike, and Icouldn't resist picking up a novel about him. Lettow-Vorbeck is of special interest in colonial history because hebelieved that black African troops, if adequately armed andwell-led, could defeat European troops. He succeeded, andin so doing, gravely undermined the idea of Europeansuperiority. According to Stevenson and to LeonardMosley (in a book about the war in East Africa), Lettow-Vorbeck returned to Germany, participated in the KappPutsch--which marks him as extremely conservative, butthen he is not a Prussian aristocrat for nothing!--and wasdismissed from the service by Seeckt. He was a member ofthe Reichstag for some years, consulted by the Britishabout the rise of Nazi power (Stevenson knew key men


who invited him to England for that purpose), refused anambassadorship to England because he would then have tojoin the Nazi party. He abhorred the Nazis. He was forcedinto a meager retirement, and lived out the war years in thecountryside. British intelligence contacted him in 1944 toascertain the seriousness of the plot to assassinate Hitler(Stevenson was in a position to know that definitively). Hedied at 94. The whole point to this is Stevenson's note thatLettow-Vorbeck was married to Walther Rathenau'sdaughter, Rachel. And Rathenau, we all remember, wasassassinated by Freikorps veterans precisely because hewas a Jew. I find it very remarkable that two suchextraordinary soldiers, both Prussian aristocrats whocommanded the deepest professional respect of theircolleagues, would be married to Jews in WilhelmineGermany. What conclusions can be drawn? Well, I don'tknow. I don't have enough data. Obviously, the castebarrier was not impermeable. I think it bears investigation,and I think it is pretty interesting.

(2) On the other hand, there are some murky elements aboutFrau von Seeckt. Görlitz reports the slander against Seecktby the Völkischer Beobachter and refers to it as"nonsense." Görlitz also suggests anti-Semitic feelings bySeeckt towards Rathenau )which is what one wouldexpect). (Görlitz 237, 232) Gordon Craig omits allmention of the Völkischer Beobachter article, but states--footnoting Seeckt's biographer--that Seeckt established hiswife in Munich at this time as the host of a "kind ofpolitical salon which was frequented by politicians ofpronouncedly anti-republican views." (417) On the face ofit this seems atypical behavior for a Prussian soldier, andwould also provide a veneer of credibility for the idea thatFrau von Seeckt influenced his politics--an idea whichFlood rejects. Flood asserts Frau von Seeckt's Jewishancestry flatly, and footnotes Harold J. Gordon p. 230 tosupport his statement, and adds that her maiden name wasJakobsohn. I need to go to the library. Gordon has twomonographs on the Reichswehr and the Putsch. The latteris published in 1972, later than either Görlitz or Craig. Iam inclined to think (tentatively) that Flood via Gordon isaccurate. One would think that the question really isn't thatcomplicated.

3. On or about September 27, the Bavarian government declares Dr. Gustavvon Kahr, a monarchist, völkisch conservative, as General Commissionerof Bavaria with dictatorial powers.

4. The Weimar government orders the suppression of the paper.


5. The commander of the Bavarian garrison, General Otto von Lossow,refused, and passed the buck to von Kahr. Von Kahr also resists, notbecause he loves the Nazis but on the grounds that Berlin had no authorityto intervene in a Bavarian matter. It is entirely a question of jurisdiction,with the implication--which was never far from anyone's thoughts--thatBavaria at best should be autonomous and at worst should declare itsindependence. Von Kahr orders the Bavarian garrison to take a loyaltyoath to Bavaria, an obvious first step to a declaration of autonomy. Forvon Seeckt as well as for von Kahr, the issues which lead to the Beer HallPutsch are tied up with the issue of the legitimate authority of the WeimarRepublic.

F. Bavaria mobilizes troops on its northern border, ostensibly to march into Saxony andThuringia, but in reality to march on Berlin. 1. A coalition of nationalist groups in Munich supports this, including Hitler

and the Nazis.2. Motivation at this point is murky. On the one hand, there is a "triumvirate"

of von Kahr, von Lossow (who is head of the Bavarian Army as well asthe Bavarian Reichswehr--although he is in open insubordination), andCol. Hans Ritter von Seisser, the head of the large, well-armed, and well-trained Bavarian police; on the other is Hitler and two other völkischgroups, aided and abetted by Ludendorff. The triumvirate may haveultimately hoped for a greater measure of autonomy for Bavaria or for arestoration of the Bavarian monarchy. Hitler at this time wants a marchon Berlin and overthrow of the government; he sees himself at themoment as the advance man for a coalition. He expected to be supportedby the Bavarian government as well as Ludendorff. This accounts for thepeculiar nature of his eventual Putsch.

G. When the Reichswehr, at Seeckt's orders, moves in to overthrow the Communistgovernments in Saxony and Thuringia, Kahr is deprived of his excuse formobilization. He hesitates.

H. Hitler is anxious to act. His SA is extremely restive, and he had been told that theycould not be controlled for much longer. (Waite 258) He feared (with justice)that Kahr would declare Bavarian independence rather than a march on Berlin.

I. Believing (correctly, I think) that he had to act swiftly or forfeit political credibility,he takes advantage of a meeting scheduled at a large beer hall by von Kahr atwhich von Lossow, von Seisser, and many other influential people would bepresent. On Nov. 8, 1923, Hitler broke up the meeting with pistol shot, declaredthat a revolution had taken place, and forced the triumvirate to accept his plans. Ludendorff, who had prior knowledge, was fetched.

J. From this point, things fall apart. Hitler left the hall, and Ludendorff, in his absence,allowed the triumvirate to leave, ostensibly to prepare their cooperation. No keypositions in the city were seized. All three actually begin working to crush thePutsch.

K. Seeckt ordered the Bavarian garrison to fire upon the Nazis if necessary. This willbe unnecessary, since the police fire first. Seeckt is resentful at Hitler's efforts to


politicize the army.1. An attempt to assassinate Seeckt will be one result of his policy.

L. By the next morning, realizing that things had gone awry, Ludendorff decides tomarch on the Reichswehr headquarters. He and Hitler lead a group 3 or 4,000into the city. They probably did not believe that they would be fired upon. Theywere wrong. The Bavarian police open fire. The man next to Hitler is hit andmortally wounded, pulling Hitler to the ground and saving his life. Sixteen Nazisand three police are killed. Göring was badly wounded (the wound is in thegroin; one notes that Göring gained weight rapidly afterwards, and began adependance on pain-killing drugs; one speculates that his injuries were of apermanent nature). Hitler fled the scene. Ludendorff walked through the fire andpassed through the police lines to be arrested.1. At this time, Hitler probably was inspired by Mussolini's example.

Putsch is actually inaccurate here, since Hitler did not think he could seizeabsolute control for himself. He expected to form a coalition ofnationalist groups.

M. Hitler was arrested and tried for treason. He used the trial to attack the governmentand the Treaty of Versailles. The trial is an amazing tour de force, where heretrieved a catastrophic propaganda error. He effectively placed the governmenton trial. He was convicted and sentenced to 5 years in a comfortable prison. Heserved 9 months, during which he dictated Mein Kampf to Rudolf Hess.1. Hitler was scrupulously careful to maintain good relations with the Army

through the trial: "When I heard that it was the police that had fired I hadthe happy feeling: at least it was not the army which has soiled its honor;the army stands as untarnished as before. One day the hour will comewhen the Reichswehr will be on our side, officers and men . . . " (Carsten115-6)

N. One of the amazing things about the whole episode is that Hitler could sway middle-aged and experienced men, such as judge of the Bavarian High Court Theodorvon der Pfordten (killed in the Putsch) and Ludendorff (who broke with Hitleronly later). If Hitler could influence these men, how much more could he swayformer lieutenants, captains, and majors.

VII. Mein KampfA. Hitler did not change his ideas. Mein Kampf is therefore the best insight into his

thinking.1. WARNING!!! The content of the following quotations is extremely

offensive. I believe that the best way for students to emotionally as wellas intellectually grasp the full horror of Hitler's mind is to read what heactually says. Secondary descriptions are just inadequate. Hitler's mind isa prurient cess-pool.

B. Ideas:1. Violent (this classifies as the greatest understatement of the century) anti-

Semitisma. Reinforced by The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, a fraudulent

publication exposing an alleged Jewish plot for world domination.


(1) This document is derived from a German novel of mid-19thcentury, composed by the Tsar's secret police at the turn ofthe century to discredit liberal movements in Russia, andtranslated into German first by Alfred Rosenberg, a BalticGerman who becomes one of the Nazi "thinkers." Rosenberg gave it to Hitler, who however, had alreadyformed his ideas by then.

b. Hitler seems to have genuinely believed that Lenin was a Jew. Hecertainly believed that the Bolsheviks were a Jewish conspiracy,although how he reconciled Bolsheviks with the traditional imageof the Jewish money changer (now transformed into stockexchange manipulators) is difficult to understand.

c. 2. Lebensraum (Living space): Colonial expansion is abandoned in favor of

territorial expansion to the East. Hitler specifically targets Russia. SincePoland, and Czechoslovakia are on the way to Russia, he will includethem as well. The parameters of his conquests coincide pretty closelywith Ludendorff's scheme from World War I.a. His intent was not just conquest and economic exploitation, which is

what Ludendorff had in mind. Hitler intended to remove thepopulation (by one means or another; they are, after all, onlySlavic Untermenschen) and repopulate the region with Germanpeasants.

3. The political parties of the Centre and Left were all traitors.a. The Jews were the "leaders of Social Democracy"

4. The political parties of the Right were too bourgeois and too limited in theirappeal to the masses. They lacked revolutionary dynamism. a. The Marxists saw the Nazis as tools of German industrialists. This is

simply not true. The Nazis are genuinely revolutionary. Theyreceive assistance from industrialists, but they are emphatically nottheir tools. Just the opposite.

C. Mein Kampf (The fact that I am quoting Hitler directly does not imply any form ofapproval whatsoever! These passages (and other writings and speeches) are bothoffensive and horrifying. History is a search for Truth. I believe that we cannotplumb the truth of the Third Reich, and the atrocities committed during it, withoutfacing up to its central ideology: and that means Hitler’s ideology. I believe thatit is best to confront him directly, and not water his ideology down by filtering itand making it less offensive and easier to swallow. As students, all of you are ata point in your intellectual and emotional maturity to confront historical truthdirectly.)1. (Originally published in 1925, the English translation is by Ralph Manheim

for Houghton Mifflin, copyright 1943. The edition available in the USseems to be paginated differently than editions available in England. Consequently, passages quoted in all of my secondary sources are not onthe pages cited. The result is a major pain in the neck. The pages


indicated here are from the version in my personal possession.)a. Unless otherwise noted, all italics and other emphasis is in the

original.2. "One blood demands one Reich. . . . Only when the Reich borders

include the very last German, but can no longer guarantee his dailybread, will the moral right to acquire foreign soil arise from thedistress of our own people. Their sword will become our plow, andfrom the tears of war the daily bread of future generations willgrow." (Hitler 3)

3. “The cleanliness of this people [the Jews], moral and otherwise, I must

say, is a point in itself. By their very exterior you could tell thatthese were no lovers of water, and, to your distress, you often knewit with your eyes closed. . . . All this could scarcely be called veryattractive; but it became positively repulsive when, in addition totheir physical uncleanliness, you discovered the moral stains on this‘chosen people.’ . . . Was there any form of filth or profligacy,particularly in cultural life, without at least one Jew involved in it? If you cut even cautiously into such an abscess, you found, like amaggot in a rotting body, often dazzled by the sudden light--a kike!”(Hitler Mein Kampf 57)

4. “When I recognized the Jew as the leader of the Social Democracy, the

scales dropped from my eyes.” (60)5. “I gradually became aware that the Social Democratic press was

directed predominantly by Jews.” (61)6. “The Jewish doctrine of Marxism rejects the aristocratic principle of

Nature and replaces the eternal privilege of power and strength bythe mass of numbers and their dead weight. . . . [T]he result of anapplication of such a law could only be chaos, on earth it could onlybe destruction for the inhabitants of this planet.”

7. “If, with the help of his Marxist creed, the Jew is victorious over the

other peoples of the world, his crown will be the funeral wreath ofhumanity and this planet will, as it did thousands of years ago,move through the ether devoid of men.

8. “Eternal Nature inexorably avenges the infringement of her

commands.9. “Hence today I believe that I am acting in accordance wit the will of

the Almighty Creator: by defending myself against the Jew, I amfighting for the work of the Lord.” (65)

10. "What form must the life of the German nation assume in the

tangible future . . . ?" (131)11. "Germany has an annual increase in population of nearly nine

hundred thousand souls. The difficulty of feeding this army of newcitizens must grow greater from year to year and ultimately end in


catastrophe, unless ways and means are found to forestall thedanger of starvation and misery in time." (Hitler 131)

12. ". . . anyone who wants to secure the existence of the German people

by a self-limitation of its reproduction is robbing it of its future."(Hitler 133)

13. "Without doubt the productivity of the soil can be increased up to a

certain limit. But only up to a certain limit. . . . " (Hitler 133)14. ". . . only those races are stricken with such suffering [hunger] which

no longer possess the force and strength to secure for themselves thenecessary territories in this world. For . . . there are . . . immenseareas of unused [sic] soil, only waiting for the men to till them. But. . . Nature as such has not reserved this soil for the futurepossession of any particular nation or race; on the contrary, this soilexists for the people which possesses the force to take it and theindustry to cultivate it." (Hitler 134)

15. "No one can doubt that this world will some day be exposed to the

severest struggles for the existence of mankind. In the end, only theurge for self-preservation can conquer." (Hitler 135)

16. "The acquisition of new soil for the settlement of the excess

population possesses an infinite number of advantages. . . thepossibility of preserving a healthy peasant class as a foundation for awhole nation can never be valued highly enough. Many of ourpresent-day sufferings are only the consequence of the unhealthyrelationship between rural and city population." (Hitler 138)

17. "It must be said that such a territorial policy cannot be fulfilled in the

Cameroons, but today almost exclusively in Europe. . . . .If thisearth really has room for all to live in, let us be given the soil weneed for our livelihood. True, they will not willingly do this. Butthen the law of self-preservation goes into effect; and what isrefused to amicable methods, it is up to the fist to take." (Hitler138-9)

18. "For Germany, consequently, the only possibility for carrying out a

healthy territorial policy lay in the acquisition of new land inEurope itself." (Hitler 139)

19. "The talk about the 'peaceful economic' conquest of the world was

possibly the greatest nonsense which has ever been exalted to be aguiding principle of state policy." (Hitler 143)

20. "Never yet has a state been founded by peaceful economic means, but

always and exclusively by the instincts of preservation of the species.. . . " (Hitler 153)

21. “If the Jews were alone in this world, they would stifle in filth and

offal.” (302)22. “The Jew’s life as a parasite in the body of other nations and states


explains a characteristic which once caused Schopenhauer . . . to callhim the ‘great master in lying.’ Existence impels the Jew to life, andto lie perpetually. . .

23. “His life within other peoples can only endure for any length of time

if he succeeds in arousing the opinion that he is not a people but a‘religious community,’ . . . And this is the first great lie.” (305)

24. “His [the Jew’s] unfailing instinct in such tings scents the original

soul in everyone, and his hostility is assured to anyone who is notspirit of his spirit. Since the Jew is not the attacked but theattacker, not only anyone who attacks passes as his enemy, but alsoanyone who resists him. But the means with which he seeks tobreak such reckless but upright souls is not honest warfare, but liesand slander.

25. “Here he stops at nothing, and in his vileness he becomes so gigantic

that no one need be surprised if among our people thepersonification of the devil as the symbol of all evil assumes theliving shape of the Jew.

26. “Slowly fear of the Marxist weapon of Jewry descends like a

nightmare on the mind and soul of decent people.” (324)27. “With satanic joy in his face, the black-haired Jewish youth lurks in

wait for the unsuspecting girl whom he defiles with his blood, thusstealing her from her people. With every means he tries to destroythe racial foundations of the people he has set out to subjugate. Just as he himself systematically runs women and girls, he does notshrink back from pulling down the blood barriers for others, evenon a large scale. It was and it is Jews who bring the Negroes intothe Rhineland, always with the same secret thought and clear aim ofruining the hated white race by the necessarily resultingbastardization, throwing it down from its cultural and politicalheight and himself rising to be its master. [Explanatory note: France, with its history of toleration, had long accepted Africans asFrenchmen, as long as they were culturally gallicized. Theypreferred to rule their African empire chiefly through leaders whowere culturally French. Their toleration however, predates theirAfrican empire. In addition, African troops were used in WorldWar I, and you will recall that they were deliberately used in theoccupation of the Ruhr because they thought the Germans would beespecially offended. Some 800 children of mixed Afro-Germanparentage were born. The Weimar police made careful note of eachone; the Nazis forcibly sterilized each and every one of them]

28. “For a racially pure people which is conscious of its blood can never

be enslaved by the Jew. In this world he will forever be master overbastards and bastards alone.


29. “And so he tries systematically to lower the racial level by a

continuous poisoning of individuals.30. “And in politics he begins to replace the idea of democracy by the

dictatorship of the proletariat.31. “It is in the organized mass of Marxism he has found the weapon

which lets him dispense with democracy and in its stead allows himto subjugate and govern the peoples with a dictatorial and brutalfist.” (325-6)

32. “The most frightful example of this kind is offered by Russia, where

he killed or starved about thirty million people with positivelyfanatical savagery, in part amid inhuman tortures, in order to give agand of Jewish journalists and stock exchange bandits dominationover a great people.” (326)

33. “End is not only the end of the freedom of the peoples oppressed by

the Jew, but also the end of this parasite upon the nations. Afterthe death of his victim, the vampire sooner or later dies too.” (327)

34. "France is and remains by far the most terrible enemy. This people,

which is becoming more and more negrified, constitutes in its tie withaims of Jewish world domination an enduring danger for the existenceof the white race of Europe. For the contamination by negro bloodon the Rhine in the heart of Europe is just as much in keeping withthe perverted sadistic thirst for vengeance of this hereditary enemyof our people as is the ice-cold calculation of the Jew thus to beginbastardizing the European continent at its core and to deprive thewhite race of the foundations for a sovereign existence throughinfecting with a lower humanity.

35. “What France, spurred on by her own thirst for vengeance and

systematically led by the Jew, is doing in Europe today is a sin againstthe existence of white humanity and some day will incite against thispeople all the avenging spirits of a race which has recognized racialpollution as the original sin of humanity.

36. “in the predictable future there can be only two allies for Germany in

Europe: England and Italy." (624)37. "Here ["the relation of Germany to Russia"] perhaps we are dealing

with the most decisive concern of all German foreign affairs. . . ."(Hitler 641)

38. "The foreign policy of the folkish state must safeguard the existence on

this planet of the race embodied in the state, by creating a healthy,viable natural relation between the nation's population and growth onthe one hand and the quantity and quality of its soil on the otherhand." (Hitler 643)

39. "Only an adequately large space on this earth assures a nation of

freedom of existence." (Hitler 643)


40. ". . . in addition to its importance as a direct source of a people's food,

another significance, that is, a military and political one, must beattributed to the area of a state." (Hitler 643)

41. "If the National Socialist movement really wants to be consecrated by

history with a great mission for our nation, it . . . must find thecourage to gather our people and their strength for an advance alongthe road that will lead this people from its present restricted living spaceto new land and soil, and hence also free it from the danger ofvanishing from the earth or of serving others as a slave nation." (Hitler645-6)

42. "The National Socialist movement must strive to eliminate the

disproportion between our population and our area--viewing this latteras a source of food as well as a basis for power politics. . . . And in thisit must remain aware that we, as guardians of the highest humanityon this earth, are bound by the highest obligation, and the more itstrives to bring the German people to racial awareness, . . . the moreit will be able to meet this obligation." (Hitler 646)

43. "The demand for restoration of the frontiers of 1914 is a political

absurdity of such proportions and consequences as to make it seem acrime. Quite aside from the fact that the Reich's frontiers in 1914were anything but logical. For in reality they were neither complete inthe sense of embracing the people of German nationality, nor sensiblewith regard to geo-military expediency. They were not the result of aconsidered political action, but momentary frontiers in a politicalstruggle that was by no means concluded; partly, in fact, they were theresults of chance." (Hitler 649)

44. "Today it is not princes and princes' mistresses who haggle and bargain

over state borders; it is the inexorable Jew who struggles for hisdomination over the nations." (Hitler 651)

45. "we National Socialists must hold unflinchingly to our aim in foreign

policy, namely, to secure for the German people the land and soil towhich they are entitled on this earth." (Hitler 652)

46. "The soil on which some day German generations of peasants can

beget powerful sons will sanction the investment of the sons oftoday, and will some day acquit the responsible statesmen of blood-guilt and sacrifice of the people, even if they are persecuted by theircontemporaries." (Hitler 652)

47. "State boundaries are made by man and changed by man." (Hitler 653)

48. "Much as all of us today recognize the necessity of a reckoning with

France, it would remain ineffectual in the long run if it representedthe whole of our aim in foreign policy. It can and will achievemeaning only if it offers the rear cover for an enlargement of ourpeople's living space in Europe. For it is not in colonial acquisitions


that we must see the solution of this problem, but exclusively in theacquisition of a territory for settlement, which will enhance the areaof the mother country, and hence not only keep the new settlers inthe most intimate community with the land of their origin, butsecure for the total area those advantages which lie in its unifiedmagnitude." (Hitler 653) (emphasis added)

49. "The right to possess soil can become a duty if without extension of its

soil a great nation seems doomed to destruction. And most especiallywhen not some little nigger nation or other is involved, but theGermanic mother of life, which has given the present-day world itscultural picture. Germany will either be a world power or there will beno Germany." (Hitler 654)

50. "And so we National Socialists consciously draw a line beneath the

foreign policy of our pre-War period. We take up where we broke offsix hundred years ago." [the Drang nach Osten, a surge ofcolonization eastwards against Slavic peoples and other groups, likethe Prus–who gave Prussia their name--who were exterminated. The drive was ultimately blunted by Alexander Nevsky's victory overthe Teutonic Knights. It left a very large German population inwhat is now Poland and the Baltic states] (Hitler 654)

51. "If we speak of soil in Europe today, we can primarily have in mind

only Russia and her vassal border states." (Hitler 654)52. "Here Fate itself seems desirous of giving us a sign. By handing

Russia to Bolshevism, it robbed the Russian nation of thatintelligentsia which previously brought about and guaranteed itsexistence as a state. For the organization of a Russian stateformation was not the result of the political abilities of the Slaves inRussia, but only a wonderful example of the state-forming efficacyof the German element in an inferior race. . . . For centuries Russiadrew nourishment from this Germanic nucleus of its upper leadingstrata. Today it can be regarded as almost totally exterminated andextinguished. It has been replaced by the Jew. Impossible as it isfor the Russian by himself to shake off the yoke of the Jew by hisown resources, it is equally impossible for the Jew to maintain themighty empire forever. He himself is no element of organization,but a ferment of decomposition. The Persian empire in the east isripe for collapse. And the end of Jewish rule in Russia will also bethe end of Russia as a state. We have been chosen by Fate aswitnesses of a catastrophe which will be the mightiest confirmationof the soundness of the folkish theory." (Hitler 654)

53. "Our task, the mission of the National Socialist movement, is to bring

our own people to such political insight that they will not see their goalfor the future in the breath-taking sensation of a new Alexander's


conquest, but in the industrious work of the German plow, to which thesword need only give soil." (Hitler 655)

54. "An alliance whose aim does not embrace a plan for war is senseless and

worthless." (Hitler 660)55. "The present rulers of Russia have no idea of honorably entering into an

alliance, let alone observing one. Never forget that the rulers ofpresent-day Russia are common blood-stained criminal; that theyare the scum of humanity." (Hitler 660)

56. "In Russian Bolshevism we must see the attempt undertaken by the Jews

in the twentieth century to achieve world domination." (Hitler 661)57. "The fight against Jewish world Bolshevism requires a clear attitude

toward Soviet Russia. You cannot drive out the Devil with Beelzebub."(Hitler 662)

D. Other Writings and Speeches1. From Hitlers Zweites Buch, written in 1928, found after the war, and

translated in 1961, New York, 1961, pp. 212-215; qtd in Documents onthe Holocaust, pp. 26-30: “His ultimate goal is the denationalization, thepromiscuous bastardization of other peoples, the lowering of the raciallevel of the highest peoples, and the domination of this racial mish-mashthrough the extirpation of the völkisch intelligentsia and its replacementby the members of his own people.

2. “The end of the Jewish world struggle therefore will always be a bloodyBolshevization. . . . . Hence the result of Jewish domination is always theruin of all culture and finally the madness of the Jew himself. For he is aparasite of nations, and his victory signifies his own end as much as thedeaths of his victims. . . . "

3. Adolf Hitler, Speech to 800 Nazi Gauleiter April 1937: "From whom is he

[a newspaper editor] demanding this? [introduction of specialinsignia for Jews] Who can give the necessary orders? Only I cangive them. The editor, in the name of his readers, is asking me toact. First, I should tell you that long before this editor had anyinkling about the Jewish problem, I had made myself an expert onthe subject. Secondly, this problem has been under considerationfor two or three years, and will, of course, be settled one way oranother in due course. My point is then this: the final aim of ourpolicy is crystal clear to all of us. All that concerns me to never totake a step that I might later have to retrace and never to take a stepthat cold damage us in any way. You must understand that I alwaysgo as far as I dare and no further. It is vital to have a sixth sensethat tells you, broadly, what you can do and what you cannot do. Even in a struggle with an adversary it is not my way to issue adirect challenge to a trial of strength. I do not say "come out andfight because I want a fight." Instead I shout at him (and I shoutlouder and louder): "I mean to destroy you." And then I use my


intelligence to manoeuvre him into a tight corner so that he cannotstrike back, and then I deliver the fatal blow." (Gordon 129-0)

4. Adolf Hitler, Speech to the Reichstag, January 30, 1939 ‘During the time of

my struggle for power it was in the first instance the Jewish racewhich only received my prophecies with laughter when I said that Iwould one day take over the leadership of the State, and with it thatof the whole nation, and that I would then among many otherthings settle the Jewish problem. Their laughter was uproarious,but I think that for some time now they have been laughing on theother side of their face. Today I will once more be a prophet: If theinternational Jewish financiers in and outside Europe shouldsucceed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, thenthe result will not be the bolshevization of the earth, and thus thevictory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe!” (Documents on the Holocaust . 134-5) [Alternatively, "theannihilation of the Jewish race in Europe" and "the destruction of theJewish race in Europe." The German word was "die Vernichtung."} ["dieVernichtung" is quite an intense word, and should be rendered as"annihilation.." "Destruction" would be "die Zerstörung," which is lessintense than "die Vernichtung." The noun is constructed of the adverb"not" ("nicht") plus the feminine suffix "-ung" for abstract nouns, plus theinseparable prefix "ver-" which pushes the action of a verb to the ultimatelimit and intensifies. Conceptually, the noun is "the making somethingnot" as opposed to "die Zerstörung" which is constructed of the verb"stören" to disturb," the feminine suffix "-ung" for abstract nouns and theinseparable prefix "zer-" which implies breaking up into pieces.] (Gordon130-131)

5. Adolf Hitler, speech at the Sportpalast January 30, 1942; audience included

40 high ranking army officers "On September 1, 1939, I have alreadygone on record in the German Reichstag--and I am careful not tomake any hasty prophecies--that this war will not end as the Jewsimagine it, namely with the extermination of the European peoples,but that the result of the war will be the destruction of Jewry. Theyare simply our old enemies, their plans have suffered shipwreckthrough us, and they rightly hate us, just as we hate them. Werealize that this war can only end either in the wiping out of theGermanic nations, or by the disappearance of Jewry from Europe. For the first time, it will not be the others who will bleed to death,but for the first time the genuine ancient Jewish law, 'An eye for aneye, a tooth for a tooth,' is being applied. The more this strugglespreads, the more anti-Semitism will spread--and world Jewry mayrely on this." (Gordon 62-63)

6. Adolf Hitler; speech September 30, 1942 "On September 1, 1939, I

stated two things in that session of the Reichstag . . . . secondly,


that if Jewry should instigate an international world war, forinstance, in order to exterminate the Aryan peoples, then it will notbe the Aryan peoples that will be annihilated but it will be Jewry . . .." (Jäckel 63)

7. Adolf Hitler, in conversation, February 13 1945 "I have always been

absolutely fair in my dealings with the Jews. On the eve of the war,I gave them one final warning. I told them that, if they precipitatedanother war, they would not be spared and that I would exterminatethe vermin throughout Europe, and this time once and for all. Tothis warning they retorted with a declaration of war and affirmedthat wherever in the world there was a Jew, there, too, was animplacable enemy of National Socialist Germany.

8. "Well, we have lanced the Jewish abscess; and the world of the future

will be eternally grateful to us." (Gordon 65)9. : [The last sentence of Hitler's "politisches Testament, " dictated about 4:00

am April 29, 1945] "Above all I pledge the leadership of the nationand its followers to the scrupulous observation of the racial laws andin an implacable opposition against the universal poisoners of allpeoples: international Jewry.” (Jäckel 66. Note cf also the samepassage translated substantially the same in Fleming 188 and inDocuments on the Holocaust pp. 162-3; I am a little puzzled, sinceFleming includes a photocopy of the document which does not includethis sentence, although other translated passages can be found; yet bothJaeckel and Fleming agree on the text. Fleming's original was a copy;perhaps this was added in long hand; the original is in the Imperial WarMuseum. The whole question is a nice lesson in documentary history--whose published version is being used, what is the history of thedocument's composition, and how reliable is it]

E. The central concept for Hitler is therefore anti-

Semitism. Lebensraum is the second mostimportant concept.

VIII. 1925-28 The Heyday of the Weimar RepublicA. After the Dawes Plan was signed in late 1924, economic conditions in the country

improve. correspondingly, in direct proportion to improving economicconditions, the voting strength of the Communists and the Nazis decline.

B. The Nazi movement fell in disarray during Hitler's imprisonment. When he got outon parole, he had a major challenge in order to rebuild the party and reassertcontrol.1. One fundamental decision Hitler made was that he would not again attempt

to seize power by coup d'etat (although he did not make that publicknowledge, since the threat of a coup was a useful lever). Lenin seizedpower by coup. Hitler seized power constitutionally.

C. Both Streicher and Röhm start parallel organizations. Hitler and Röhm disagree on


the structure and purpose of his new paramilitary band, and this results in abreach of several years.1. During this time, Hitler reorganizes the SA. It remains relatively weak until

the return of Röhm. To compensate, Hitler creates the Schutzstaffel (SSor "Defense Echelon"). This organization is originally Hitler's bodyguard,and is quite small at this time. The SS are the most fanatical, loyal, anddisciplined of Hitler's forces. They are eventually led by HeinrichHimmler. Of all the figures in the Third Reich, only Hitler exceedsHimmler in sheer evil. Himmler eventually controls a party army ofenormous size and terrifying skill; he is the architect and executor of theFinal Solution; and he controlled, through his deputy, ReinhardHeydrich (a man whose evil is rivaled only by his ability) the Gestapo, thesecret police. Himmler remains firmly loyal to Hitler and a dedicatedNazi, which is important for Hitler since Himmler had to power to topplehim. From our perspective, of course, a coup that replaced Hitler withHimmler would been a rebellion in hell that replaced Satan withBeelzebub.

D. Gregor Strasser used the time Hitler was in prison to build a party organization inthe north. This wing of the party is virtually autonomous (Carsten 124) Strasseris more of a genuine Socialist than Hitler, and represents the left wing of the Naziparty. 1. One proposal was to break up the East Prussian estates into small peasant

farms, which would then become a hereditary caste. Another proposalwould form all businesses with less than 20 workers into compulsoryguilds.

2. His brother, Otto Strasser, who is more radical still, assists him.3. Another follower who enters Strasser's orbit is Joseph Goebbels (Carsten

125) Goebbels became the Propaganda Minister, and as such is ratherimportant for this class; he was a psychopathic anti-Semite (like Hitler andHimmler and Heydrich) and a very talented man without discern ablemoral values. I have seen film interviews with the BBC with him datingback before the war. He spoke fluent, hardly accented English. Hisperformance was superb--he told the BBC exactly what they wanted tohear. Later in the war, he is responsible for keeping the Germans fightingand working hard even as defeat stared them in the face. He murdered hiswife and five children in Hitler’s bunker before committing suicide.

E. In February 1925, the struggle for supremacy comes to a boil over the issue ofwhether the former ruling families (Hohenzollern, Wittelsbach) should becompensated for property now used by the government, or whether thegovernment should simply expropriate it. The Strasser wing wished toexpropriate it. Hitler wanted to defend private property; otherwise, he could notappeal to the petits bourgeois, who feared the Communists. Hitler wins, and fromthis point on, there is no longer debate within the party as to policy. The onlypolicy is Hitler's policy. (Carsten 126)

F. That same month, Hitler makes an important address to business and industrialleaders in Hamburg. Here, he stresses the rebirth of national power by jettisoning


the Treaty of Versailles and extirpation of Marxism. He does not mention theJews in this speech. (Carsten 127)

G. By mid-1925, Hitler has imposed a tight, centralized authority over every aspect ofthe party, and bent the leaders of other groups to his will. He also subordinatesthe Austrian Nazis.

H. The party, while still small, grows steadily by absorbing other völkisch groups. Hehas 27,000 members in 1925, 49,000 in 1926, 72,000 in 1927, and 108,000 in1928.1. A large number of these members had at one time been members of the

Freikorps movement.I. The SA is reorganized and strengthened, and is the typical manifestation of the party

at this time.1. The new commander is Franz Pfeffer von Salomon, brother of Ernst von

Salomon (who is regarded by both the Left and the Right as the bestspokesman for the Freikorps) (Pfeffer's career with the Freikorps waslong, and, from their point of view, distinguished; he dropped his familyname because it sounded Semitic, although the family was not in factJewish)

2. Pfeffer trains the SA to control the streets.3. At this time, Hitler gives them their distinctive uniforms and they adopt the

Hitler salute.4. Hitler has tied the SA more closely to the party; they are now the fighting

arm of a political movement and lose some of the autonomy they had hadunder Röhm. (Carsten 130-1)

IX. Alliance with HugenbergA. The Young Plan in 1929 provided an important opening for Hitler. Alfred

Hugenberg opposed the program, and put together an alliance with Hitler, theStahlhelm, and the Pan-German League.1. The Young Plan is eventually accepted by the Reichstag. But, in the course

of the campaign, Hitler picks up half of Hugenburg's supporters. For thefirst time, Hitler is given wide national exposure, courtesy of Hugenberg'smedia empire. Hugenburg's invitation had given the Nazis an air ofrespectability, and also opened up to Hitler sources of income from largeindustrialists such as Fritz Thyssen and Emil Kirdorf.

B. The period shows Hitler making some significant gains. The readership of JuliusStreicher's newspaper, Der Stürmer, which was vitriolically anti-Semitic (this isby Nazi standards--Streicher's anti-Semitism is even more pornographic thanHitler's and disgusted even Goebbels) was attracted by Hitler's call for a rebirth ofnational power, voice support.1. It is perhaps significant that among those officers were Ludwig Beck and

Henning von Tresckow, both of whom became leaders in the plot toassassinate Hitler in July 1944; both were wise enough to commit suicidebefore the Gestapo reached them. (Technically, von Tresckow did notcommit suicide; he exposed himself to Russian fire)

X. The Economic Crisis


A. The Great Depression hit Germany hard in 1930. With unemployment soaring,membership in the Nazi party increased. The SA recruited 300,000 unemployedmen during this time. Membership in the Communist party also rose, and fiercestreet battles broke out.

B. All is not smooth for Hitler. The Prussian police was controlled by the SocialDemocrats and attempted to control both the Right as well as the Left. The upperranks of the Army hated and despised the SA, most of whose leaders were ex-Freikorps, whom they regarded as dangerous revolutionaries (they were, ofcourse). The Army also feared that the SA would become a rival army (this isquite a justified fear, as well)1. Hitler, when forced to choose between the Army and the SA will choose the

Army and purge the SA by use of the SS. The Army thought it had won. It had lost. The SS in time becomes far more formidable than the SA hadbeen.

C. Hitler must devote a lot of time to controlling the SA. In order to quell a mutiny, hetakes over personal command. Franz Pfeffer von Salomon resigns.1. Hitler calls Ernst Röhm back from Bolivia to lead the SA again.2. Hitler separates the SS from the SA, with Himmler as the head.

D. Hitler's position of seeking power by legal means gains benefits. He fools evenGroener sufficiently to allow army soldiers to attend Nazi meetings, and to openthe Army to Nazi recruits.

E. In 1932, Hitler addressed a meeting of industrialists in Düsseldorf, and made the bestspeech of his life, winning over very substantial financial support.

F. The Party grows steadily from 178,000 in 1929, to 380,000 in 1930, to 800,000 in1931. 38% of the party was under 30 years of age. (Carsten 142-3)

XI. The Elections of 1930A. The elections, with the nation reeling from the Depression, are a disaster for

Parliamentary democracy.1. Stresemann's German People's Party loses 37 seats to 412. The National Liberals lose 15 seats to 303. The Catholic Centre gained 3 seats to 194. The Left Liberals lost 5 seats to 205. The Social Democrats lost 10 seats to 1436. The Communists gain 23 seats to 777. The National Socialists (Nazis) gain 95 seats to 1078. Fundamentally, the Nazis prospered by absorbing all right-wing parties into

themselves. They never cut much into the Socialist vote or the Catholicvote.

B. A Parliament that had a democratic majority is now replaced by one where thesecond and third largest parties are implacably opposed to parliamentarydemocracy.

C. Chancellor Heinrich Brüning is determined to rule by decree. Brüning'sgovernment therefore marks the end of Parliamentary democracy inGermany.


XII. Political RadicalizationA. With the suffering, the populace becomes more radical and desperate.B. Hitler's SA takes the streets to beat up Communists, who reciprocate. Fierce street

battles occur. 1. In general, the police favored the SA, since they opposed the Communists.

C. It appears that Germany is on the verge of civil war.D. General Kurt von Schleicher, who led a special political office, opens negotiations

first with Ernst Röhm, the head of the SA, and then with Hitler to bring the Nazisinto the government. The attempt is a failure.

E. Hitler sets out to tighten his grip on the Right, especially at Harzburg, where most ofthe big nationalist organizations--Hugenberg's, the Stahlhelm, big industrialists,well-known generals, two sons of the Kaiser, Hjalmar Schacht, Hans von Seeckt--gather. He also sets out systematically to penetrate the Officer Corps (whichSeeckt would not have tolerated; Groener will not; Schleicher however supportsit).

XIII. Hindenburg's ReelectionA. Hindenburg's term as President expired in 1932. He is convinced to run again, but

this time, ironically, he is the candidate supported by the Social Democrats. Theso-called Harzburg Front cannot support Brüning, but also cannot unite behindHitler yet, either. The contest was fiercely fought.

B. Hindenburg won 46.6% of the vote to Hitler's 30.1%, Düsterberg (candidate for theStahlhelm) 6.8%, and Ernst Thälmann, the Communist candidate, won 13.2% Hitler is disappointed, but makes the run-off.

C. Hindenburg wins the run-off by 53% to Hitler's 36.8%D. Hitler is still disappointed, and Röhm, with 400,000 SA, presses hard for a

revolutionary take-over. Hitler refuses. He is determined to take power throughconstitutional means.

E. Gen. Kurt von Schleicher now maneuvers to get rid of Gen. Wilhelm Groener. Theissue is Groener's determination to suppress the SA and SS, as well as the risinginfluence of the Nazis within the officer corps. Schleicher has Hindenburg's earthrough the offices of Oskar von Hindenburg, the President's son. Groener isforced out by the man he had regarded as his adopted son. Groener dies in 1939.

F. Hindenburg, urged on by Schleicher, now forces Brüning to resign. Hindenburgdoes not like Hitler at all, but he regards his 13 million voters as German patriots,while many of the 19 million who voted for him were socialists. Schleicher seesthe rightists as divided.1. Schleicher is totally convinced that he can "tame" Hitler by luring him

into the government. Once saddled with responsibility, Schleicherthinks Hitler will moderate his most extreme positions.

G. The new chancellor is a reactionary monarchist, Franz von Papen XIV. The Papen Government

A. Few people in Germany could take Papen seriously. Papen's government waslargely made up of aristocrats, and had even less Parliamentary support thanBrüning had had. And over half the Parliament was made up of bitter enemies ofthe republic anyway.


1. When Papen summoned the Reichstag, Göring (!) was elected President. Before the Reichstag could be organized, the Communists submitted a no-confidence motion

B. Papen lifts the restrictions on paramilitary organizations (ie. the SA and SS), whopromptly took to the streets. Hitler accepted all the assistance he could get, butrefused any quid pro quos. Street violence escalates sharply.1. Papen's next move was to try to discipline the Nazis by working to dry up the

contributions from the industrialistsC. Papen calls for new federal elections on November 6, 1932

1. The Nazis fall by 2 million votes (down to 33.1%). They have achieved theirmaximum support in the voting booth

2. The Communists gain up to 16.9% of the vote which feeds fears thatanything that damaged the Nazis would hasten a Communist take-over.a. It should be noted that the existence of a numerous and viable

German Communist Party is an important factor in the Naziseizure of power.

D. Schleicher now uses Hindenburg's fear of civil war to depose Papen. Schleicher nowbecomes Chancellor, confident that he can control Hitler.

XV. The Schleicher GovernmentA. Schleicher attempts to seduce Gregor Strasser, an important Nazi leader, and split

the Nazis.1. Strasser had originally led his own nationalist group, which had been

absorbed by the Hitler's Nazis. He is much more of a radical socialist thanHitler.

2. Schleicher fails in his effort.B. Papen, angry at Schleicher, begins plotting to bring Schleicher's government down.C. The industrialists and landowners who surrounded Hindenburg urged him strongly to

appoint a Hitler-Papen government: a Harzburg government of all the nationalistgroups. The old man finally agrees. Schleicher is forced to resign.

XVI. The Hitler-Papen GovernmentA. Hitler is named Chancellor on January 30, 1933

1. The government included only 3 Nazis to 9 other conservative bureaucrats.a. Observers thought that Hitler was hemmed in by the conservatives.

Papen himself wrote that "We have him roped in. . . . In twomonths we'll have pushed Hitler into a corner, and he can squeal tohis heart's content." (Hildebrandt 3)

2. Papen is Vice Chancellor and would be present at all meetings with thePresident.

3. The Minister of Defense is Gen. Werner von Blomberg, an emotional manwho was easily swayed by those around him.

4. Hugenberg of the German National People's Party (DNVP) was Minister ofEconomics and also Agriculture.

5. The Finance Minister (Count Schwerin von Krosigk), Foreign Minister(Baron von Neurath), Justice Minister (F. Gürtner), and Communication


Minister (Freiherr von Eltz-Rübenach) remained unchanged from Papen'sCabinet of Barons. They are joined by F. Seldte, the leader of theStahlhelm, as Minister of Labor.

6. Herman Göring is named Minister Without Portfolio and later Minister ofAviation. More importantly, he becomes deputy commissar for Prussia,which gave him control of the police force of Germany's largest state. This is a crucial position. Göring used that position with utterruthlessness. Among other things, 40,000 members of the SA and the SSare enrolled in the Prussian police (Hildebrandt 4). It is Göring also whocreates the terrible Gestapo (the Geheime Staatspolizei or Secret StatePolice).

7. Wilhelm Frick is Minister of the Interior, which gives him control of thefederal police.

XVII. The Reichstag Fire A. On February 27, 1933, arsonists set fire to the Reichstag building. One arsonist,

Martinus van der Lubbe, a Dutch ex-Communist, was arrested.B. Hitler immediately blames the Communists for the "plot." He moves with such

speed that many historians believe that Hitler ordered the fire set, and set up vander Lubbe as a scapegoat. There isn't enough evidence to make this stick,however.

C. Hitler has Hindenburg issue an emergency decree under Article 48 suspendinghabeas corpus, freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, freedom of association,and the inviolability of property. The Nazi reign of terror begins.1. This decree forms the legal basis for the demolition of the Weimar

government.2. This decree is never rescinded.3. Within 5 days Germany is a police state.

D. Elections are held in 19331. The SA fans out to suppress the left. All of the Communist leaders and many

of the Social Democratic leaders are arrested.a. Göring instructs his "police" to "make free use of their firearms" to

suppress Communists and Socialists. (Hildebrandt 4)2. The Nazis poll 43.9% and the Nationalists 8%. Hitler has a working

majority.3. A law is promulgated in April giving Hitler power to purge the civil

bureaucracy (Hildebrandt 4)--a power which Hitler is not afraid to use. The failure to do this is one of the important errors of the SPD.

E. The Potsdam Parade1. Hitler stages a parade of conservative and nationalist groups in order to

associate himself with past German glories. He invited the Crown Princeand his wife, and left one chair vacant for the Kaiser. Hindenburg came inthe uniform of a Field Marshall. Hitler's speech was [relatively] moderate. It was impressive theatrics. It lulls conservative observers, as it wasintended to.

F. The Enabling Act


1. The next day, Hitler submits the Enabling Act. This gave Hitler emergencydictatorial powers for 4 years. Both the Reichstag and the President areremoved from legislative authority.

2. The Reichstag took up the bill. Only Otto Wels, the leader of the SocialDemocrats, spoke against it. The Reichstag voted 441 to 84 in favor. TheEnabling Act passes.a. The agonizing question remains as to why the other parties

acquiesced in their own destruction. The KPD of course was notallowed to vote. The SDP voted against it. The Catholic Centre,the DNVP and others agreed to it. The reason, according toHildebrandt, is that they thought that Nazi dominance wasinevitable and they hoped to maintain their party apparatus andinfluence policy by cooperation, not confrontation. The crucialerror is that their assumptions were within the tradition of aRechtsstaat--a state governed by law (5) (a principle which Hitlerhad deliberately not yet violated in principle; Hitler has beenattacked from the right and left for this--the Marxists see this asevidence that he was never truly revolutionary--but thatpresupposes that Hitler did not grasp the psychology of his fellowGermans. That is a perilous assumption to make. The Marxiststrait-jacket provides explanations for Hitler that are superficiallyconvincing but break down both under close and dynamic/broadscrutiny. If the Marxists had understood the Nazis better, perhapsmore of them would have survived--and Stalin would not havebeen so surprised in 1941.

3. By the end of June, all parties except the National Socialists have beensuppressed.

4. By the end of June, Hugenberg has resigned his post.5. The German Faust has met its Mephistopheles. Germany is now ruled

by the DevilXVIII. "Coordination" (Gleichschaltung)

A. In 1933, Hitler begins to bring everything in the country under his control. Gleichschaltung does not occur overnight, however. It takes several years beforeHitler is secure enough to turn to other issues.

B. Gen. Werner von Blomberg leads the Army into the fold.C. The German states are brought to heel by dissolving the parliaments and dismissing

the governor, then appointing the local Gauleiter (Nazi party district leader) togovern the state. Germany is no longer a federal state. The ancient kingdoms andprincipalities are absorbed. Centuries of local autonomy are wiped out.

D. The labor unions are next. May 1 is declared National Labor Day. (Very similar tohis use of the Potsdam Parade) The most important workers' organization, theADGB cooperates, for similar reasons to the political parties--they expect amodus vivendi. The workers get the day off. The next day, the SA takes over theoffices of every union. All workers are declared members of a National LaborFront, which included the employers as well as employees. Union leaders are


sent to concentration camps, along with other enemies of the regime. The blowwas well organized and brutal.

E. The other political parties fell next. The Nationalists' offices are seized and they"voluntarily" disband. By the end of July, all parties except the Nazi party areproscribed.

F. Persecution of the Jews begins with a systematic purge of the civil service,universities, and cultural organizations. The professions are closed to Jews. Streicher organizes a boycott of all Jewish owned businesses beginning April 1,1933.1. The Nuremberg Laws are passed on September 15, 1935, relegating Jews to

second-class citizenship.G. Goebbels organizes the first book-burning of "un-German literature" on May 10,

1933 (Hildebrandt 7) (This is about the time that several of my professors atcollege, Herr Bernhard Ulmer and Herr Victor Lange, left Germany.)

H. Nazi-Church relations were ambiguous.1. During their drive for power, the Catholic Church and the Catholic

organizations had generally been more resistant to the Nazis than theProtestants had been. For example, it is axiomatic that the Nazis werestrong in rural areas and among small farmers; election results tend to bearthat out. However, if votes are analyzed with religious affiliation in mind,small Catholic farmers were more reluctant to vote for the Nazis than wereProtestants. (Tilton 65)

2. The reasons for this are partly historical. The Catholic Church was subjectedto systematic and official discrimination in Wilhelmine Germany. Bismarck regarded the Catholic Church as a threat precisely because itwas international in scope. His Kulturkampf was aimed at weakening orbreaking the ties of German Catholics to the Vatican. Catholics weredeclared to be "enemies of the Reich." German Catholics spoke ofthemselves as living in a "ghetto." a. The persecution strengthened their sense of unity as a group (one that

crossed class lines); the Church sponsored the creation ofnumerous organizations that addressed the whole life of theindividual--socially, intellectually and culturally as well asspiritually. Therefore, although the Catholic population wasdisproportionately rural and "marginalized," they did not vote forthe Nazis to the degree that purely economic factors would leadone to expect. (Hunt 213-222) (1) On the other hand, German Catholics were sensitive about

Protestant doubts of their loyalty, and there is certainly adesire among Catholics to be regarded as within themainstream of the nation. Obviously, Bavarian Catholicssupported a very wide range of nationalist and völkischgroups. Politically, they tended to be centrist toconservative.

(2) To put the controversy into some perspective: the Marxist


historian James C. Hunts writes "Few bishops were asoutspokenly antirepublican as was Michael CardinalFaulhaber, Archbishop of Munich, at the 1922 CatholicRally. Condemning the November Revolution as 'perjuryand high treason,' he blamed Germany's distress on theWeimar Constitution." (220) This same cardinal however,issued an open letter to Chancellor Stresemann on the eveof the Beer Hall Putsch, writing, ""How can we hope tomaster the economic crisis that already is so great and themiseries of the coming winter that widespreadunemployment will bring unless all decent men worktogether regardless of faith, position, or party? How elsecan we eradicate the blind, raging hatred for our fellowJewish citizens and other ethnic groups, a hatred that fliesthrough the land screaming 'Guilty!' but never askingproof?" (Flood 457, emphasis added)

(3) In point of fact, the "Catholic bishops had hitherto attackedNazism in a series of strongly militant statements and hadofficially condemned them. But their will to resist wasundermined by the negotiations for a concordat, [signedJuly 20, 1933] already begun during the Weimar years andeagerly resumed by Hitler. Nazi promises and shamconcessions knocked the ground from under their feet."(Fest 426) The concordat granted protection of Catholicschools and institutions and priests, freedom of faith andpublic worship. In exchange, the Catholic Church gave upsocial and political organizations. (Holborn 743)(a) The Nazis violated the concordat as soon as they felt

they could get away with it. Hitler intended toestablish control over every aspect of everyGerman's life. The only question was timing (Hitleris inflexible as to goals, but opportunistic andflexible as to tactics.) The Nazis move againstCatholic schools in 1935, and an open breach is"expressed in the encyclical Mit brennender Sorge["With burning sorrow"] of 14 March 1937, inwhich the Pope voiced his 'increasing dismay' at thesituation of the Catholic church in Germany,deplored the church's Calvary and attacked the anti-Christian regime." (Hildebrandt 39)

(4) The Catholic Centre Party is a force to be reckoned with inthe Weimar Republic, polling usually around 5.5 millionvotes in elections, and holding 6 of the 15 Weimarchancellorships, with two others being held by non-Catholic Centre Catholics (Cuno and von Papen).

3. Protestant resistance was apparently more successful, but the cost was


schism.a. One wing of the Protestant churches formed the "Evangelical

National Socialists." On April 25, 1933, Hitler announced hissupport of Ludwig Müller in church elections, resulting in hiselection as Reich bishop on September 27, 1933. [It really warpsone's perceptions to see a photo, as I have, of a German bishopwith a cross around his neck and a swastika on his arm]

b. "Resistance to the new authorities and the German Christians wasorganized by the Pastor's Emergency League founded atBerlin/Dahlem in September 1933 by Martin Niemöller, and bythe Confessing church which developed from it and which firstmet as a body at Ulm on 22 April 1934." (Hildebrandt 12) TheConfessing Church attacked the Nazis as anti-Christian and "statedthat even the force of an oath is limited by the fact that God's wordalone is absolutely binding," (Hildebrandt 39) a genuinelyshocking position for a German cleric.

c. The Nazis kept up their pressure on the church, undermining itsautonomy by decree and arresting 800 members in 1937. Hitlernever abandoned his intention of suppressing the churcheseventually. (Hildebrandt 40)

I. All opposition was dealt with ruthlessly. The existence and horror of theconcentration camps at Oranienburg and Dachau was well enough known to chillresistance. The Gestapo swiftly became pervasive and adept.

XIX. The Night of the Long KnivesA. Now that Hitler has achieved power, the SA has no useful function within the state.

1. "Après la révolution il se pose toujours la question des révolutionnaires." Mussolini to Oswald Mosley (Fest 449)

B. Röhm does not believe the revolution is over, and he feels that the SA has been leftout of the rewards. He holds a philosophical difference with Hitler in that hedreamed of the SA forming the basis for a political militia which would replacethe Army. This is rather like the Frunze/Trotsky debates, with Röhm acting thepart of Trotsky. Hitler believes that the future greatness of Germany requiresthe technical expertise of the Army since expansion means offensive war, andoffensive war means modern technology. In this, he was undoubtedly correct. This is a long-standing difference between the two which now cannot bepapered over.1. In effect, Röhm still leads a genuine popular movement of between 3.5 and 4

million men (Fest 450)(in contrast with the Army at 100,000). LikeRobespierre, he is not yet ready for consolidation.

2. Röhm's actions could only viewed by Hitler and the Army as a challenge. Heostentatiously parades the SA in giant rallies; he intemperately attacksGöring, Hess, Goebbels, and even Hitler himself to his friends. A sampleof his rhetoric is: "Adolf is rotten. He's betraying all of us. he only goesaround with reactionaries. His old comrades aren't good enough for him. So he brings in these East Prussian generals. . . . He'll make it [the


revolution] National Socialist later on, he says. But first he's turning itover to the Prussian generals. Where the hell is revolutionary spirit tocome from afterwards? From a bunch of old fogies who certainly aren'tgoing to win the new war? Don't try to kid me, the whole lot of you. You're letting the whole heart and soul of our movement go to pot." (Fest451-2)

3. More ominously, Röhm builds up the numbers of the SA, establishesunauthorized detention camps, began acquiring weapons, and stepped upmilitary training, sought funds from industrialists, built up an SA fieldpolice and an SA judiciary, and aggressively tried to penetrate localgovernment, publishing, and academia. Clearly, he is laying thegroundwork for a parallel government that would penetrate the existingone.

C. Hitler begins accelerating German rearmament, which has powerful appeal toBlomberg and the generals. They will not, however, accept the SA on an equalbasis (for good reason).1. The reintroduction of conscription into the Reichswehr makes it clear that

Hitler will favor the Army is he must choose. Nevertheless, he sought toplacate Röhm, appointing him to the cabinet on December 1, 1932, andsending him an unusually warm letter of thanks shortly afterwards. Röhmappears to have believed that Hitler secretly agreed with him, but wasplaying some devious game of his own. He blamed his problems on hisrivals within the party: Göring, Hess, Goebbels, (Himmler, if he had onlyrealized it).

D. Hindenburg's failing health1. The issue comes to a head when Hitler is informed that Hindenburg would

not live many more days. Hitler needs to secure his succession to thePresidency as well as his current office of Chancellor. He can no longerdelay.

2. On a military cruise, Hitler cuts a deal with Blomberg and Werner vonFritsch, the Chief of the General Staff. The Army would support Hitler'ssuccession in exchange for curbing the SA and a promise that the Armywould not be involved in a civil war.

3. In the meantime, Göring and Röhm were on increasingly bad termspersonally. Göring begins collecting a special police force at Lichterfelde(he is Prussian Minister of the Interior).

4. In January, shortly after his letter of thanks, Hitler orders the Gestapo tobegin investigating Röhm and SA activities.

5. On February 21, Hitler told Britain's Anthony Eden that he would reduce theSA by 2/3s.a. Göring makes common cause with Himmler, and appoints Himmler

to the head of the Gestapo (in addition to the SS). The SS at thistime is a subdivision of the SA, and Himmler is technicallyRöhm's subordinate.

E. Hitler now sets Röhm up. On June 4, he held a long conference with him, assuring


Röhm that he would not dissolve the SA but criticizing Röhm and the SAleadership for "their disorder, luxury and sexual perversion." (Bullock 160) (Itwasn't as if those charges were new.) He orders the SA to take a month's leave. Obviously without a suspicion, Röhm agrees to do so. It is an amazing display ofpersonal magnetism by Hitler.

F. Hitler waits until a weekend to strike. On June 25, von Fritsch canceled all leavesand placed the army on alert. On June 30, the Gestapo and SS move into place. Röhm is taken while on holiday. Other leaders are rounded up, taken to prisonsin Berlin and Munich, and shot. Many die with "Heil Hitler!" on their lips. Theynever understood who had betrayed them. Unlike Stalin, Hitler did not indulge inshow-trials.1. Hitler settles some old scores. Gen. Kurt von Schleicher and his wife were

shot at his front door. Otto Strasser was arrested and executed. Gustavvon Kahn was hacked to pieces. Also included were two conservativeadvisers to von Papen and the head of the Catholic Action in Berlin.(Hildebrandt 14, Bullock 168, Fest 465)

G. The story is spread that the SA had been about to stage a coup d'etat, and had beenforestalled. 1. The commander of the Breslau district, Major-General (later Field Marshall)

Ewald von Kleist told the Nuremberg Tribunal that he "receivedinformation that presented a 'picture of feverish preparations on the partof the SA.'" However, in discussing the matter with SA commander inSilesia Edmund Heines, "they came to the joint suspicion 'that we . . . werebeing incited against one another by a third party--I thought of Himmler--and that many of the reports came from him." (Fest 461, 792 no. 43) (Forwhat it's worth, Heines is the only SA leader to be arrested who struggled,despite being arrested while in bed with another man)

2. The alleged plot is a complete fabrication, as the very unpreparedness of theSA and the fact that they obeyed and took the 30 days' leave makes clear. After the fact, he has the Cabinet and the Reichstag rubber-stamp hisversion.

H. Hitler announces: "In the state, there is only one bearer of arms, and that is theArmy; there is only one bearer of the political will, and that is the NationalSocialist Party." (Bullock 168, Fest 469)

I. Himmler is rewarded with full autonomy for his SS.XX. Hindenburg dies on August 2, 1934. Hitler merges the office of President with Chancellor,

and also becomes Supreme Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces.A. He immediately orders the Army to swear an oath of "unconditional obedience"

(“unbedingte Gehorsamkeit”) to the person of Adolf Hitler. For the proudofficer caste (it truly was a caste), bound as they were by traditions of rigidobedience and honor, this is a very significant act.

a. Let me illustrate the meaning of Prussian Kadaverdisziplin. The greatGerman Romantic playwright Heinrich von Kleist (scion of aJunker military family, close relative of Field Marshalls, and anancestor of the Ewald von Kleist quoted above)--a man who fought


the French before devoting his enormous talents to the service ofart--composed the intensely patriotic Prince Friedrich of Homburg,based on an actual event. It is in many ways his greatest play, withthe claims of society coming in closer harmony with the existentialdemands of the individual than his others. The crux of the play isthat the vain and head-strong Prince wins a battle by a cavalrycharge against orders. His father, the king, orders his execution fordisobedience of orders. The climax of the play is when the Princerecognizes and accepts the justice of the sentence. The officercorps would have been as familiar with this play as we are toHamlet. (Julius Caesar or Richard II are more politically relevant,but not everyone reads them, more's the pity.)

B. On August 19, Hitler holds a plebiscite. 95.7% of the electorate goes to the polls. 89.93% cast ballots approving Hitler's office as Führer.

C. Hitler is now in a position domestically to turn his chief attention to the acquisitionof Lebensraum. He has approached his agenda in rational stages. First hemust seize and consolidate his power. Then and only then does he turn to thefulfillment of his foreign policy agenda. It is clear from Mein Kampf that heintended to create a Racial Utopia. His domestic and his foreign policy aresimply two sides of the same coin.


Works Cited

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Carsten, F.L. The Rise of Fascism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969.

Craig, Gordon A. The Politics of the Prussian Army 1640-1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1967.

Fest, Joachim. Hitler. Transl. Richard and Clara Winston. New York: HarcourtBrace Jovanovich. 1974.

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Gordon, Sarah. Hitler, German, and the "Jewish Question." Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press, 1984

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Row, 1972.

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Michael N. Dobkowski and Isidor Walliman. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1983.

Waite, Robert G. L. Vanguard of Nazism: The Free Corps Movement in Post War Germany 1918-1923. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1952.

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Works Consulted

Abel, Theodore. Why Hitler Came Into Power. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1986.

Dobkowski, Michael N. and Wallimann, Isidor, Ed. Towards the Holocaust: The Social and Economic Collapse of the Weimar Republic. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood

Press, 1983.

Fischer, Klaus P. Nazi Germany: A New History. New York: Continuum,1996. [This has just been published and is the best single volume history on NaziGermany I have seen.]

Jäckel, Eberhard. Hitler's Weltanschauung: A Blueprint for Power. Transl.Herbert Arnold. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1981.

Kershaw, Ian. The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives ofInterpretation. 3rd Ed. London: Edward Arnold, 1993.

Neumann, Franz. Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism1933-1944. New York: Harper and Row, 1944.

Noakes, J. and Pridham, G.Editors. Nazism 1919-1945 Volume 1: The Rise to Power 1919-1934 A Documentary Reader. Exeter, Devon, Great Britain: University of

Exeter Press, 1995.

Noakes, J. and Pridham, G.Editors. Nazism 1919-1945 Volume 2: State, Economy and Society1933-1939 A Documentary Reader. Exeter, Devon, Great Britain: University of

Exeter Press, 1995.