i some cultural policy in nepal - unesco

I Some aspects of cultural policy

in Nepal

I Shaphalya Amatya

Unesco

Studies and documents on cultural policies

Recent titles in this series:

Cultural policy in the Revolutionary People’s Republic of Guinea, by the Ministry of Edu- cation and Culture under the auspices of the Gninean National Commission for Unesco

Cultural policy in Australia, by Jean Battersby Cultural policy in Guatemala, by Edna Nuñez de Rodas Some aspects of cultural policies in Austria, by Harald Gardos and Manfred Wagner Cultural policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, by Muhammad Abdullah al-Mani and

Cultural policy in Jordan, by Hani Ai-Amad Cultural policy in the Sudan, by Mohamed Abdel Hai Cultural policy in the United Kingdom, by Nigel Abercrombie. Cultural policy in the Mongolian People’s Republic, a study prepared under the auspices

Cultural policy in the Ukranian Soviet Socialist Republic, by G. Shevchuk Cultural policy in the Yemen Arab Republic, by Abdul-Rahman Al-Haddad Some aspects of cultural policy in Nepal, by Shaphalya Amatya

For a complete list of titles see page 70

Abd ur-Rahman Sbit as-Sbit

of the Mongolian National Commission for Unesco

Published in 1983 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7 place de Fontenoy, 75700 Paris Printed by Imprimerie des Presses Universitaires de France, Vendôme

ISBN 92-3-102069-2

0 Unesco 1983 Printed in France

Preface

The purpose of this series is to show h ow cultural policies are planned and implemented in various Member States.

A s cultures differ, so does the approach to them. It is for each Member State to determine its cultural policy and methods according to its o w n conception of culture, its socio-economic system, political ideology and technical development. However, the methods of cultural policy (like those of general development policy) have certain c o m m o n problems; these are largely institutional, administrative and financial in nature, and the need has increasingly been stressed for exchanging experiences and information about them. This series, each issue of which follows as far as possible a similar pattern so as to make comparison easier, is mainly concerned with these technical aspects of cultural policy.

In general, the studies deal with the principles and methods of cultural policy, the evaluation of cultural needs, administrative structures and management, planning and financing, the organization of resources, legislation, budgeting, public and private institutions, cultural content in education, cultural autonomy and decentralization, the training of personnel, institutional infrastructures for meeting specific cultural needs, the safe- guarding of the cultural heritage, institutions for the dissemination of the arts, international cultural co-operation and other related subjects.

The studies, which cover countries belonging to differing social and economic systems, geographical areas and levels of development, present therefore a wide variety of approaches and methods in cultural policy. Taken as a whole, they can provide guidelines to countries that have yet to establish cultural policies, while all countries, especially those seeking new formulations of such policies, can profit by the experience already gained.

This study was prepared for Unesco by Dr Shaphalya Amatya, Chief Exploration Officer, Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Education and Culture, Nepal.

The author is responsible for the choice and the presentation of the facts contained in this book and for the opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of Unesco and do not commit the Organization.

Contents

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10

14

17

22

26

29 44

46

53

59

65

Foreword

Intro duc tion

The land and people

A brief history of Nepal Education and culture

Preservation of the cultural heritage: a Nepalese tradition

Archaeology, museums and libraries

The Guthi Samsthan (trust corporation)

Royal Nepal Academy and other art academies in Nepal

Mass media and culture

Handicrafts

Appendix: Organizational charts

Foreword

His Majesty’s Government of Nepal established a new Ministry of Edu- cation and Culture on 16 June 1981. At the time of writing, details of the new ministry were not known and I have been unable to provide any information concerning it.

I have tried to give a brief survey of some aspects of cultural policy in Nepal, which I fear m a y be inadequate because in the course of time the newly created Ministry of Education and Culture will certainly look upon such policies from a different angle. The following study therefore is a short account of the cultural policy in Nepal as embodied in the fifth and sixth Five-year Plans (1975-85).

I have frequently referred to the Bikram era or sampat (abbreviation B.S.), which is fifty-seven years ahead of the Christian era (for example, A.D. 1981 is 2038 B.S.).

I a m grateful to M r P. N. Shrestha, Chief of the Woodwork Museum, Bhaktapur and Mr Hari M a n Amatya, Senior Surveyor, Department of Archaeology for their help and co-operation.

I also wish to acknowledge the valuable help in the preparation of this study rendered by the Department of Archaeology, the Department Q€ Cottage and Village Industry, the Ministry of Communications, the Royal Nepal Academy, the Nepal Association of Fine Arts (NAFA), the Nepal Art Council, the Nepal Lalitkala Campus, the Cultural Undertaking, the Ratna Recording Corporation and the Royal Nepal Film Corporation.

9

Introduction

Nepal, popularly known to the outside world as the home of gods and goddesses, the land of the snowy peaks of the Himalayas, of yetis (snowmen), yaks and brave Gurkhas, the birthplace of Buddha and Sita (the heroine of the Ramayana), and a country of mystery, has an extremely rich cultural heritage. It has not only remained independent during its long and glorious history, but has also preserved its ancient culture. It is, moreover, a storehouse of ancient Hindu and Buddhist culture.

The early history of Nepal is complicated, but there is no doubt that there waa a very ancient civilization in this region. The people w h o gave birth to the Lord Gautama Buddha during the sixth century B.C. can be considered to have attained a very high standard of culture. Nepalese history in the period after Buddha is obscure and has yet to be explored by researchers.

Nepal appeared on the political m a p of South Asia in the middle of the fifth century A.D. under the rule of the Lichhavi dynasty. Manadeva, the first Lichhavi king, gave shape to Nepalese society. Virtually nothing is known about the Nepalese before his reign. Manadeva laid the foundations of Nepalese culture and from then on Nepalese art, architecture, religion, social norms, customs and rituals acquired their concrete shape, size and continuity. Religious toleration, coexistence, justice and the people’s participation in the affairs of the country’s administration were the ideals of the day. The Lichhavi rulers were ‘benevolent dictators’. For them, the most sacred duty was to please their subjects. The economic condition of the country was well developed during this period which is known as ‘the golden age’. Nepalese culture became a strong uniting force at this time. In their rugged mountains, the ethnically varied population, speaking a variety of dialects and having different traditions and ideas, lived in peace and harmony. Indeed, this unity in diversity is one of the main characteristics of Nepalese culture.

Medieval Nepal experienced a renaissance under the able leadership of

10

Introduction

the Malla rulers, w h o added m a n y n e w dimensions to Nepalese culture while preserving fdly the traditional aspects. All cultural traditions received extra momentum under the dynamic leadership of the Shah rulers. With the unification of Nepal in the eighteenth century A.D. under the great king Prithvi Narayan Shah, the ‘father’ of the Shah dynasty and the founder of modern Nepal, there emerged a truly national culture. Toleration of religious beliefs has always existed in Nepal and has been instrumental in preventing religious wars and communal riots. The Nepalese have warmly welcomed those of any faith who have tried to live in a friendly and peaceful w a y without any force or pressure. Harmony between those w h o have different forms of worship has been a salient characteristic of the country. Hinduism and Buddhism are the two major religious forces. In fact, the Nepalese culture represents a complex inter- mingling of these two religions. A vast majority of the Nepalese people are Hindus and, at the same time, Buddhists. The Hindus have accepted Buddha as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu like Rama, Krishna, etc., and the Buddhist deities such as Manjushree, Harati Mata and Tara are worshipped by all. Similarly, Hindu gods and goddesses like Saraswati, Mahakali, Dakshinakali are worshipped by everyone. Both Pasupatinath, the most sacred among the Hindu shrines, and Swayambhunath, the most revered Buddhist Stupa, are considered as the protectors of the nation.

It is most interesting in this respect that one can see Hindu and Buddhist shrines side by side in the same courtyard, where all worship with the same devotion and respect. In mythological works of Nepalese classical literature such as Nepal Mahatmya it is said that ‘to worship Buddha is to worship Shiva’. In the Swayambhu Purana, the Buddhist classic, the people are asked to worship the Lord Shiva. Springing €rom two different sources of inspiration, Hinduism and Buddhism have in the course of time fused to form one indivisible treasure house of spiritual wealth. Long ago they were joined together through love and respect for one another and today they have become one o€ the most vital cultural forces. Though the Nepalese Constitution has declared Hinduism to be the state religion, w e must not think of the Hinduism of Nepal as separate from Buddhism. Like the two eyes of a man, Hinduism always coexists with Buddhism.

Much of the history of Nepal is the history of its kings. This is one of the most ancient monarchies in the world and the tradition of kingship goes back far beyond recorded times. Thus, it has become a part of Nepalese culture and it has always been the fountain head of inspiration, the source of energy and a factor of stability. In a real sense the Nepalese monarch is a genuine example of an ancient Hindu monarch w h o rules the country as a ‘benevolent dictator’ with the consent of the people. T o the Hindus, the king is the earthly incarnation of Lord Vishnu; to the Buddhists, he is one of the Bodhisattvas, or the Buddha to be.

Language and literature have also played a vital role in Nepalese

11

Introduction

culture. A s Nepal has different ethnic groups, there are obviously a number of Werent languages. Under King Prithvi Narayan Shah, during the eighteenth century, the present national language (Nepali), which was then spoken only by some hill people, was introduced and, as a result, almost everybody throughout Nepal, from the Mechi to the Mahakali, can n o w speak and understand it. The Nepali language is very rich, like ita ‘mother’, Sanskrit. Today, when the nearest neighbour, India, is facing a serious language problem, the Nepalese are united through the adoption of Nepali as their lingua franca.

Literature was written in Sansluit and other regional languages until the eighteenth century, at which time they were replaced by Nepali. Thanks are due to those w h o contributed much to the development of Nepali, especially m e n of letters such as Sundarananda Banda, Saktivdav Aryal, Subananda Das, Bhanu Bhakta and Moti Ram. The modern literature of Nepal is indebted to the poet Laxmi Prasad Devkota, the dramatist Bal Krishna S a m a and the poet Sidahicharan Shrestha, among others. The revolution of 1950, in fact, changed the very nature of modern Nepali literature. The late King Mahendra was himself a poet and many new mitera have begun to take great interest in the development of the Nepali language and literature. Side by side, a wave of nationalist and patriotic literature has sprung up giving a new impetus to the advancement of present-day Nepal.

Social customs are regarded as the yardstick of a nation’s culture and civilization. As Nepal is a Hindu kingdom, the traditions of the people are mainly based on the Vedic social customs, with a few exceptions in the north among the Bhotias. They believe in Lamaism, which would seem to be a mixture of the tantrism of Hinduism and the mysticism of Buddhism. Though such people as the Newars, Gurung, Magar, Rai, Sherpa, Brahmin, Tharus and Kshytriya are artificially divided into different races and communities, and named after their regions and languages, they have common rites and ceremonies. The Buddhists and Hindus observe different rites but have the same aim and purpose and both perform the same type of sanskaras or purification ceremonies (sixteen in number), referred to in the Vedic literature. For example, although the ways of performing Upanayana (the sacred thread ceremony) vary in the different castes, it is regarded as one of the most important sanskaras for all sects, and if one does not perform it, one cannot be regarded as belonging to Nepalese society. Another important sanskara is ancestor worship. Irrespective of their castes and races, Hindus and Buddhists once a year perform this ritual as a mark of respect to their forebears. They believe that without their blessings they can never prosper in life.

Nepal is a typical Hindu society, in which some undesirable social customs, beliefs and practices still remain, but under the able and dynamic leadership of the late kings, Tribhuwan and Mahendra, and that of the present king, Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Deva, these elements are gradually

12

Introduction

disappearing. It is interesting to note that the Sherpas, w h o live within easy reach of the world’s highest peaks such as Sagarmatha, Lhotse and Dhaulagiri, have their o w n way of life which has very little in c o m m o n with that of the inhabitants of the plains of the Tarai near the Indian border in the south, where rich paddy-fields extend to the limits of forests that still shelter tigers and rhinoceros. However, these extremes are exceptions.

Nepal, the land of the virgin goddess Kumari, has m a n y feasts and festivals which are, in fact, one of the most interesting aspects of its culture. As is to be expected in a religious country, not a week goes by without a festival taking place in some part or in the whole of the kingdom. Whether of a local or national character, most of these are associated with one of the divinities sacred to either Hindus or Buddhists. Whether a festival is of Hindu or Buddhist origin, all the people celebrate it as their own in the same spirit of solemnity and gaiety. The most notable national festivals are Bada Dasai, Tihar or Deepawali (festival of lights), Siva Ratri, Holi (festival of colours), Buddha Jayanti, R a m Nawami, Indra Jatra and Gai Jatra. These festivals are splendid examples of religious tolerance. They all have religious, mythological, traditional, sentimental and superstitious backgrounds. It is interesting to note that almost all these festivals are associated with dances and music which relate to theology, philosophy, history and legend. The most notable dances during the week-long Indra Jatra festival are the Mahakali Naach of Bhaktapur, Bhairab Naach of Hal Chowk, Devi Naach of Kilaghal Tole and the Lakhe Naach of Majipat Tole. These dances are performed with masks.

The Nepalese are a lively people. During their festivals and fairs they devote much time to singing, dancing and e n j o e g good food, especially different kinds of meat and vegetables. They also drink a great deal of jand (white beer) and raksi (a type of vodka). Almost all these festivals and yatras are well supported financially by various guthis (religious endow- ments or funds) run by the private or public sector.

Nepal is one of the few countries of the modern world which is successfully maintaining its rich cultural heritage, but as the world has changed, the people have never hesitated to alter their w a y of life, indirectly and gradually developing their cultural pattern without harming or neglecting its basic foundations.

Nepalese kings have always been Featly interested in the development of culture, and it is for this reason that the Department of Archaeology, the Royal Nepal Academy, Guthi Samsthan (trust undertakings) and Samskritik Samsthan (cultural undertakings) organize and conduct various cultural activities within and outside the country. These agencies are directly or indirectly responsible for formulating and implementing cultural policies and programmes, as will be discussed in detail in later chapters.

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The land and people

The independent sovereign kingdom of Nepal lies between longitude 80015‘ and 88015’ E., and latitude 26020’ and 30010’ N. It is surrounded on the north by the Tibetan region of the People’s Republic of China, on the east by Sikkim and West Bengal (India), and on the south and west by the Indian states of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. The kingdom measures 885 kilometres from east to west and varies between 145 and 241 kilometres from north to south. Nepal is in a geographically privileged position. It lies in the tem- perate zone with the added advantage of altitude. Except for the Tarai in the south, even the valleys (with some exceptions) are no less than 1,220 metres above sea-level. The total land surface of the country is estimated at 144,000 square kilometres.

Geographically, Nepal can be divided into three mountain ranges, the Siwalik range, the Mahabharat range and the great Himalayan range. The plains of Tarai bordering Nepal and India, lie on the southern slope of the Siwalik range, which is also known as the Churiya range. The altitude of this range is never more than 1,600 metres above sea level. The Tarai region, which is very fertile and contains the major part of the forest area popularly known as the Char Kosey Jhari, has attracted a vast number of settlers. The altitude of this belt is nowhere more than 600 metres. During the summer it is very hot, with the temperature sometimes over 32 OC. Winter is quite pleasant with temperatures generally about 15 OC. Rainfall varies throughout the country. Eastern Tarai has an average rainfall of about 1,500 millimetres a year while the central Tarai has a rainfall of 2,000 millimetres. In western Tarai it is a little less (about 1,000-1,500 dimetres). Because of its tropical climate, fniits such as mangoes, lychees, bananas and guavas are plentiful. The major crops are rice, sugar-cane, tobacco, jute, oilseed and wheat. The Tarai belt is very rich in wild life and forests. Tigers, elephants, deer, wild boar, one-horned rhinoceros and other big game, as well as crocodiles and alligators, are common in this area.

The majority of the Tarai people are of Aryan stock. They have much in

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The land and people

c o m m o n with the Indian people over the border. In fact, many migrated from neighbouring Indian states during different periods of upheavals. They speak a number of languages and dialects. For example, in eastern Tarai, the majority speak Maithili, Bhojpuri, Hindi, Rajbansi or Tajpuri, Urdu and Bengali. In the west, they speak Urdu, Hindi, Tharu, Danwar, Darai and Majhi. A m o n g the Tarai people, the Tharus are considered to be the original inhabitants. They are to be found more in central, western and inner Tarai while the Satars and Dhimals are mostly in eastern Tarai. They are good hunters, fishermen and peasants, and belong to the Mongoloid group. Their culture, which is rich and interesting, has dominated the Tarai culture in general.

The Mahabharat range has a m a x i m u m altitude of 3,000 metres. Between the ranges of the Siwalik and the Mahabharat lie the valleys of Rapti, Dang and Nawalpur. These valleys are also called Doons or Bhitri Madesh. Their climate, vegetation and people resemble those of the Tarai. T o the north of the Mahabharat range there are m a n y fertile valleys, such as those of Kathmandu, Sunkosi, Pokhara and Palpa. In this belt, the climate varies throughout but generally the summer is tolerably w a r m and winter is fairly severe. Rainfall varies from 1,500-3,500 millimetres. This area is more densely populated and the people have a rich cultural heritage. Rice, maize, millet and wheat are the major crops. A variety of vegetables are also grown. Fruits such as oranges, bananas, pears, peaches and apricots are found in abundance. Flora in the zone is rich; pines, oaks, rhododendrons, poplars, walnuts, etc.; are quite common. Leopards, jackals, wild dogs, foxes and deer form part of the rich fauna. The Brahmins, Chhetri, Newars, Rai, Limbu, Tamang, Magar, Sunwar, Gurung, Thakali, Chepang have all settled here. Although the Newars dominate the Kathmandu Valley culture, the Tamangs, Brahmins, Chhetries and others have great cultural influence. In the same way, the Rais, Limbus, Gurung and Thakalis are culturally dominant in eastern and western Nepal and in the northern regions respectively.

The Himalayas contain the world's highest peak, Sagarmatha, also known as Mount Everest. Seven of the world's highest mountains are within Nepal and there are more than 200 peaks over 6,000 metres high. This range is the dividing line between Nepal and Tibet (China) in the North. Rainfall is as low as 300 millimetres a year and the population is sparse. This region also abounds in beautiful flora and fauna. Flowers such as primulas, rhododendrons and junipers are seen everywhere. This vast area contains some of the most valuable forests in Nepal. Snow leopards, marmots, ghorals, ibex and thar are also found. Yaks and chauris are domesticated and serve as beasts of burden; they are also the main source of milk, butter and meat. A vast proportion of the land in this region is unproductive but on the foothills maize, potatoes, radishes and millet are grown. Different varieties of herbs and grass for cattle grazing are plentiful. Trade with Tibet and the neighbouring Indian states is the main occupation

I

15

The land and people

of the people. Sherpas, known all over the world for their skill in moun- taineering, come from the Khumbu area, which is in eastern Nepal. Thakalis, famous for their hospitality, are the main settlers in the western Himalayan foothills. Bhoteys (of Tibetan origin) live along the northern Himalayan boundary. They are mostly traders in sheep, yaks, chauris, wool, salt, herbs and milk products.

Nepal is a country with unique topographical features: snow-covered Himalayan peaks, glaciers, gorges and rivers, forests and varied wild life. Its climate, vegetation and people of different ethnological and cultural groups living peacefully together are famous all over the world. Although geographically and ethnologically, the Nepalese are separated from one another, politically and culturally they are united, and this is the reason for their survival as a sovereign, independent nation today.

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A brief history of Nepal

Archaeological, as well as anthropological discoveries in western Nepal at places like Butwal (Lumbini District), Kot-Tandi (Nawalpur Dis- trict), Tilaurakot (the ancient Kapilavastu) (Taulihawa District) and Budhanilkantha (Kathmandu) have already proved the existence of prehistoric man in Nepalese territory. The recent discovery in the Butwal area of the fossil of the upper left molar tooth of the hominoid Ramapithecus, which can be dated back some 10-11 million years, is considered one of the most remarkable discoveries in Nepalese archaeology. Excavations at various proto-historic sites in western Tarai, particularly the Lumbini Zone, have revealed m a n y grayware and painted grayware sites. These settle- ments can be dated approximately from the ninth to sixth centuries B.C. The discovery of Lumbini, the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, Tilaurakot (the ancient Kapilavastu, the capital of the Sakya Kingdom) and various other important proto-historical, Buddhist sites, has helped to trace Nepal’s past history. In eastern Nepal, the importance of Tarai sites like Janakpur, which is associated with the great Hindu epics, Ramayana, Varahakshetra, Bhediari and Simaraongarha, also cannot be ignored. These ancient sites have linked Nepalese history with the Mauryas, Sungas, Guptas and other ruling dynasties of northern India.

The recorded history of Nepal has been dominated by that of the Kathmandu Valley from the earliest times. While constituting only a small part of Nepal as regards territory and people, it has nevertheless always been politically and culturally a dominant part of the country. Though the early history of Nepal, before the coming of the Lichhavis, is not very clear, chronicles and legends speak of many ruling dynasties whose authenticity has yet to be proved by facts, such as the Gopalas, Mahisapalas and Kiratis. W h e n aud h o w the Kiratis vanished from the valley is still obscure, but about the fifth century A.D., the Lichhavis were already established there and ruled with great success for about five or six centuries. The ñrst authentic record of the Lichhavis discovered so far is the pillar-inscription

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of King Mana Deva dating from the latter half of the fifth century A.D. at Changu Narayan (Kathmandu Valley), which mentions the name of his three immediate ancestors, victories over neighbouring states and the expansion of his domain. During the early Lichhavi period, the Abhiras, who had also migrated from the Mathura region of Northern India before the fifth century A.D., occupied positions of ever increasing rank in the administration. The Lichhavi rulers had to depend more and more on their Abhira barons and oñicers. At the beginning of the seventh century A.D., a Kshattriya prince, Amsu Varma, rose to power. H e ousted the Abhiras from power and became the great feudal baron of the Lichhavi king, Siva Deva I. The reign of A m s u Varma is very important in the history of Nepal and the prosperity of the country reached its zenith at this time. His reign is considered to be the golden age of Nepalese history. Contemporary Chinese and Tibetan annals also mention him as a very prosperous ruler. Hiuen Tsang, the famous Chinese traveller w h o was in India from A.D. 629 to 645, mentions him as a ruler of Nepal. The Tibetan annals speak of the marriage of Bhrikuti, daughter of Amsu Varma, with Srong-Tsan Gampo, the well-known ruler of Tibet. After the death of A m s u Varma, the Abhiras again rose to power, and once again the Lichhavi kings became mere puppets in their hands. However, the Abhiras were not able to retain power for very long. Narendra Deva, a Lichhavi prince, was able to drive them out and become the ruler. With the assumption of power by Narendra Deva, Nepal entered into diplomatic relations with China. According to Chinese sources, it was Tibetan help that enabled him to oust the Abhiras. In return, he helped the Chinese in fighting an Indian border prince who had insulted and robbed a Chinese mission on its visit to Buddhist holy places in India soon after the death of Harsha Vardhan in A.D. 647. Narendra Deva, by establishing diplomatic relations with China, strengthened his position in the valley. His rule is famous for the economic and cultural prosperity of the country. The architectural details of his palace, described by the Chinese traveller, provide sufficient proof that the pagoda style of architecture originated and was developed in Nepal. It spread from there to m a n y eastern countries in subsequent centuries. The death of Narendra Deva proved disastrous to the Lichhavi dynasty. Thereafter, until about the middle of the eighth century, though his descendants ruled the valley, they could not come into prominence. Our knowledge of h o w the Lichhavi rule came to an end is meagre, but it seems that rivalry among the claimants for power who belonged to different dynasties was the main cause.

The medieval era of Nepal’s history dates from A.D. 879-80. Little is known of the period from the last quarter of the ninth century until the beginning of the thirteenth. However, there were important developments in the tantric cult. This cult, which was popular in Bengal and Assam, made inroads in the valley and very soon Nepal became one of its important centres. From Nepal, tantrism spread to Tibet.

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In 1350, n e w dynasty (Malla) came to power. This period saw the revival of the old Hindu religion and the gradual decline of the tantric cult. Towards the end of the fifteenth century, the kingdom of Nepal was divided into three by the sons of Yakshya Malla. This division brought about rivalries among the Malla rulers and ultimately paved the way for their decline. The main bone of contention was the control of Tibetan trade. Interstate strife, misunderstandings, and the use of force enabled powerful ministers and courtiers to take advantage of the situation for the next two and a half centuries.

In spite of these quarrels and jealousies, this period is famous for the development and prosperity of culture and the arts in Nepal. The rulers bf these states vied with one another in adorning their capitals with beautiful palaces, temples, monasteries and other buildings, which are still the pride of the country. Moreover, the kings of these states were great lovers of the arts, and their courts gave shelter to learned m e n and poets from Mithila and other neighbouring Indian states that were completely subjugated by the Moslems. These refugee scholars composed hundreds of dramas and their patron kings arranged for their performance in public places known as ‘dabu’ (platforms of stone). The themes of these plays were mostly drawn from Hindu mythology and the Puranas and thus they helped in the propa- gation of Hindu religious beliefs, besides providing visual entertainment. By all methods, the process of Hinduization begun in the fourteenth century was kept alive by the succeeding Malla rulers, and Bajrayana Buddhism was also free to flourish and reach its zenith. During this period, m a n y religious, social and cultural festivals, which are still considered as jewels of the national cultural heritage, were introduced into Nepalese society.

About the tenth century, when the Nepal Valley was passing through the taatric phase, the Hindu kings of the ancient Katyur and other Kshattriya dynasties of the west, migrated into the valleys of the Seti and Karnali rivers in the westernmost part of the country and established their principalities there. By the fifteenth century, there were twenty-two such kingdoms in this area. These kings were followers of the orthodox Hindu religion and were also patrons of art and culture in their o w n way. They even established a different style of iconography and architecture in their kingdoms. Prominent among them were the rulers of Jumla, Doti, Bajhang and Jaj arkot.

Again, during the fifteenth century, the migration of the Hindus from the south to the western region of Nepal in the basin of the river Gandaki took place, and in the course of time this area had twenty-four kingdoms &g there. These rulers were all Hindus who were helping in their o w n w a y to spread the orthodox Hindu religion among the indigenous people of the area. One such kingdom of this region was Gorkha, ruled by Kshattriyas who claimed descent from the highest Kshattriya stock. In the course of its expansion, it became the neighbour of the Malla kingdoms of the valley to the east. At the beginning of the eighteenth century, there

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emerged a great king, Prithvi Narayan Shah, who dreamed of one great nation and devoted his life to establishing it. In the course of time he was successful in bringing some of the states surrounding Gorkha under his rule. H e thought that to fulfil his lifelong ambition, he should first of all annex the three valley kingdoms, which were rich and civilized, but disunited. With great difficulty, he succeeded in annexing the Valley of Nepal in 1769. During the period of approximately twenty-five years when Prithvi Narayan Shah brought the Malla kingdoms into submission, he also defeated an English contigent that came from India to help the Mallas of the valley. Before that, he had successfully driven away the troops of a Nawab of Bengal who had aspired to carve out an independent kingdom in the foothills of the Himalayas.

Prithvi Narayan Shah was a man of great courage and determination. After his conquest of the kingdom of the valley and its southern neighbour, the Sena kingdom of Makwanpur, he diverted his whole attention towards the south-east of the country, fearing that the kingdoms there might fall an easy prey to the rising British power in India. In a very short time, he successfully annexed these kingdoms and extended his territory to the river Kankai in the plains, and to Sikkim in the north. After this, he subdued the tribal kingdoms of the brave Rais and Lidus. Thus, by 1774, just a year before his death, Prithvi Narayan Shah had acquired nearly one-third of present-day Nepal and a new nation was born, compromising the highly cultured Newars of the Kathmandu Valley, the ancient warrior tribes of the Rais and Limbus in the east, and the heirs to the culture of the great medieval kingdom of Mithila in the south. After the death of Prithvi Narayan Shah, attempts to unify the country did not cease. With more territory and increased power, it became much easier to bring the petty states lying between Gorkha and the Mahakali river in the west under the umbrella of the kingdom of Nepal. By the last decade of the eighteenth century, the western frontiers of the new nation reached the Mahakali river in the west and the Tista river in the east, including a considerable part of the present state of Sikkim.

In the course of their conquests, the Nepalese fought a war with China in 1791, which was ultimately settled by a treaty. The Nepalese, w h o m the Chinese had forced to give up their idea of expansion towards the north, then marched towards the west, crossed the Mahakali river and conquered Kumaun, Garhwal and other ancient states, and reached the Sutlej and its tributaries. W h e n the Nepalese reached the Kangra Valley beyond the Sutlej, they were stopped by the mighty force of the Sikh leader, Ranjit Singh. The new Nepalese frontier in the south brought them into close proximity with the rising British Empire in India. From a small border dispute, the two neighbouring powers became involved in a war in 1814- 16, which ultimately ended in a treaty known as the Treaty of Saugauli. Nepal lost to the British all its conquests beyond the Mahakali river in the west and the Mechi river in the east.

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O n e unfortunate result of the Anglo-Nepali war was that it led indirectly to the weakening of royal power and the rise of the nobility. One noble family, the Ranas, wielded power for more than a century, keeping the country in a primitive state, totally isolated from the rest of the world. The vast majority of the people were deliberately left in ignorance, poverty and backwardness. Finally, in 1951, King Tribhuvan Bir Bikram Shah, the grandfather of King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Deva, with popular support, broke the fetters that bound him and the nation, ended the family autocracy of the Ranas, and established a progressive modern government. Since then, a democratic regime has been working for the advancement of the people in all respects, including preservation and popularization of the rich cultural heritage, which has been their pride and glory from the earliest times.

21

Education and culture

Before the implementation of the new plan, education in Nepal was merely an extension of the Indian system. Subjects such as Nepalese culture and history were only introduced after 1951. In the year 2028 B.S., the N e w National Education Plan was introduced with objectives including the development, preservation and publicizing of the national language, culture, literature and art. To achieve these goals, new curricula are being introduced. Under programmes ranging from primary to high-school level, there are courses in music, dancing, the arts and handicrafts, drawing and painting, history and culture.

The new education plan aims at giving cultural training to students from primary to high-school level through social education, language programmes and extracurricular activities, including dance, music and drama. Each school must organize a cultural manifestation at least once a year, and receives 1,200 rupees in financial aid for its preparation. Training in the performing arts is compulsory ody at primary level, but if a school wishes to continue it at the higher levels, there is no restriction. Interschool competitions take place once a year. Interdistrict and interregional competitions are held on special occasions, and shields, trophies, certificates and cash prizes are distributed.l Participation in such cultural programmes is obligatory for every educational institution. Assessments of students and teachers are based on the participation of an institution in such extracurricular activities. Prizes at different levels-district, zonal and national-have been recommended in the new education plan. For extracurricular activities, the plan has laid down the following programmes: the introduction of an inexpensive form of dress that reflects the national character and is suitable for the climate, for all educational institutions;

1. Personal interview with Mis Chancha Kala Kiran, Chief of Curriculum Division, Ministry of Education, on 4 April 1980.

22


encouragement of the singing of national and other types of light song in such institutions; the staging at least once each year of a drama by every institution; the organization of performances of folk dances and music, with the aim of increasing interest in national arts; the participation by every educational institution in competitions of folk music and folk dances,

heritage and traditions, as well as the geography of the country; and last, but not least, the acquisition by students of adequate knowledge about national festivals and their importance.1

Under the new education plan, children in the 6 to 8 age-group receive primary education, which is free. Primary education starts in Class 1 and ends in Class 3. Pupils are expected to increase their interest in dance music and the arts, as well as their knowledge of national and local festivals, and this helps to develop thek sentiment of national unity.2 They are given training in painting and handicrafts. It is clearly stated in the new education plan that in order to protect the cultural heritage and create a congenial atmosphere for the coming generation to create new art forms, painting and handicrafts should form a most important part of daily activities and should be taught to children as early as possible.3

Under the n e w education plan, lower secondary education, which starts in Class 4 and ends in Class 7, is given to children from 9 to 12 years of age. Subjects like Nepalese civilization, culture and history come under social education, whereas dance, music, etc., form part of physical education. Vocation-oriented education is given to students at this level. Its main aim is to produce useful manpower for Nepalese so~iety.~

The new education plan calls for secondary education to be given to children 13 years old and above. Secondary education starts in Class 8 and ends in Class 10. Here also, the students learn Nepalese civilization, culture and history in the framework of social education. In the same way, folk- songs and dances are taught under physical education. At this level, the main emphasis is on vocational subjects such as handicrafts and wood- working, ceramics and pottery, music and dancing.6

The new education plan has set up sixteen university-level institutions.

I ~

paintings, etc.; educational tours to acquaint students with the cultural

1. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Siksha Mantralaya [Ministry of Education], Rastriya Siksha Padati: 2028-2032 [National Education Plan: 2028-20321, pp. 52-3, Kathmandu, 2028 B.S.

2. Ibid., p. 2. 3. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Siksha Mantralaya [Ministry of

Education], Prathamik Siksha Patheykrarn [Curriculum of Primary Education], pp. 2,92, 106-16, Kathmandu, 2030 B.S.

4. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Siksha Mantralaya [Ministry of Education], N i m n a Madhyamik, Siksha Patheyham [Curriculum of Lower Secondary Education], pp. 201-18, Kathmandu, 2030 B.S.

5. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Siksha Mantralaya [Ministry of Education], Madhayamik Siksha Patheykram [Curriculum of Secondary Education], Kathmandu, 2030 B.S.

23


General education in the culture and history of the country is given in every institution. The Institute of Art, Humanities and Social Science, the Institute of Fine Arts, the Institute of Sanskrit Education and the Institute of Education have courses in history, civilization, classical languages, culture, the performing and the visual arts. In this context, extracurricular activities in colleges and the university, such as drama, debates, music and dance competitions and opportunities for recreational creative activity in literature and the visual arts, m a y also be mentioned.

Institute of Fine Art0 (Nepal Lalitkala Campus)

The main aim of this institution is to produce competent artists by giving them a proper art education, and thereby help to promote the artistic traditions of the country. Painting, sculpture and music are the three main subjects taught at present. The institution grants diplomas to students after they have successfully completed the fow-year course.

Every year, on at least four occasions, the institution organizes art exhibitions in which cultural programmes are also included. The main source of income of this institution is the tuition fee paid by the students. At present, there are about seventy students studying different subjects. The total expenditure of the school is met by the university. In the new education plan, it is clearly stated that the Institution of Fine Arts will have a separate, independent identity, but in reality it is still under the umbrella of the Institute of Art, Humanities and Social Science, which is large and can hardly devote proper attention to it. The Institute of Fine h t s hopes to commence degree-level studies shortly. It feels that art education should be treated separately and should be given from primary- school level to students throughout the c0untry.l

Kala Nidhi Nepal Sangeet Maha Vidyaiaya

This is a private institution añdiated to the University of Prayag in India. It offers diplomas and degrees in vocal and instrumental music and dance courses. Examinations up to graduate level are conducted in Kathmandu; for postgraduate degrees, students must go to Prayag.

Professional training in dance, drama, and music, including singing, are given in the Royal Nepal Academy, the Cultural Undertakings and in some voluntary organizations.

1. Based on the written answer submitted by Lalitkala Campus (Institute of Fine Arts), Kathmandu.

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Institute of Nepalese and Asian Studies

The Institute of Nepalese and Asian Studies conducts research on Nepal and other Asian countries in the fields of history, culture, civilization, art, religion and allied subjects. Standard publications on the results of this research are issued. The degrees of Doctor of Philosophy and Doctor of Letters are offered to distinguished scholars on the basis of their research publications. There are more than a dozen prestigious publications on Nepalese history, culture and language to the credit of this institute.

Traditional dance, instrumental and vocal music, painting and handicrafts are very much alien subjects to Nepalese teachers and students in schools, campuses and the university, and usually a guthi, or trust, is responsible for the training of personnel and the presentation of traditional classical dances on special occasions. In the Kathmandu Valiey, among the Newars, and in almost all communities throughout the country, a gum, who is generally a priest or m o n k or the head of the trïbe or family, trains the artists. However, in the last few decades the young generation has shown little interest in such traditional cultural performances and training. Instead it is attracted by Indian films, discothèques, light music in its o w n ‘pop’ style, Western dances and music. The situation is m u c h the same for classical painting, sculpture and handicrafts and they too are surviving with great dificulty. However, the guru still teaches his disciples, and tourism, although it m a y indirectly diminish the quality of Nepalese art, at the same time helps artists financially.

Problems such as lack of appropriate textbooks, proper teaching aids, trained personnel and adequate physical and financial environments, still exist. It is also felt that a serious revision should be undertaken of the education system. This would encourage the people to save their rich and ancient cultural heritage for posterity.

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Preserva tion of the cultural heritage: a Nepalese tradition

The preservation of the cultural heritage has been a major concern in Nepal for a long time. Though little is known of the period before the Lichhavis, there is much evidence that they were not only builders and inventors but also the greatest protectors of our cultural heritage. The Malla rulers continued this age-old tradition, followed by the present Shah dynasty whose founder Prithvi Narayan Shah the Great said in his famous gospel, Dibya Upadesh: ‘For your o w n enjoyment, according to the shastras, bring some of the Newari dancers from the three cities of Nepal. This is quite right. If anything is given to them, it remains within your country. If this is done, your country will be well protected.’l The descendants of Prithvi Narayan Shah, strictly adhering to these sermons, continue to preserve the cultural heritage. During the period of the Rana adminiis- tration, the prime ministers neither encouraged nor discouraged this tradition. They paid very little attention to the development and preservation of art and culture, and standards deteriorated in their time.2

The end of the Rana administration and the beginning of democracy under the Shah rulers in 1951 gave a new impetus. The establishment of the Department of Archaeology, Royal Nepal Academy, Tribhuvan University, Nepal Association of Fine h t s (NAFA), Nepal Art Council, National Archives of Nepal, and other such organizations responsible for the preservation of the Nepalese cultural heritage, are some of the brilliant contributions of the late kings, Tribhuvan and Mahendra. His Majesty King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Deva, the present ruler, is himself a painter and has a deep affection for Nepalese culture. The adoption and implementation af the master plan for the conservation of the cultural heritage in the

1. L. F. Stiüer, Prithivi Narayan Shah in the Light of Dibya Upadesh, p. 46, Kathmandu,

2. Satish Kumar, Rana Policy in Nepal: Origin and Growth, p. 139, New Delhi, 1967. 1968.

26

Preservation of the cultural heritage

Kathmandu Valley and the Lumbini Development Project are the two most noteworthy developments in this field.

At present, various governmental and semi-governmental agencies are responsible for the preservation of the cultural heritage. The Ministry of Education and Culture and the Ministry of Communication are the two major bodies concerned. Policies decided by these ministries are implemented by various departments and semi-governmental undertakings, such as the Department of Archaeology, Department of Broadcasting (Radio Nepal), Royal Nepal Academy, Cultural Undertakings, and Tribhuvan University.

The Constitution of the Kingdom of Nepal states that the country should develop its cultural life according to its ability and traditions.1 The Ancient Monuments Preservation Act was passed and promulgated in 1956. It gave proper legal protection to ancient monuments, sites, and objects of archaeological, historical or artistic interest. The Nepal Academy Act, 2014 B.S., gave encouragement, protection and publicity to Nepalese literature, art and culture nationally and internationally. In the same way, the Tribhuvan University Act, 2016 B.C., was promulgated with the objectives of giving higher education to the Nepalese for the protection and development of the cultural traditions of the nation, and increasing the learning and research aptitudes of the people in the fields of the arts and sciences.2 The n e w education plan, known as the National Education System, has categorically mentioned that one of its four main objectives will be to develop, protect, preserve and popularize the national language, culture, literature and the arts.3 The National Communication Plan, 2028 B.S., which was prepared by the order of His Majesty King Birendra, has also given due emphasis to the publicizing, documentation and exhibition of Nepalese culture in general.4

Finally, there is the document of the Master Plan for the Conservation of the Cultural Heritage in the Kathmandu Valley, which was prepared by Unesco at the request of the Kingdom of Nepal with the objective of assisting the government in the preservation of the national cultural heritage in such a way that satisfactory living conditions for the people are assured and that the sites and monuments are developed for the benefit

1. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Kanun Tatha Nyaya Mantralaya [Ministry of L a w and Justice], Nepalko Sarnbidhan, 2019 [Constitution of Nepal, 20191, pp. 2, Kathmandu, 2037 B.S.

2. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Kanun Tatha Nyaya Mantralaya [Ministry of Law and Justice], Nepal Ain Sangraha, 2021 B.S. [Collection of Nepalese Law, 2021 B.S.], pp. 1097-1135, Kathmandu, 2021 B.S.

3. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Siksha Mantralaya [Ministry of Education], Rastriya Siksha Paduti: 2028-2032 [National Education Plan: 2028-20321, p. 7, Kathmandu, 2028 B.S.

4. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Rastriya Sanchar Sewa Yojana [National Communication Plan], pp. 27-40, 76-7, Kathmandu, 2028 B.S.

27

Preservation of the cultural heritage

of the local population, as well as for the encouragement of tourism in the

To sum up, the rulers and inhabitants of Nepal are united in preserving their cultural assets. The love of the people for art, their religious nature and a long tradition of toleration, have contributed much to the preservation of the unique festivals whose history goes back to the Malla period and sometimes beyond, and which are a brilliant example of the cultural continuity of the country.

countly.1

1. Unesco, Nepal Cultural Heritage: Master Plan for the Conservaiion of the Cultural Heritage in the Kathmandu Valley, p. 1, Paris, 1977.

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Archaeology is a fairly new subject in Nepal. Prior to the establishment of the Department of Archaeology in 1952, it was studied by only a very few native scholars. The discovery of the Ashokan pillar at Lumbini in 1895-96 by Dr Fuhrer, a German archaeologist, excavations at various sites in and around Lumbini and Tilaurakot (ancient Kapilavastu, the capital of the Sakyas) by P. C. Mukerjee in 1899, and excavations (though not at a very scientific level) carried out by a Nepalese general, Kaisher Shamsher, in 1933-34 at Lumbini, are some of the more noteworthy achievements. InBikram Sambat 2013 (1956), the Ancient Monument Preser- vation Act was promulgated, giving legal authority to the newly established Department of Archaeology. This act provides for due protection to our ancient monuments, sites and objects of archaeological, historical and artistic interest.l The Department of Archaeology is vast in its scope. Its objectives are: study of the historical, cultural and artistic heritage of the country; protection and preservation of monuments, temples, buildings, icons, paintings, archives or records, manuscripts, etc., of archaeological, historical, cultural or artistic value; documentation and surveys of important historical, archaeological, prehistoric and artistic sites and objects, such as temples, caves, sculptures, monuments, records, etc.; publication of research material per- taining to the true history of the country; organization of exhibitions in and outside the country depicting past artistic and cultural glories; opening of n e w museums, art galleries, archaeological sites and gardens; and management and development of the Nepal National Library, the Shree Kaisher Library, the Nepal National Archives, museums, old palaces, etc.2

1, Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], K a n u Tatha Nyaya Mantralaya [Ministry of L a w and Justice], Nepal Ain Sangraha [Collection of Nepalese Law], Part 3, pp. 1097-1102, Kathmandu, 2021 B.S.; and Nepal Rajpatra [Nepal Gazette], Part 3, dated 25 Chaitra 2025 B.S.

2. Shaphalya Amatya, Nepalma Puratatoo [Archaeology in Nepal], pp. 29-31, Kathmandu, 2036 B.S.

I


T h e development of the Department of Archaeology owes much to the contributions made by foreign experts belonging to international organizations such as Unesco and ICOM, and to friendly countries. In 2017 B.S. (1960) a renowned archaeologist from India, Mr A. Ghose, came to Nepal as an adviser to the Department of Archaeology of the Nepalese Govern- ment. H e was the first to recommend that the department should function on scientific lines. In 1963-64, M r Liam B. de Paor, a Unesco expert, came to Nepal to report on archaeology and the preservation of historic monuments. In 1964, the International Council on Museums (ICOM), delegated D r C. Jest to report on the preservation of the cultural heritage of Nepal. In 1965-66, for the first time, the Department of Archaeology had the services of experts in the field of archives and archaeology. These young Nepalese graduates had been trained in 1960 under the TCS Colombo- Plan programme in accordance with the recommendations of Mr Ghose. In 1966-67, Dr N. R. Banerjee, an eminent Indian archaeologist, came to Nepal under the Indian Aid Programme as an adviser to the Department of Archaeology. H e accelerated the activities of the department during his tenure of ofice and gave practical training to the technicians in excavation, exploration, iconography and conservation of monuments and sites. Under his able guidance, the department successfully carried out excavations at Tilaurakot, Ludini and Dhumrabarahi (Kathmandu). In 1968, Mi P. Pott, a Unesco expert on museums, came to Nepal. His recommendations have helped our museums to develop on scientific lines. In the course of time, a number of experts in various disciplines of archaeology such as J. C. Pollaco, E. A. Conally, R. H. Holland, G. Hyvert, E. F. Sekler and John Sanday have worked in the department in different capacities. Mr Sanday, an architect-restorer, w h o has supervised the restoration of the Hanuman Dhoka Royal Palace and initiated the Kathmandu Valley Master Plan, was also responsible for training the personnel of the department in conservation techniques and administration. W h e n speaking of international help and co-operation, the Master Plan for the Conservation of the Cultural Heritage in the Kathmandu Valley, which has been prepared by a team of Unesco experts, should not be forgotten. For the next few decades, it will be the working document of the Department of Archaeology. This plan envisages the protection of the cultural heritage of the Kathmandu Valley, the development of mmeums, the protection of the natural environment in and around the monuments and monument sites, documentation (photography amd otherwise) of objects of archaeological, historic and artistic interest, etc1

1. Unesco, Nepal CuZïural Heritage: Master Plan for the Conservation of the Cdtural Heritage in the Kathmandu Valley, Paris, 1977.

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ArchaeoIogy, museums and libraries

I Exploration

Exploration of archaeological and historical sites and other items of the cultural heritage is one of the main functions of the Department of hchae- ology. After thorough examination of a site, the archaeologists determine what action is needed, and whether the site deserves documentation, excavation or conservation.

Scientific study of archaeological sites in Nepal was begun in 1896, by D r A. Führer, when with the help of General Khadga Shamsher, then the Governor-General of the Palpa District, he explored the ruins of Niglihawa and identified almost all the sacred Buddhist sites in western Nepal Tarai mentioned by the famous Chinese pilgrims; these sites included Lumbini, the birthplace of the Lord Buddha.l The discovery of the three Ashokan pillars in Niglisagar, Lumbini and Gotihawa had encouraged native and foreign scholars. A s a result, the British Government of India commissioned M r P. C. Mukerjee to determine the location of Kapilavastu (the ancient capital of the Sakyas). M r Mukerjee, in 1899, confirmed Araurakot (near Niglisagar) as the birthplace of Kanakamuni Buddha, Lumbini as the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, and Gotihawa as the home town of Krakuchhanda Buddha. His detailed exploration of the entire region convinced him that &in the whole region only Tilaurakot can claim to be the exact site of Kapilavastu, situated in the right position and fulfilling all other conditions’.2 With the help of Mr Mukerjee’s identification of Tilaurakot as the ancient city of Kapilavastu, the Department of Archae- ology has been carrying out excavations at Tilaurakot since 1967.

Since its establishment, the Department of Archaeology has sent many exploration teams to different parts of the country. To give details of all of them is not the purpose of the present study. However, the important ones deserve mention. In 1964, a joint team, comprising the members of the department and the Indian Co-operation Mission, and Colombo Plan experts explored many archaeological sites to the east of L~rnbini.~ There is not a single district within the country that officials of the department have not explored. Prehistoric surveys at Nawalparasi in 2022 and 2025 B.S., and at Dang Valley in 2026 B.S. are worth recording, because of the discovery of prehistoric tools of various periods. Likewise, the exploration teams led by the author to Mahakaii Zone in 2026 B.S., Narayani Zone in 2027 B.S. and Saptari District in 2034 B.S., and by Mr J. L. Sharma, Chief Research Officer, to Dolpo in western Nepal in 2026 B.S. and Olanchungola in 2027 B.S. and other remote parts of the country, have

1. A. Führer, Antiquities of the Buddha’s Birth-Place: In ihe Nepalese Tarai, Delhi,

2. P. C. Mukerjee, Antiquities of Kapilvastu: Tarai of Nepal, Delhi, Indological Book

3. S. B. Deo, Archaeological Investigations in the Nepal Tarai: 1964, pp. 31-2, Department

Indological Book House, 1972.

House, 1969.

of Archaeology, Kathmandu, 1968.

1 31


revealed many new facts concerning the culture and history of the c0untry.l Moreover, the photographic documentation prepared by these exploration teams on the cultural heritage, particularly of sculpture and monuments and the collection of records and historical documents, are very valuable.

Excavations

The history of excavation in Nepal begins with the discovery of the Ashokan pillar at Lumbini in 1895-96 by D r Führer and General JChadga Shamsher w h o m w e have already mentioned. In 1898, Mr Mukerjee, after identifying Tilaurakot as the ancient city of Kapilavastu, excavated a sixteen-sided stupa inside the kot. H e traced the defence walls in the north-east corner and located the eastern gateway. In 1933-39, under the patronage of General Kaisher Sliamsher, a Nepalese team for the hst time conducted excavations at Lumbini, which were, however, not very scientific by present-day standards.

In 1964, under the leadership of the Colombo-Plan professor, Dr S. B. Deo, a joint Indian-Nepalese team made excavations at Banjarahi and Paisia in Lumbini Zone. The findings of these diggings, particulady the greyware at Banjarahi, have proved beyond doubt that the history of Nepal can be traced back to at least the seventh to sixth centmy B. C.^ The following year, in 1965, the joint Indian-Nepalese archaeological team conducted excavations at two important Lichhavi sites in the Kathmandu Valley, namely Hadigaon and Lajimpat. The most remarkable result of the Hadigaon excavation was that it threw some light on the cultural contacts between India and Nepal in the Lichhavi period? In 1965-66, excavation was conducted by the department under the guidance of D r N. R. Banerjee, then the Indian adviser at another important Lichhavi site in the Kathmandu Valley at Dhumrabarahi, near Radigaon. The discovery of m a n y beautiful terracotta objects, pottery beads, coins and other antiquities has revealed that it was one of the earliest sites of the Lichhavi settlement in the valley? On the basis of Mr Mukerjee’s report, the Department of Archaeology conducted excavations continuously for five years from 1967 to 1972 at Tilau- rakot under the guidance of D r N. R. Banerjee. These revealed three periods and nine layers of deposits, the western gateway complexes, the existence of a moat, three sets of defence walls, roads of different periods, and twin stupas on the north of the site, apart from unearthing great quantities of antiquities.5 The discovery of a late variety of painted greyware dating from 700 B.C. to 300 B.C. has proved the antiquity of the site.

1. See Ancient Nepal (Journal of the Department of Archaeology), Nos. 1-60. 2. Deo. op. cit., pp. 3-4. 3. S. B. Deo, Archaeological Excavations in Kathmandu: 1965, p. 46, Department of

Archaeology, Kathmandu, 1968. 4. Shaphaiya Amatya, op. cit., p. 58. 5. See Ancient Nepal, Nos. 41-2, August-November 1977.

32

Mahendra Memorial Museum. [Photo: National Museum, Kathmandu.]

Renovation of Gokarneshwar Temple. [Photo: Department of Archaeology.] I "

. "

The famous Peacock Window of Piijari Malh, Rhaktapur.

Wood carvers at work. [Photo: Department of Archaeology.]


In 1969-70, for the first time in eastern Nepal, at Bhediyari, near Biratnagar, the department conducted a small-scale excavation in which the ruins of a temple dating back to the Sunga period (second century B.C.) and antiquities of the same period were disc0vered.l In 1970-71, the Department of Archaeology carried out its first scientific excavation at Lumbini. The main aim was to locate the site of the ancient ‘Lumbini Graman’ as mentioned on the Ashokan pillar to the west of the M a y a Devi temple. This excavation has revealed that the earliest human habi- tation in that area must have started long before the birth of Gautama Buddha. However, Lumbini came into prominence only after the visit of Ashok in the third century B. C.^ In 1976-77, small-scale excavations were conducted at Lumbini by the department. The discovery of a Mauryan stupa and some other antiquities was the main result.

The Department of Archaeology is at present giving more attention to the Buddhist archaeological sites of the western Nepal Tarai, particularly Tilaurakot and Lumbini. It will take at least another few decades to complete the excavation of these sites. In fact, lack of sufficient trained manpower and of an adequate budget are the two main constraints facing the department today. Owing to various unavoidable reasons, it has not yet been able to give proper care and attention to prehistoric sites and to numerous monuments scattered all over the country. A large part of Nepal’s cultural heritage is still underground, and it m a y take centuries to reveal it. It is, of course, somewhat surprising that even the authentic history of the Kathmandu Valley does not go beyond the Lichhavi era-i.e. the fifth century A.D.

I

Conservation and preservation

Renovation of temples, monasteries, monuments and other objects of historical, archaeological, and artistic value has a tradition that goes back to the days of the Mauryan Emperor Ashok. The inscribed pillar at Nigalihawa (Taulihawa District) records that he enlarged the stupa of the previous Buddha Kanakamuni to twice its size in the fourteenth year of his reign and inspected the work and worshipped before it in the twenty-first year of his reign?

The later history of Nepal contains m a n y such instances. Renovation and repair of temples or objects of worship naturally received most attention, as this was considered to be an act of piety having power to advance the donor or executor on the path of religious merit. For example, the Pasupatinath temple, the most sacred temple of the Hindus in the

1. Shaphalya Amatya, op. cit., p. 60. 2. Ibid.., p. 61. See also Ancient Nepal, Nos. 30-9, January-April 1975-77. 3. Führer, op. cit., p. 34.

33


Kathmandu Valley, dating from the Lichhavi period, was renovated several times. In 1349, it was damaged by Sahmsuddin Illyas, a Muslim invader, but was completely restored by the time of Jyotirmalla at the beginning of the fifteenth century. An inscription of Jayayakshya Malla of 1328 also mentions some repairs that he carried out. Another Malla ruler was Bhupalendra Malla, who in 1696 completely renovated this temple. A m o n g the Shah rulers, King Rana Bahadur Shah and his son, King Girvan Yudha Bikram Shah, in the early nineteenth century, the Prime Minister General Bhimsen Thapa in the same period, and the Prime Minister Chandra Shamsher Rana, at the beginning of the twentieth century, carried out large-scale renovations of temples and monuments.

The great earthquake of 1934 was a terrible disaster for ancient monuments as well as modern buildings in Nepal. The extensive repairs that have been carried out since then, particularly in and around the Kathmandu Valley, have laudably preserved the ancient buildings of the country, but have often neglected their ancestral form, leaving posterity with some relics, the original forms of which were rather different from the present restorations.

The purpose of the conservation of ancient monuments, is to preserve the national heritage of architecture and art intact as far as possible in its original form. An institution called Chhen-Bhadel, dating probably from the times of the Mallas, had been responsible for repairs to ancient and public buildings. It had been part of the Darbar from time immemoria1.l Even after the establishment of the Department of Archaeology in 1952-53, repairs to ancient monuments were carried out sporadically by other agencies such as the Valley Reform Committee (Upatyakanchal Tatkalin Sudhar Samittee), which came into existence in 2014 B.S. (1956-57), and the Public Works Department.

The Ancient Monument Preservation Act of 1958, gives protection to monuments and objects of archaeological, historic and artistic interest. It has checked illegal tra5c in antiquities and other objects of cultural value, unauthorized excavations and acquisition of monuments, sites and objects. Anybody w h o defies this law is punished accordingly.2

The Valley Reform Committee carried out its function of repairing temples and monuments for three successive years. Within this period, m a n y ancient buildings were disfigured in the name of renovation. In fact, only after the establishment of the Guthi-Jirnodhar-Thatha-Nirman Samiti in 1967, under the chairmanship of the Director of the Department of Archaeology, was repair of ancient monuments carried out in accordance

1. For more details, see N. R. Banerjee, ‘Principles of the Conservation of Ancient Monuments with Special Reference to Nepal’, Ancient Nepal, No. 40, July 1977,

2. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Kanun Tatha Nyaya Mantralaya pp. 17-27.

[Ministry of Law and Justice], op. cit.

34


with archaeological principles. Hundreds of ancient temples and monuments were renovated by this Samiti all over the kingdom. The most noteworthy ones were Kasthamandap, Bhimsen temple in Kathmandu, Kumveshwar, Machindranath and Taleju temple in Patan, Bagh-Bhairab temple in Kritipur, etc. The arrangements for the conservation of monuments, devised jointly by the Department of Archaeology and the Guthi Corporation, named the Guthi-Jirnodhar-Thatha-Nirman-Samiti, were I

ideally suited to conditions in Nepal where this corporation exercises a large measure of control over all religious establishments, both organiz- ationally and administratively, and repairs are considered as part of its normal duties. This Samiti functioned for about five years and then suddenly ceased to exist for inexplicable reasons.

At the commencement of the fifth Five-year Plan in 1974-75, a separate programme under the heading of Archaeological Renovation, Protection and Preservation was introduced by the Department of Archaeology, with the aim of preserving the cultural heritage of the country as well as pro- moting tourism, in which the monuments play an integral role. Under this programme, the small-scale conservation of archaeological sites at Tilaurakot and renovation of the historic palaces of Nuwakot and Gorkha have been undertaken. This archaeology development programme has also been included in the sixth Five-year Plan (1980-85). In this period, the important Buddhist archaeological sites of western Nepal such as Gotihawa, Niglihawa, Kudan and Sagrahawa will be preserved and excavation and conservation activities at Tilaurakot will be continued. Important historical buildings of the Nuwakot Palace complex such as Garat Ghar (Gand’s house), Ranga Mahal (Pleasure Palace), Bhairabi temple, etc., will be renovated and the renovation of Gorkha Darbar, the ancestral home of the Shah rulers, and Tallo Darbar will be completed. Monuments of national importance all over the kingdom (at least twenty in number) will be renovated within this period. The department has submitted a programme budget of about 10 million rupees for this purpose.1

International agencies and friendly countries have helped greatly in monument conservation, which should never be forgotten. The Federal Republic of Germany was the first country to help in the year 1971-72. It made a donation of DM 100,000 for the renovation of Pujari Math in Bhaktapur. Similarly in 1975, an extensive urbanization and conservation programme known as the Bhaktapur Development Project was signed between the Government of Nepal and the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany. This project is still helping to restore many important monuments north-east of Bhaktapur, i.e. near Dattatraya and Pujari I 1. Dr Shaphalya Amatya. ‘Panchau Tatha Chaithou Pancha Varsiya Yoganama

Samskritik Sampada Haruko Samrashan Tatha Sambardhan’ [Preservation and Protection of Cultural Heritage in Fifth and Sixth Five-Year Plans of Nepal], Pratidhoni (Special Issue), pp. 34-5, 2037 B.S.

35

~ Archaeology, museums and libraries

~

Math Square. Unesco, the United Nations Development Programme and some friendly countries are helping in the conservation of the Hanuman Dhoka Royal Palace. This palace is situated in the heart of Kathmandu's most important monument zone. It is rich in historic associations and artistic treasures, having some of the finest woodcarvings in the valley. With its many-towered skyline, it makes a most impressive contribution to the appearance of the city. Since 1972, an important portion of it, Nassal Chowk, has been skilfully restored and the project has served as a stimulus to the revival of crafts connected with building and as a training ground for Nepalese administrative staff. The first stage o€ the project was finished in time for the coronation of His Majesty King Birendra on 24 February 1975. Two more stages o€ the work are planned in order to assure the appropriate conservation of the entire complex. The second. stage is now in progress. T o complete it, in addition to the Unesco/United Nations Development Pro- gramme grant, His Majesty King Birendra has donated a substantial sum from his personal funds.

Chemical treatment has played an equally important role in preserving the cultural assets of the country. With the help of an Indian expert, murals of the Bhaktapur Palace, dating from the medieval period, were restored and protected in 1965. The following year, the Nepalese chemists, who were trained by this expert, successfully carried out chemical restoration on murals of Kumari Ghar and Mohan Chowk and other parts of the Hanuman Dhoka Palace. In 1970, under a Unesco expert, Nepalese officials received training in chemical conservation techniques. This team was able to remove plants and other growths, incrustations and harmful salts from the fabric of many important temples in the valley. The famous woodcarvings of Pujari Math and Dattatraya temple were chemically treated in 2027-28 B.S. and in the same year, the murals of Swayambhunath Santipur were restored. In 2033-34 B.S. the wood carvings of the famous Gorkha Palace were treated and some important pauvas (traditional Nepalese paintings) from the National Art Gallery, Bhaktapur, were sent to Rome for chemical treatment. In the same year, an Indian expert came to Nepal to restore some of the most precious pauvas in the collection of the Nepalese Government. In 1973 there was a cleaning campaign under a Unesco expert, in preparation for the coronation of King Birendra in 1975. This involved extensive chemical conservation work in the Kathmandu Valley. In 1975-76, the historic Nuwakot Palace and the massive marble Janaki Mandir of Janakpur, unique in Nepal, were chemically treated. In the íifth Five-year-Plan period (1975-80) a central preservation laboratory was established under the auspices of the Department of Archaeology, which is responsible for all chemical conservation activities in the kingdom.

The Department of Archaeology is also responsible for preserving the traditional religious dances of the Kathmandu Valley. Dances such as Mahakali Naach (Bhaktapur), Lakhey Naach (Kathmandu), Kartik Naach

I (Patan), etc., are generally performed during and after the Indra Yatra

36


€estival. Every year, about 100,000 rupees are given by the department to the organizers or guthi (trust) responsible for the maintenance of these dances which have become a part of Nepalese cultural life.

~

I Research and publications

The Department of Archaeology conducts research in various subjects of archaeological, historical and cultural interest. The findings are published in the Journal of the Department, Ancient Nepal, of which the sixtieth issue has already appeared. Some of the most noteworthy publications of the department are Pruchin Lipivikas (Development of the Ancient Script), Prachin Lipi Varnamala (First Book of the Ancient Script), Nepalese Art, etc. Other units of the department such as the National Archives, National Library and National Museum have also some valuable publications to their credit.

Administrative and financial structure

The Department of Archaeology is directly attached to the Ministry of Education and Culture. The Director-General of the department, a first- class Gazetted Officer of His Majesty’s Government, having a rank equal to joint secretary, is assisted by a Chief Exploration Officer and four chief research officers, the Chief of Museums and Libraries and other senior officials and experts. T h e Department of Archaeology is a countrywide organization having the responsibilities mentioned earlier.

According to the present organization chart of the Directorate of the Department of Archaeology (Appendix i), there are nine divisions or sections. The Director-General controls day-to-day administration and the Division of Palace Management and Finance.

The Chief Exploration Officer is in charge of the Exploration and Excavation Division and Photographic Surveys. Of the two chief research officers of the directorate, one is responsible for the management of the Archives, Epigraphy and National Historical Research Section, and the other is in charge of the Chemical Laboratory and Temple and Monument Preservation Section.

In practice, this organization chart is not applied in its true sense. At present, the Chief Exploration Officer is given full responsibility for all the development activities of the department, including the implementation of the Kathmandu Valley Master Plan and the sixth Five-year Plan. The Senior Chief Research Officer of the directorate has full responsibility for running the day-to-day administration and for finance, the development fund is controlled by the Chief Exploration Officer and the regular fund by the Senior Chief Research Officer in collaboration with the Finance Section.

37

1 Archaeology, museums and libraries

The Chemical Laboratory Section became unnecessary after the establishment of the Central Chemical Conservation Laboratory at Patan. In the same way, the Temple and Monument Preservation Activities under the development programme are directed by the Chief Exploration Officer and the regular programme is implemented by the Senior Chief Research Officer. Therefore, one Chief Research Officer of the Directorate is n o w inactive.

At present, under the directorate’s responsibility, there are seven museums, two libraries, seven palace maintenance offices, one archive, one archaeological garden and one central chemical preservation laboratory (Appendix 2). The total staff of the directorate numbers about sixty. After the completion of the sixth Five-year Plan, the directorate will again be expanded with three regional museums at Pokhara, Surkhet in western Nepal and Dhankuta in eastern Nepal, one site museum at Tilaurakot and one archaeological museum at Kathmandu.

The Kathmandu Valley Master Plan has recommended the reorganization of the directorate in a new perspective. Accordingly, a new chart, changing the name of the Department of Archaeology to the Department of Culture, with an additional 160 staff, has been forwarded for action (Appendix 3). This organization chart has given new impetus to the young and energetic members of the department to implement the master plan successfully, but due to unforeseen circumstances, it is still under consider- ation by the Nepalese Government at the time of writing.

Both the regular and development programmes of the department are directly financed by the government. The salary of the staff, general maintenance, stationery, vehicles and petrol and a small sum of money for the preservation of cultural heritage are earmarked every year in the regular budget. In the financial year 2036137 B.S., the directorate received Rs. 545,000 plus Rs. 150,000 for the renovation of monuments under the regular programme and Rs. 1.2 million for the development programme of the department, plus approximately Rs. 250,000 for archaeological activities in Lumbini under the development programme. In the same way, in the year 2037138 B.S., the directorate received Rs. 607,000 plus Rs. 150,000 for monument preservation under the regular programme, and Rs. 350,000 for the development activities of the department, Rs. 600,000 for the Kathmandu Valley Master Plan and Rs. 150,000 for Lumbini and Kapi- lavastu under the development programme. T o s u m up, the budget for cultural activities as a whole, including preservation of the cultural heritage, is very low and receives only about 0.14 per cent of the total government budget. For example, in the year 2037138 B.S., the total budget of the government (regular and development) was Rs. 4,868,097,000, out of which cultural activities received a total amount of about Rs. 6,884,000.l 1. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Artha Mantralaya [Ministry of I

Finance], Arthik Varsa 2037-2038 ko Ayabhyako Anurnanit Bibarcin [Tentative Budget of Financial Year 2037-2038 B.S.], Singha Darbar, Shree Panchko Sarkarko Chapakhana [His Majesty’s Government Presa].

38


National Museum

The National Museum of Nepal, known as Nepal Rastriya Sangrahalaya, was established in 1985 B.S. as the Arsenal Museum in the old residence of Prime Minister Bhim Sen Thapa at Chhawani, Kathmandu. This museum was opened to the public in December 1995 B.S. by the Rana Prime Minister Juddha Shamsher. It has three main sections: the main museum building, the art gallery, and a children's section. In the main building, some of the most valuable collections consist of historical weapons, costumes, uniforms, flags, medals and decorations, portraits of kings and other personalities, musical instruments and objects discovered in excavations such as at Hadigson, Lumbini and Tilaurakot. Collections connected with different ethnic groups, woodwork and natural history exhibits have also occupied an important place in this building. The art gallery has a separate building and was opened in 2000 B.S. Many masterpieces in stone, terracotta, bronze, wood and other materials constitute the chief attractions of this section. In the children's section, the collections of birds, animals, reptiles, butterflies and dolls are very interesting. At present, the main museum building is under repair and will be completed very shortly. It will then have adequate modern facilities.

Shree Five Mahendra Memorial Museum

The Shree Five Mahendra Memorial Museum is a biographical museum and the first of its kind in the country. In this commemorative museum, exhibits depicting the life and deeds of the late King Mahendra are per- manently displayed in chronological order.

National Art Gallery, Bhaktapur

This is another important museum in the valley. It was established in A.D. 1960/61 (2017 B.S.). It contains pauvas (traditional Nepalese paintings on cloth), gathas (painted wooden covers of manuscripts), paintings from manuscripts and water-colour paintings of different legendary animals and birds. In this collection, there are paintings dating back to the ninth or tenth centuries A.D. This gallery is housed in the new wing of the ancient Bhaktapur Palace.

National Woodwork Museum

This museum ia housed in the old wing of the Bhaktapur Palace. It was established in 2019 B.S. (A.D. 1962) and opened to the public in 2024 B.S. (A.D. 1967). It is a very small museum, where woodwork dating back to the fifteenth century A.D. is disp1ayed.l

1. Shaphalya Amatya, 'National Art Gallery of Bhaktapur'. The Nepalese Perspective, Vol. V. NO. 19, pp. 13-14.

39


Tribhuvan Memorial Museum

This is another commemorative museum, established in 2035 B.S. in honour of the late King Tribhuvan, the ‘father’ of the nation. His contribution in establishing democracy in the country can be studied from the exhibits, particularly the rare photographs and press cuttings of the time. His life, is depicted in paintings and photographs, and his bedroom and office in the peaceful surroundings of the old Hanuman Dhoka Palace are very intereating.

National Numismatic Museum

This museum was opened in 1962 in the old Hanuman Dhoka Palace complex. Here, coins from the Lichhavi period to the present day are on display.

National Bronze Museum

At Patan, another town in the Kathmandu Valley, there are two museums. One of them is the National Bronze Museum, which is housed in the old palace. It was established io 1962 but opened to. the public only in 1969. Here, bronze figures dating back to the eleventh century A.D. and archaeological objects, terracotta figures and beads, discovered in excavations at Hadigaon and Dhumrabarahi in Kathmandu and Tilaurakot, are on display.

Archaeological Garden

K n o w n as Puratatwa Bagaincha, this is an open-air museum located at Patan in the ancient garden of Bhandarkhal Bagaincha belonging to the old palace. It was established in 1962 but it has yet to be opened to the public. It has a large collection of stone sculpture.

Archaeological Site Museum of Kapilavastu

This museum was established in 1962 at Kapilavastu in Taulihawa District. Its new building is being completed and probably by the end of 1982 it will be open to the public. It has a large collection of antiquities excavated in Buddhist areas in Lumbini Zone.

Regional Museums of Pokhara, Dhankuta and Surkhet

A m o n g the three regional museums to be opened within the sixth Five- year-Plan period, the museum building of Pokhara is already completed and most probably by the end of 1982 it will be open to the public. The

40


museum building of Dhankuta was due to be completed by the end of 1982. At Surkhet, construction of the n e w museum building began in the year 1981-82. In these three regional museums, collections, mainly of ethnological objects from the respective regions will be displayed.

Swayambhu Vikas Mandai Museum

This museum was established in 1972 at Swayambhu Hill, by Swayambhu Vikas Mandal, a private organization. It has a beautiful collection of stone sculpture. Entry is free for everyone,

Nepal Natural History Museum

This is another very popular museum in the Kathmandu Valley. It was opened in 1975 at Swayambhu Hill and is managed by Tribhuvan Univer- sity Science Faculty. It has an important collection of animals, birds and reptiles. The latest addition to this museum is the fossil of a tooth of Butwal Ramapithecus, considered to be the oldest human species in Asia.

Postal Museum of the Department of Postal Services

This museum was established in 1972. It has an excellent collection of Nepalese stamps from 1964 onwards.

In the Kathmandu Valley there are a few other small museumû of various

Museum of the Department of Mines at Lainchaur, Geology Museum of the

of Botanical Surveys and the Herbarium. Outside the Kathmandu Valley at Pokhara, there is a small museum in Prithvi N a r a p n Campus. It has an interesting collection of birds, butterflies and reptiles.

In Nepal, the idea of the museum as an educational institution has not yet become popular. People outside the Kathmandu Valley are not aware of its value. The newly built regional museums will certainly fiIl the need for some time to come, but they will not be adequate in the long term. Even rich industrial towns like Biratnagar, Birgunj, Nepalganj and Bhairahawa and the most sacred piIgrim centres such as Lumbini and Janakpur do not have museums. The existing ones are in a very poor state. They do not have satisfactory cataloguing, lighting, show-cases or interior decoration and, above all, the management of moat of them is not up to standard. In fact, museums in Nepal are in need of complete reorganization.

I government departments. Some of the most noteworthy are the Mining

Department of Geological Surveys, Botanical Museum of the Department I

41


National Archives of Nepal

The National Archives of Nepal were opened in 1967. The centre is one of the best equipped and maintained in the country. It has a large collection of manuscripts on palm leaves, birch bark and paper totalling about 50,000, and thousands of rubbings of inscriptions from all over the kingdom. Since 1967, it has been collecting historical documents and government records of both public and private possessions. It has a well-equipped microfilming unit with a vast collection of microfilms and it also has a number of publications to its credit. A m o n g them, it is worth mentioning the list of the inscriptions of Kathmandu and Bhaktapur, a collection of historical letters, a list of manuscripts, Devata-chitra Samgraha, and Sena Vamsabali.

National Library

T h e Department of Archaeology is responsible for the management of the Nepal National Library. It was opened to the public in 2013 B.S. (A.D. 1957) in the old Simha Darbar Secretariat. At present it is located at Harihar Bhawan in Patan. It has more than 50,000 volumes in its collection on various subjects and in several languages and is the biggest public library in the country. Unfortunately, its management, research facilities and overall conditions are not very satisfactory. It is most regrettable that the library does not even possess a standard catalogue for general consultation or reference.

-her Library

The Kaisher Library is another public library that is under the management of the Department of Archaeology. It was opened to the public in 1968. It has a vast collection of printed books in English on various subjects, such as hunting, history, art, literature and political sciences. It is housed in the old palace of the late General Kaisher Shamsher, the former owner of the library. The overall conditions of the library and its management are not very satisfactory.

Madan Pustakaiaya or Madan Library

The Madan Library at Patan is one of the most important libraries for Nepali literature. It has the biggest collections of books and journals in the Nepali language on various subjects, particularly literature. It was established by the widow of the late General Madan Shamsher in 2012 B.S. and is run by a trust known as Madan Puraskar Guthi (Trust for the Madan Prize). In general, the library is very well kept, but it is not easy to gain access to it. Because of its unique collection in the Nepali language, this library is considered to be one of the best in Nepal.


Tribhuvan University Library

The Tribhuvan University Library is the most modern and the best text- book library in Nepal. It has about 70,000 textbooks and reference books on various subjects in its collection. It is located at Tribhuvan University Campus in Kirtipur.

There are also numerous public libraries in the country. According to the new education plan, every school and campus must have a workable reference library. Expenses in connection with its establishment and maintenance are met by the Ministry of Education. School libraries are not properly kept up, whereas some campus libraries in the Kathmandu Valley and in some bigger cities have trained librarians as their heads and these at least are running satisfactorily. For numerous reasons, the public libraries are not functioning well. Access to most of them is difficult and their opening times are not convenient because they are open only in working hours, when most of the users have to be in their offices. Most libraries lack trained staff, nor do they have scientific catalogues, research aids or any other research facilities. To improve the general situation, the Nepalese Government has appointed a committee under the Vice-chairman of the National Planning Commission, but has not yet brought about any substantial changes. It is no exaggeration to say that the libraries are not functioning as they should. Moreover, there is no proper legislation to protect them. It has therefore become urgent to introduce reforms in all categories of library or else public funds spent on them will be a eheer waste.

43

The Guthi Samsthan (trust corporation)

The Guthi (trust) Corporation was formed in 2021 B.S. in accordance with the Guthi Corporation Act, 2021 B.S. The act defines guthì as a trust for financing the performance of rites and the organization of festivals of certain monasteries or deities; the construction of temples, shrines, rest- houses, inns, wells, ponds, bridges, schools, houses; the maintenance of certain organizations with religious or philanthropic purposes or their protection by a donor w h o has left cash or property to meet their routine expenditures.l The corporation is guided on policy matters by an executive committee. One of the main functions of the organization is to carry on certain religious, educational, cultural and social or philanthropic activities thiough its income.2 It also conducts research in order to introduce reforms in the religious, moral, social, cultural and economic standards of guthi and presents its results with additional suggestions to the Nepalese Govern- ment: for implementation.

As was mentioned earlier, in 1967 the Guthi Jirnodhar Thatha Nirman Samiti was established to carry out repair and restoration activities in the kingdom. It successfully completed the renovation of numerous monuments but soon ceased to function. From 2029 B.S. (1972) onwards, the Guthi Corporation recommenced restoration work. In the financial year 20291 31 B.S. it successfully completed the conservation of about thirty-four monumentsP T o celebrate the coronation of His Majesty King Birendra, the organization had undertaken repair and reconstruction work on

1. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], K a n n Tatha Nyaya Mantralaya [Ministry of Law and Justice], Nepal Ain Sangraha: Purak Khanda, 2021 [Collection of Nepalese Law: Extra Edition, 20211, p. 243, Kathmandu, His Majesty’s Government Press, 2022 B.S.

2. Ibid., p. 246. 3. Ibid., p. 249. 4. Narahari Acharya and Bharat Mani Jangam (ens.), Dharma Dharshan [Religious

Philosophy], Year 1, Issue No. 1, pp. 64-5, Guthi Samsthan, Kathmandu, 2031 B.S.

44

The Guthi Samsthan

about sixty monuments and sites in and around Kathmandu Valley.1 On the financial side, in the year 2030131 B.S., the corporation spent about Rs. 1,254,022 and allocated a budget of Rs. 4,802,872 for the year 2031132 B.S. for the conservation and reconstruction of monuments and sites.2 For the financia1 year 2034135 B.S., it decided to renovate about fifty-one monuments aU over the country. In like manner, it will undertake repair activities on about thirty-one monuments in the year 2035136 B A 3

Some of the corporation’s other activities relating to preservation and promotion of Nepalese culture involve the celebration of festivals, feasts, melas and yatras of national and local importance that have religious and cultural significance all over the kingdom. It also gives financial help to m a n y religious-cultural performances including traditional dances and dramas, and organizes religious and philosophical talks and lectures by well-known scholars and gurus.4

D u e to maladministration, this corporation has not been able to function as expected. At present, to improve eiñciency, the administrator is all- powerful and the executive committee has been dissolved for the time being. Unfortunately, however, the overall situation is m u c h the same. The main problem the corporation is facing is its inability to collect revenue from guthi lands. For example, in the financial year 2031132 B.S. it was expected to raise revenue of about Rs. 6,558,343 but it could only collect Rs. 5,856,576. Secondly, the organization is so inactive that it has not yet increased its income by investing its vast capital and is also facing legal complications that should be clarified as soon as p~ssible.~ Lastly, the renovation of monuments is not preserving Nepalese art but damaging it due to inadequate knowledge. Therefore, there ought to be a revival of the joint Committee of Archaeology and the Guthi Corporation to carry out such activities.

1. Ibid., Year 1, Issue No. 4, pp. 115-17. 2. Ibid., Year 1, Issue No. 2, pp. 63-5. 3. A written answer submitted by the Guthi Corporation in Mangsir 22th, 2035 B.S. 4. Ibid. 5. Narahari Acharya and Bharat Mani Jangam (eds.), op. cit., pp. 60-8.

45

Royal Nepal Academy and other art academies in Nepal

Nepalese art and culture have survived through the love and devotion of rulers and people. The Rana oligarchy patronized Indian music, song, dance and drama in their courts, but the situation changed completely after their downfall in 1951. The Shah rulers began to patronize Nepalese art as in the past. In the new, free atmosphere of the country, traditional and folk culture began to flourish. Many voluntary societies came to the fore, producing music and dance and giving regular concerts. In rural areas, the arts continued to feature as a major recreational activity for everybody.

The guthi, or trust of different caste groups was revived and reorganized as befitted the new situation in the country. These public guthis, or trusts, once again took responsibility for preserving and continuing art traditions and culture throughout Nepal, and more particularly in the Kathmandu Valley. The caste system in Nepalese society has also played a vital role. For example, among the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley, the Sakyas or Bare are goldsmiths and silversmiths, the Uray or Udas are craftsmen and merchants, the Kaus are blacksmiths, the P u m s or Chitrakars are painters, the Jogis are tailors and musicians, etc. In the same manner, there are occupational castes among the hill and Tarai people. For example, the Damais are tailors and musicians, the Kamis are blacksmiths, the Sunars are goldsmiths, etc. These people not only maintain their traditional occupations but also preserve their folk arts and culture. However, during festivals and other important occasions, everybody participates in the singing and dancing. It is a community affair.

In the visual arts, the situation is somewhat different. Although traditional and folk painting and sculpture continue to flourish, they have to coexist with new styles. A m o n g the Newars of the Kathmandu Valley, the P u m s or Chitrakars are painters or artists by occupation. They paint gods and goddesses and other subjects for important religious occasions. The pauuas (traditional religious paintings) are generally painted by P u m s

46

Royal Nepal Academy and other art academies

and also by Sakyas, Bajracharyas, Lamas and Bhotias from the high Himalayas. Because of their popularity among the majority of tourists, pauvas have become one of the most important souvenirs of the country. The bronze-casting and wood-carving industries are also becoming increasingly popular. However, the graduates of the modern schools of painting and sculpture have yet to receive recognition from the people because their work is totally different from that to which they are accustomed. Econ- omically, the traditional artists are very much better placed than the modern graduates. The most important achievement in Nepal since the advent of democracy is the gradual transformation of art from a caste occupation to free enterprise or a profession. However, artists face hard- ships and difficulties because they are living during a transitional period when Nepal ia slowly breaking with traditional values and moving towards a modern society. Whether this n e w Nepal will improve the lot of artists, only time will tell.

Before 1951, Nepalese literature could be divided into two schools: one was led by an educated young élite which was opposed to the Rana autocracy and the other by Rana supporters w h o were occupied in pleasing the regime. The contributions of the poets and novelists belonging to the former category, w h o were responsible for arousing Nepalese nationalism, can never be forgotten.

In the post-Rana period, democratic Nepal saw the establishment of 'Nepal-Samskritik Parishad' in 2008 B.S. (1952), which aimed at all-round development of Nepalese culture and archaeological research. To achieve these goals, the Parishad established such departments as those for literature, music, arts, culture and languages. However, the Parishad could not survive for long. Except for a few volumes of its quarterly journal, Nepal Sumskritik Purishud Putriku, it has left nothing behind. In 2013 B.S. (1957), some poets and writers with progressive ideas organized a group and brought out a few numbers of a literary journal called Indreni, which suddenly ceased publication. In the same manner, in 2020 B.S. (1963), Nepal Sahitya Samsthan was organized with the aim of stimulating interest in the Nepalese heritage through literature. Its mouthpiece, Himani, a quarterly magazine, and the all-Nepal literary conferences that were organized on three occasions, were the main contributions of this organization. Unfortunately, at the present time, there are m a n y groups of writers that are not well run and lack unity. In Nepal, no one is able to earn a living by writing. Most of the poets and writers are in government posts or teach. They therefore live in reduced circumstances, unrecognized. The Nepalese Government is aware of the situation and of the urgent need to provide ways of fostering the arts through governmental efforts. It accepts the fact that the cultural heritage of the country lies more in the arts and crafts than in any other aspect of life. In spite of this, the government can only make a limited effort, bearing in mind the more pressing demands of a developing country €or education and social welfare,

47


not to mention economic and industrial development. The government, in the hope of revitalizing the traditional arts aiid creating new opportunities for creative artists to express the aspirations of Nepal today in contemporary language, has established the Royal Nepal Academy (Rajkiya Pragyna Parishad), the Nepal Association of Fine Arts (Nepal Lalitkala Samsthan), also known as NAFA, and the Nepal Art Council.

Royal Nepal Academy

The Royal Nepal Academy, originally known as Nepal Academy, was established in 2014 B.S. (1958). Its main objectives are to produce and publish original and research-oriented works on the Nepali language, literature, arts, culture and science to organize high-level seminars, conferences and symposia; to honour artists, learned persons and authors of great talent and to develop the arts and philosophy by taking the necessary action at national and international levels. In the same year, the Nepal Academy Act 2014 B.S. was promulgated, in which the work and responsibilities of the academy are clearly defined in the following terms. It will: Increase the feeling of co-operation among artists, scientists and m e n of

literature for the development of Nepali literature, arts, culture and science.

Award honours and prizes to those persons who have made great and unique contributions in the fields of the arts, literature and science.

Take the necessary steps to increase the level of the Nepali language. Encourage and make the necessary arrangements for translating dis-

tinguished works of literature from foreign languages and scripts into the Nepali language and script, and from Nepali into foreign languages and scripts.

Help individuals or organizations to publish catalogues of books, diction- aries, encyclopedias and other literary works.

Organize conferences, seminars, symposia and exhibitions on literature, the arts and science and carry out research on Nepalese culture and science.

Encourage study and popularize literature, culture and science and also exchange cultural programmes with friendly countries and establish contacts with international organizations in education, the arts and science.

Encourage research and creation in music, dance, sculpture, painting, etc. Undertake all necessary work for the fulíilment of these 0bjectives.l

1. Nepal Academy R a Tesako Karya-Path [Guide to the Nepal Academy], Kathmandu, 2014 B.S.

48

Sawa-Bakuu Naach (Halchowk Bhairab Dance). A traditional mask dance of Kathmandu.

A scene from ‘Shakuntala’, drama. [Photo: Royal Nepal Academy.]

Swayambhunath Stupa, Kathmandu.


In addition to its regular seminars, symposia and conferences on various aspects of Nepalese literature, art, culture and science, the academy’s most notable achievement until now has been its publications, which have already exceeded 200 volumes. Every year, in June-July, on the anniversary of the birth of the late King Mahendra, the All-Nepal Poetry Festival competition is organized, in which a gold medal and a cash prize of Rs. 1,200 is given to the person who comes first, a silver medal and Rs. 800 is given as second prize and three bronze medals and sums of Rs. 500 are given as third prizes. Another yearly programme is organized on the occasion of the Gai-Jatra festival, when the academy organizes an exhibition of cartoons and cultural entertainments consisting of satirical and comic plays, poems and songs. On N e w Year’s eve and on important national occasions, the academy also organizes entertainments. At present, there are about thirty-two artists working in the performing arts department of the academy. For their contributions and publications in the fields of Nepali literature, language, arts, culture and science, learned and distinguished persons are given cash prizes and honours of different categories. Highest among them is the Prithvi Pragya-Puraskar consisting of Rs. 1 million in cash and a certificate, which is awarded once every five years. Second, is Tribhuvan-Pragya-Puraskar of Rs. 50,000 in cash and a certificate given every three years. Third is Mahendra-Pragya-Puraskar of Rs. 25,000 in cash and a certificate which is awarded every two years. Lastly, there is Indra-Rajya Laxmi-Pragya Puraskar of Rs. 15,000 in cash and a certificate, which is awarded every year. Another most important honour known as Birendra-Pragya-Lankar is granted only to foreign scholars, who have made noteworthy contributions to Nepalese studies. The academy also awards fellowships to native scholars every year to carry on research work in various aspects of the Nepalese heritage.

The academy is directly financed by the Ministry of Education. In the year 2036-37 B.S. it received Rs. 1 million in the regular budget and Rs. 4 million in the development budget. In the same manner, it received Rs. 1 million in the regular budget and Rs. 340,000 in the development budget for the year 2037-38 B.S.

Since the creation of the academy, it has honoured eminent men of letters by selecting them to be members. According to the Nepal Academy Act 2014 B.S., it comprises a chancellor, one vice-chancellor and fourteen ordinary members. There are five main departments as working units. Highly qualified and experienced men, with valuable contributions in various fields, are generally placed in charge of these departments, the main ones being the departments of arts, literature, culture and science.l

The academy has a very well-equipped building with all essential

1. Personal Interview with the Secretary to the Chancellor of the Royal Nepal Academy on Mangsir 8th, 2036 B.S.; written answer submitted by the Secretariat of the Royal Nepal Academy, dated Mangsir 8th, 2036 B.S.

49


modern facilities such as an auditorium, an exhibition hall, offices, a library and reading-room, lecture halls, a restaurant, garden, etc. However, it is felt that the academy still requires further facilities for its efficient working. W h e n nominating members, power politics play a preponderant role. F e w m e n of letters or scholars of high standing have been able to gain membership. As a result, the academy can neither produce sufficient research publications of substance nor develop outstanding artists. At present, it is devoting more attention to painting and literature, but it is felt that it should not neglect the importance of history, culture and the performing arts of the country.

Nepal Association of Fine Arta

The Nepal Lalitkala Samsthan (Nepal Association of Fine Arts) (NAFA) was established under the chairmanship of His Majesty King Birendra (then the Crown Prince) in 2022 B.S. (A.D. 1965). The chief aims of NAFA are to create unity and encourage co-operation among artists devoted to the fine arts and persons w h o have contributed to overall development in the field of Nepalese arts. Other objectives are the following: to work as a centre in the field of h e arts; to inspire and encourage the development of the h e arts in Nepal; to study and preserve antiquities and artefacts of Nepal, etc.1

In the achievement of its aims, NAFA has undertaken the following work: preparation of useful books and articles on fine arts after thorough study and research; organization of and participation in local, national and international seminars, conferences, exhibitions, etc.; the awarding of honours to gifted artists and m e n w h o have made contributions in the field of fine arts. Lastly, it establishes contact with national and international organizations responsible for the development of the fine arts.

T o assist in the smooth working and to improve the general conditions of NAFA, it has been associated with the Royal Nepal Academy since 2034 B.S. An advisory committee consisting of artists and other persons interested in the fine arts, numbering not more than ateen, duly appointed by the Pragya Parishad (Academic Council) of the academy, are responsible for its routine activities.

The NAFA building at Sita Bhawan, Naxal, Kathmandu, has a separate art gallery where the traditional and modern art of Nepal and reproductions of art from other countries are displayed. Every year on the occasion of the birthday of King Birendra, a national art exhibition is organized. Art exhibitions are also organized at international level. From time to time,

1. Nepal Rajkiya Pragya Pratisthan [The Royal Nepal Academy] (NAFA), Nepal Lalitkala Sarnsthan [A Brief Introduction to the Nepal Association of Fine Arts], Kathmandu, 2035 B.S.

50


one-man exhibitions, group exhibitions and other types of art exhibition are organized and sometimes financial help is provided for needy artists to hold them. Every year, the best artist is awarded the highest honour in the field of Nepalese art, Birendra Swarna Kala-Padaka (Birendra Gold Medal of Art). If there is no work of a sufficiently high standard in a particular year, the award is not made. Every year, on the occasion of the National Art Exhibition, the best works are awarded cash prizes and certificates in different categories as decided by the judges. There are seven prizes for traditional art and seven for modern art, i.e. first, second and third prizes and four consolation prizes in each category.1

Talks and lectures by artists, art critics and art historians on various subjects connected with Nepalese art are arranged regularly. Seminars and conferences at national and international levels for artists, critics, historians and people interested in the arts are also organized in order to encourage co-operation. This association also provides fellowships to popular and distinguished traditional Nepalese artists. Fellowships are awarded to experienced and elderly artists w h o have devoted their lives to the revival and development of traditional art.

The NAFA art magazine is an annual publication that comes out on the occasion of His Majesty King Birendra’s birthday. This magazine represents the ideas of contemporary Nepalese artists in both the traditional and modern fields. It has not only popularized successfully the ideals of this association, but has also helped to increase the interest of the generd public in the arts. This assocjation is a member of the International Art Committee and the International Association of Fine Arts in Park2

NAFA has its o w n reference library, where books and magazines on the arts, particularly painting, are available for consultation by members. It also organizes film shows regularly, where members can see films on the art of different countries. Every year, NAFA takee part in various international art exhibitions.3

In 2034 B.C., NAFA was associated with the Royal Nepal Academy. Since then, it has lost its individual identity. Rivalries and friction among the artists and various other problems had been hampering its efficient working. Moreover, maladministration, lack of finance and suitable buildings were also standing in the w a y of its success. It is hoped that the present management will be better for this organization.

1. Nepal Rajkiya Pragya Pratisthan [The Royal Nepal Academy], Nepal Lalitkala Samstha (NAFA), Rashtrip Kala-Pradarsani Sarnbandhi Niyarnharu [Rules Regarding National Art Exhibitions], Kathandu, n.d.

2. NAFA Art Magazine (Nepal Lalitakala Samstha, [Nepal Association of Fine Arts] (NAFA), Kathmandu), 2029 B.S. (1970); N A F A , Nepal Lalitkala Sarnsthako B a r d Mukhapaira [An Annual Magazine of the Nepal Association of Fine Arts], Kathmandu, NAFA. 2023 B.S. and 2024 B.C.

3. Deepak Simkhada, Nepal Lalitkala Samstha [Nepal Association of Fine Arts], Swatan- traoiswa [Free World] (Kathmandu), Vol. 10, No. 3, p. 43.

1

51


Nepal Art Council

The Nepal Art Council was established in 2011. B.S. under the patronage of the late King Mahendra. Its main objective is to collect art reproductions so as to acquaint the Nepalese people with the masterpieces of famous painters from different parts of the world. This provides an opportunity not only for artists and art lovers of Nepal, but also for foreigners, to view world famous paintings by means of reproductions. The Nepal Art Council has in its collection reproductions of famous old masters, including Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, Michaelangelo, Rembrandt, etc.1 This gallery is the first of its kind in Nepal. At present, reproductions are displayed in a big hall in an old Rana palace in Kathmandu. The n e w gallery is being rapidly built near the existing one.

In 2020 B.S., the Nepal Art Council organized an art exhibition of Italian reproductions. It was the first exhibition of international art on Nepalese soil and was inaugurated by the late King Mahendra. Since then, the Council has organized other exhibitions. Some of the most noteworthy were the exhibitions of drawings from the Chatsworth Collection, of Swiss and German paintings, of work by Mr Pier Steensma and of thread paintings by Mrs A v a Devi. In 2024 B.S., King Mahendra opened the art gallery of the Council to the general public.2

The Art Council is managed by an executive committee that consists of prominent citizens and artists. The committee meets at least once a year, and its routine administration is handled by an office secretary w h o is salaried. King Birendra is the present patron of the council. In the last decade, the council has not been so active. Since its formation, His Majesty’s Government has been allotting it an annual budget of Rs. 100,000 as a grant to construct its new building, which is now progressing rapidly. The council has also begun collecting Nepalese paintings. It is felt that it should be kept under the guidance of the Royal Nepal Academy, or directly under the supervision of the newly created Ministry of Education and Culture. Otherwise it will not progress?

1. Nepal Art Council, Art Gallery, Kathmandu, n.d. 2. Written answer submitted by the Office Secretary, MI N. B. Shrestha, on Jaystha 17th,

2025 B.S. 3. Shaphalya Amatya, ‘Nepal Art Council: Some Suggestions’, The Rising Nepal [English

daily], 7 August, 1968; Shaphalya Amatya, ‘Axt Galleries of Nepal’, The Rising Nepal, 18 September 1968.

52


In Nepal, the mass-media organizations are all controlled and guided in policy matters by the Ministry of Communications. The main functions of the governmental units under this ministry are to disseminate information about regional, national and international developments and to present programmes of which some have a high cultural content and others a popular entertainment value.

In 2028 B.S., the Nepalese Government launched Rashtriya Sanchar Sewa Yojana (National Communication Service Plan) with the objective of ‘communications for development’. This new communications plan aims to increase national prestige in the international arena through various means including the popularization of Nepalese culture. Above all, this plan seeks to bring about national unity and development through cultural exhibitions or entertainments. It also intends to awaken cultural conscious- ness among the different levels of Nepalese society.1

Radio Nepal or the Department of Broadcasting

The end of the Rana administration brought many changes in Nepalese society. In 2007 B.S. (1951) Radio Nepal was established, and in the three decades of its existence, it has greatly improved. At present, its programmes can be heard as far away as Japan in the East and the Federal Republic of Germany in the West. At first, it presented daily programmes for only four hours but today it transmits programmes for an average of thirteen hours a day. According to the new communications plan, the chief aim of the Department of Broadcasting, or Radio Nepal, will be to impart information on national and international affairs in an entertaining way,

1. Shree Panchko Sarkarko Chapakhana [His Majesty’s Government Press], Rashtriya Sanehar Sewu Yogana [National Communication Service Plan], Kathmandu, 2028 B.S.

53


as well as knowledge on Nepalese society, culture, literature and religion and to further national welfare and international re1ations.l

Radio Nepal is the most effective and the best organized of the mass media institutions. The organization is administered by the Director- General, attached to the Ministry of Communications. It is financed by the government. It has a daily programme for one hour which is religious or cultural in content (for example, Dharmik Karyakram) and Samskritik Karyakram (another cultural programme) for half an hour once a week on Saturdays. Although it would be difficult to separate the purely cultural programmes from the information programmes, it can be said that while radio devotes approximately 15 per cent of its time to news, the remaining programmes (except for advertisements) for nearly three hours daily have a fair cultural content (i.e. school broadcasts, police, army, rural, women’s, young people’s and children’s programmes, music, drama, talks, external programmes, etc.). Special programmes are broadcast in Martyr’s Memorial Week, on the birthday of His Majesty the King, on Constitution Day, etc. Radio Nepal also organizes literary conferences, quizzes, radio drama competitions, etc. Every year, on the anniversary of the birth of King Mahendra, which is also Constitution Day, there is a competitive poetry- recitation programme. On the occasion of the anniversary of the founding of Radio Nepal, songs and music competitions are organized.

About 45 per cent of Radio Nepal’s daily schedule consists of light and classical music. Women’s, children’s, rural and external service programmes in the English language are on the air every day. The majority of these programmes are informative and entertaining. The Director-General is aided by one Deputy Director-General who is in charge of the engineering section and three Deputy Directors at Under-Secretary level, who are in charge of the administration, news and programme sections respectively.

The Gorakhapatra Corporation

Gorakhapatra is the oldest newspaper in the country, and was first published in 1958 B.C. about eighty years ago. It began as a weekly paper. In 2000 B.S., it became bi-weekly and in 2003 B.S. it began to appear three times a week. Since 2017 B.S., it has been a daily newspaper and the mouthpiece of His Majesty’s Government.

This vernacular daily has a good news content and views on the cultural heritage of Nepal. Its special Saturday issue always carries at least one or two articles on this subject. Its sister publications The Rising Nepal, an English daily and its Friday supplement also publish news and views on culture fairly regularly. Its monthly literary magazine Madhuparka has regular columns on Nepalese history, culture and arts.

1. Shree Panchko Sarkarko Chapakhana, op. cit., p. 28.

54


The Gorakhapatra Corporation was established in 2019 B.S. according to the Gorakhapatra Corporation Act of 2019 B.S. This act clearly stated that it is the primary duty of the corporation to develop Gorakhapatra as a standard newspaper keeping it apart from any political and economic groups and ideologies by publishing independent news and views. It also publishes literary and scientific articles. A management committee is responsible for day-to-day work and for framing p0licy.l

The National Communication Service Plan has aimed at making the publications of the corporation attractive, entertaining and culture- oriented. The corporation is headed by a general manager. H e is aided by an internal auditing section, an advertisement section, the Rising Nepal section, the Gorakhapatra and Madhuparka section, the administrative, accounts, publication and distribution sections.2

Samskritik Samsthan (Cultural Undertaking)

As recommended by the National Communication Service Plan, Sanchar Samsthan Ain (Communication Corporation Act 2028 B.S.), Cultural Undertakings was established in 2029 B.S. with the following aims: to preserve, propagate and publicize the national culture and to entertain the people by presenting them with cultural programmes having nationalistic sentiments. Every month, it organizes cultural entertainment and occasionally gives plays, ballets and concerts.3

The general manager of the organization is the chairman of the management committee, which consists of five members and is responsible for guidance and policy matters. The general manager is the chief administrator. H e is aided by three sections: the exhibition, administrative and accounts sections. The overall expenditure is met by the government. During the íifth Five-year-Plan period (2027-32 B.S.) the organization received annually Rs. 725,000 and a total of Rs. 3,625,000 under the regular budget and a total of Rs. 700,000 under the development budget. The government dots the regular budget in the form of grants and the development budget is considered as investment. The organization earns a meagre s u m by organizing cultural entertainments and by other methods such as renting the auditorium, etc. However, these are insufficient to meet any of its ex pendi tu re^.^

1. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Kanun Tatha Nyaya Mantralaya [Ministry of L a w and Justice], Nepal Ain Sangraha [Collection of Nepalese Law], Part 3, pp. 1080-93, Kathmandu, 2021 B.S.

2. For details see: Shree Panchko Sarkarko Chapakhana [His Majesty’s Government Press], op. cit., pp. 69-71.

3. Ibid., pp. 75-7. 4. Indra Prasad Kafley (ed.), ‘Samskritik Upahar [Cultural Gifi]’, Surnskritik Samsthan

[Cultural Undertaking], Kathmandu, 2034 B.S.

55


At present, there is a total of fifty staff members in the organization, appointed on a permanent basis and seventy-one persons on a contract basis. The artists are directly recruited. There is no provision for training them until after recruitment.

Cultural Undertaking is mainly responsible for the improving and popularizing of the performing arts. In the fifth Five-year-Plan period, it aimed to achieve two main objectives: (a) the training of artists, and (b) the establishment of a museum of folk culture. The training programme is under way, but the establishment of a museum has not materialized.l

The government has signed cultural agreements with such countries as Iran, Mongolia, Pakistan and the USSR. Negotiations are under way with Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, Egypt, France, Republic of Korea and Sri Lanka. Under these agreements, exchanges of cultural troupes, organization of film festivals and art exhibitions, exchanges of tapes and records, exchanges of experts, scientists and sportsmen, etc., are undertaken. Reciprocal cultural exchanges are made occasionally with India and China.2

The cultural undertaking is not running as smoothly as expected for several reasons: frequent internal squabbling among the artists; lack of proper training facilities; an inadequate pay scale; and public disrespect for the artists. Moreover, owing to an inadequate budget, the organization lacks modern auditorium facilities that detract from its performances.

Shahi Nepal Chala Chitra Smasthan (The Royal Nepal Film Corporation)

Cinema is the most popular and cheapest means of mass communication in Nepal. Because of the low per-capita income and the difficult geophysical state of the country, it has not become widespread, yet its effectiveness is indisputable. The Nepalese Government began to show interest in producing news-reels and documentaries in 1962. Government agencies such as the National Guidance Ministry, the Publicity and Broadcasting Ministry and the Department of Information were responsible for making them. In 1971, in accordance with the new communication plan, the Royal Nepal Film Corporation was established under the Ministry of Communications. The aims of the Royal Nepal Film Corporation are: (a) to provide healthy entertainment for Nepalese audiences; (b) to reduce the monopoly of foreign films; and (c) to establish Nepal’s own film industry. In its policies, the film corporation has laid emphasis on producing documentaries and films that give priority to national history, geography, literature, the arts and

1. Personal interview with MI Narayan Gopal, General Manager, Cultural Undertaking, in January 1981.

2. Personal interviews with MI Jit Bahadur Manandhar, Joint Secretary, and MI R a m Prasad Lamichaney, Under-Secretary, Ministry of Communications, in April 1981.

56


I 57

culture as well as other development-oriented subjects that will be ben- eficial to both tourists and the general public; and to encourage artists to achieve fame.

The Royal Nepal Film Corporation began producing films in 1973. It has already produced more than 160 news-reels, 25 documentaries and 3 feature films. This corporation is doing its best to bear the responsibility laid upon it with limited resources. A black and white laboratory is almost complete and should enable it to make better-quality short films more rapidly. Until now, films have been processed abroad, mainly in labora- tories in 1ndia.l

The General Manager is responsible for all administrative and technical matters of the corporation. Under him there are the following sections: (1) internal auditing, (2) administration, (3) laboratory, (4) accounts, and (5) studio. H e is also helped by two production officers.

During the fifth Five-year-Plan period, the corporation received 6,391,000 rupees as an investment by the government in the development sector. It could produce m a n y more documentaries and short films OD Nepalese life and culture, arts and architecture and also encourage nationalistic sentiments among the masses, but unfortunately it has not yet taken any steps in this direction.

Shree Ratna Recording Samsthan (Ratna Recording Corporation)

In 2018 B.S. (1961), in order to encourage folk-songs and singers in accordance with the wishes of the present Queen Mother Ratna Rajya Laxmi Devi, the Ratna Recording Trust (now called Ratna Recording Samsthan, i.e. Ratna Recording Corporation), was established. According to the National Communication Service Plan, its chief aim is to make easily available records of national Nepalese songs and music at a lower price. T o achieve this, new policies and programmes are being launched in accordance with the plan.

Every year about fifty folk-songs, fifty light and modern songs and twenty-five items of instrumental folk-music are recorded. These records are generally released on occasions such as the birthdays of Their Majesties and other important national days. In the fifth Five-year-Plan period, approximately 480 modern songs, folk-songs and other musical works are to be recorded. Construction of a studio-cum-office building will be com- menced. In the sixth Five-year-Plan period, 760 modern songs, folk-songs and other music will be recorded, and construction of the studio will also be completed. In the fifth Five-year-Plan period about Rs. 500,000 in the

1. Personal interview with Mr Chetan Karki, the production manager of RNFC on 11 June 1981.


regular budget and Rs. 1.6 million in the development budget were earmarked for expenditure. For the sixth Five-year-Plan period (1980-85) a programme budget of Rs. 2.5 million has been proposed to the government.

The General Manager is the chief of the corporation. H e is assisted by an internal auditing section, an administration and accounts section and a recording and management section. At present, there are twenty permanent staff members in the 0rganization.l Its n e w studio-cum-office building is almost ready, but due to ineñicient management, the studio is still unused. Many young and talented artists complain that they are not given a proper chance to show their talents. Nepotism and favouritism play a big role in getting a chance to record songs and other music. Distribution and sales are very inefficient, and well-organized sales depots or agencies for s e h g records, wbich are essential for the corporation’s survival, simply do not exist.

1. Written answer submitted by the Ratna Recording Corporation dated Mangsir 16th, 2036 B.S.

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Handicrafts

Nepalese handicrafts have a centuries-old history and tradition. Exca- vations at Tilaurakot, Lumbini, Bhadgaon and other sites have already proved that the artefacts used by the people before the eighth century B.C. were of high artistic quality. Although arts and crafts can be clearly differ- entiated and the development of each is distinct, they have frepently merged almost since the time of the Buddha. Terracotta toys, dolls and figurines discovered at Tailaurakot, and the bronze peacock at Lumbini are objects that represent both an art and a craft.l

The Nepalese Pasmina shawls have been popular in India since time immemorial and are mentioned in Kautilya’s Artha Sastra of the fourth century B.C. Nepalese bronzes have been treasured by the Tibetans since the days of the Lichhavis (fifth century A.D.). During the medieval period, Nepalese handicrafts were very popular in China and India. Chinese travellers appreciated the skill and craftsmanship of Nepalese artisans, especially their weaving, spinning, woodcarving and metalwork. The contribution of the master craftsman Araniko, w h o enriched Nepalese handicrafts and popularized them throughout Tibet, China and other countries of the Far East, can never be forgottem2

The Shah rulers of Nepal proudly protected the handicraft industries of the country after the eighteenth century. The founder of this dynasty, Prithvi Narayan Shah the Great, advised his people in his famous Dibya Upadesh (Divine Instruction) as follows: ‘Forbid the use of cloth made in India. Show samples to those w h o know h o w to make our cloth. Teach them how to make clothing. If this is done, our money will not go abroad.”

1. Shaphalya Amatya, ‘Nepalese Handicrafts’, The Rising Nepal [English daiiy,

2. Ibid. 3. L. P. Stiller, S. J., Prithiwi Narayan Shah in the Light of Dibya Upadesh, p. 43, Ranchi

Kathmandu], 4 May 1971, pp. 4-5.

(India), T h e Catholic Press, 1968.

59

Handicrafts

However, for a century (1847-1951), under the rule of the Rana prime ministers, the handicrafts industry suffered a serious setback. The Ranas did not value the ancient art treasures and craftsmanship of the people. They were attracted by foreign goods, including handicrafts. They built their palaces in the European style, decorated them with European objects and began to live like European princes. The walls of the Rana palaces were covered with paintings by European artists and the gardens and swimming pools were decorated with marble nudes from Italy and France. However, even in those days, some foreigners, especially such employees of the British Residence as B. Hodgson, Dr Oldfield, Percival London, Percy Brown and Sylvan Levi and a few other orientologists and historians deeply appreciated Nepalese handicrafts and collected them in large quantities. The handicrafts made famous by these Europeans began to flourish again after the fall of the Ranas because of the tourists who started pouring in from all parts of the world. As a result, curio shops and handicrafts centres have opened all over the Kathmandu Valley.l

Handicrafts are regarded as the true mirror of Nepal’s cultural and artistic heritage and reflect the glorious art traditions of the past. The magical craftsmanship of Nepalese artisans has not only attracted foreigners but helped the nation to increase its prestige and wealth. It is the pride of the country.2

The revival of the handicrafts industry after the fall of the Ranas in 1951 has been aptly commented upon by Mr T. R. Tuladhar, the ex-Secretary of the Communications Ministry (then the Director of Tourism), w h o said:

The fact remains that, antiques or no antiques, the insatiable demand generated by tourism for the traditional art products of Nepal has infused new life into the artists of Kathmandu, Patan and Bhadgaon, the carpet weavers and scroll painters of Solokhumboo, the Khukuri makers of Bhojpur and Pyuthan, the mask-makers and potters of Thimi, and the blanket and shawl weavers of the sub-Himalayan regions of Jumla, Humla and Dolpa.s

Artisan and craft activity has continued in Nepal at various levels. As in any other country, there are m a n y different ethnic groups that make artefacts linked to ritualistic cults, to the worship of archaic gods and the permutation of deities together with art objects used in daily life, ranging from pots and hairpins to hookahs (pipes), beads for necklaces, shawls and skirts. Each group has distinct characteristics in its textile designs, clay modelling and bronze casting. The origins of these designs can sometimes be traced back to prehistoric times and are of great anthropological interest.

1. Shaphalya Amatya, op. cit., p. 5. 2. Shaphalya Amatya, ‘Master Creators of Nepalese Art’, The Rising Nepal [English

3. Ibid., p. 6. daily, Kathmandu], 1 June 1972, p. 5-6.

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Handicrafts

The government gave top priority to the development of the handicrafts industry in the fifth Five-year-Plan. The department encouraged the weaving of raw cotton and woollen garments not only to create employ- ment, but also to satisfy the increasing needs of the general public.

61

Handicrafts

Encouragement was given to the woollen industry to weave blankets known as radhi and pakhi, in the high Himalayan regions, where transport and communication facilities are inadequate, and the production of handicrafto in accordance with tourist preferences was also stimulated. (For example, artefacts in bronze and wood in the Kathmandu Valley.) To achieve these aims the department launched the following programmes. First, it provided industrial services. Accordingly, detailed technical ‘know-how’, including a feasibility report, was given to those who were interested in establishing a handicrafts industry. Within the fifth Five-year-Plan period, this service was provided in 25 districts of the c0untry.l Secondly, improvements in design and quality of existing handicrafts were introduced in accordance with the tastes of tourists and the standards of the international market.2 Within this period, 300 different designs and replicas, reflecting Nepalese life, arts and culture, which could be produced at low cost in bronze, wood, paper cloth and wool, were prepared. Exhibitions of handicrafts were organized and awards were presented to those artists and designers who were responsible for the best designs and production? Practical training in handicrafts, as well as in-service training, were provided. Seminars on handicrafts were organized in different parts of the country. Handicrafts worth at least Rs. 4.5 million were produced and loans of Rs. 25.3 million were distributed to promote the handicrafts industry in the kingdom. For the fifth Five-year-Plan period, the department received a total annual budget of Rs. 58.3 million of which Rs. 27 million were earmarked for the development and promotion of handicrafts!

During this period, the overall performance of the department was satisfactory, but it could not establish a handicrafts museum nor could it publish catalogues and guidebooks on the handicrafts indust~y.~ Within this period, the export of Nepalese handicrafts increased enormously. In the financial year 2035136 B.S., handicrafts, particularly woollen carpets known as galiecha, and other artefacts worth Rs. 100 million were exported.

The Cottage and Village Industry Department is headed by a director- general, w h o is equivalent to joint secretary. H e is aided by seven deputy directors, corresponding to under-secretary level. At present, the department has ofices in twenty-eight districts of the kingdom. In the centre of development regions such as Pokhara, Surkhet and Dhankuta, it has regional offices headed by a section officer.6 The establishment of such district-level office-cum-workshops and sales depots has also promoted interdistrict and interregional understanding, and it is not uncommon to

1. The total number of districts in the kingdom is seventy-five. 2. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], op. cit., p. 398. 3. Ibid., p. 399. 4. Written answer submitted by the Department of Cottage and Village Industry. 5. Ibid. 6. Written answer submitted by the Department of Cottage and Village Industry.

62

Handicrafts

îmd people from one part of the country w h o are acquainted with the crafts of another.

During the sixth Five-year-Plan period (2037-38 B.S.), top priority was given to the development of the handicrafts industry. For this period, the handicraft budget of Rs. 4.4 million was allocated separately. It was envisaged that about 300 new designs for handicrafts would be developed, and from them, models of sixty designs would be prepared. Research on Hteen different types of handicraft was to be undertaken, and Hteen handicraft exhibitions were to be organized. For the sixth Five-year-Plan period, the Cottage Industry Department received a total budget of Rs. 500 million.l

The handicrafts industry in Nepal is totally dependent on tourism. Except for clothes, the Nepalese do not buy any of the items. The habit of using handicraft objects should be encouraged, otherwise their survival will be uncertain. Artisans today are facing crises and problems in spite of the patronage they have received. The old method of transmitting skills is disappearing on account of the changing relationships in society, and crafts do not n o w pass from father to son, or master to disciple. This invariably leads to a lowering of standards. The artisan has probably never been so exposed to external auences and alien designs as he is today. T o find a new equilibrium is indeed challenging for him, the more so when he realizes that there are few who can appreciate sensitivity of touch and delicacy of treatment. The craftsman has been left anchorless, creating and duplicating objects with the sole aim of pleasing the tourist. H e is paid not according to quality, but to quantity. His artistry is neither adequately remunerated, nor is it appreciated. The authorities should take immediate steps to save the Nepalese handicraft industry from deterioration.

1. Shree Panchko Sarkar [His Majesty’s Government], Rashtriya Yogana Aayoga I [National Planning Commission], Chaithou Yogana (2037-42) [Sixth Plan (2037-42)]?

Part I (Draft), pp. 1-12.

63

Appendix Organizational charts

I Appendix

, 1.

Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Education and Culture

67

Appendix

2. Ministry of Education and Culture

I-

-

Appendix

3. Department of Culture, Ministry of Education and Culture

-1

Titles in this series:

Cultural policy: a preliminary study Cultural policy in the United States, by Charles C. Mark Cultural rights as human rights

Some aspects of Bench cultural policy, by the Studies and Research Department of the

Cultural policy in Tunisia, by Rañk Saïd Cultural policy in Great Britain, by Michael Green and Michael Wilding, in

consultation with Richard Hoggart Cultural policy in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, by A. A. Zvorykin with the

assistance of N. f. Golubtaova and E. I. Rabinovitch Cultural policy in Czechoslovakia, by Miroslav Marek with the assistance of Milan

Hromádka and Josef Chroust Cultural policy in Italy, a survey prepared under the auspices of the Italian National

Commission for Unesco &ultuml policy in Yugoslavia, by Stevan MajstoroviS Cultural policy in Bulgaria, by Kostadine Popov Some aspects of cultural policies in India, by Kapila Malik Vatsyayan Cultural policy in Cuba, by Jaime Saruski and Gerardo Mosquera Cultural policy in Egypt, by Magdi Wahba Cultutal policy in Finland, a study prepared under the auspices of the Finnish National

Cultural policy in Sii Lanka, by H. H. Bandara Cultural policy in Nigeria, by T. A. Fasuyi

. Cultural policy in Iran, by Djamchid Behiram Cultural policy in Poland, by Stanislaw Witold Balicki, Jerzy Kossak and Miroslaw

The role of culture in leisure time in New Zealand, by Bernard W. Smyth Cultural policy in Israel, by Joseph Michman Cultural policy in Senegal, by Mamadou Seyni Mkengue Cultural policy in the Federal Republic of Germany, a study prepared under the auspices

of the German Commission for Unesco Cultural policy in Indonesia, a study prepared by the staff of the Directorate-General

of Culture, Ministry of Education and Culture of the Republic of Indonesia Cultural policy in the Philippines, a study prepared under the auspices of the Unesco

National Commission of the Philippines Cultural policy in Liberia, by Kenneth Y. Best Cultural policy in Hungary, a survey prepared under the auspices of the Hungarian

The cultural policy of the United Republic of Tanzania, by L. A. M'bughuni Cultural policy in Kenya, by Kivuto Ndeti Cultural policy in Romania, by Ion Dodu Balan with the co-operation of the Directorates

Cultural policy in the German Democratic Republic, by Hans Koch Cultural policy in Afghanistan, by Shafie Rahe1 Cultural policy in the United Republic of Cameroon, by J. C. Bahoken and Englebert

Some aspects of culturalpolicy in Togo, by K. M. Aithnard Cultural policy in the Republic of Zaire, a study prepared under the direction of

Cultural policy in Ghana, a study prepared by the Cultural Divieion of the Ministry of

Cultural policy in the Republic of Korea, by Kim Yersu

, Cultural policy in Japan, by Nobuya Shikaumi

French Ministry of Culture

Commission for Unesco

Zulawski

National Commission for Unesco

of the Council of Socialist Culture and Education

Atangana

D r Bokonga Ekanga Botombele

Education and Culture, Accra

Aspects of Canadian cultural policy, by D. Paul Schafer Cultural policy in Costa Rica, by Samuel Rovinski Cultural policy in Jamaica, a study prepared by the Institute of Jamaica Cultural policy in Guyana, by A. J. Seymour Cultural policy in Peru, by the National Institute of Culture Cultural policy in Colombia, by Jorge Eliécer Ruiz, with the assistance of Valentina

Aspects of Algerian cultural policy, by Sid-Ahmed Baghli Cultural policy in the Republic of Panama, by the National Institute of Culture Cultural policy in Bolivia, by Mariano Baptista Gumucio Cultural policy in Argentina, by Edwin R. Harvey Cultural policy in the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic, by the Institute of Art Criti-

cism, Ethnography and Folklore of the Academy of Sciences of the Byelorussian SSR Cultural policy in the Revolutionary People’s Republic of Guinea, by the Ministry of Edu-

cation and Culture under the auspices of the Guinean National Commission for Unesco Cultural policy in Australia, by Jean Battersby Cultural policy in Guatemala, by Edna Nuñez de Rodas Cultural policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, by Muhammad Abdullah al-Mani and

Cultural policy in Jordan, by Hani Al-Amad Cultural policy in the Sudan, by Mohamed Abdel Hai Cultural policy in the Mongolian People’s Republic, a study prepared under the auspices

of the Mongolian National Commission for Unesco Cultural policy in the United Kingdom, by Nigel Abercrombie Cultural policy in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, by G. Shevchuk Cultural policy in the Yemen Arab Republic, by Abdul-Rahman Al-Haddad Some aspects of cultural policy in Nepal, by Shaphalya Amatya

Marulanda

Abd ur-Rahman Sbit as-Sbit

The serial numbering of titles in this series, the presentation of which has been modified, was discontinued with the volume Cultural policy in Italy

[II] CLT.82/XIX.75/A

i some cultural policy in nepal - unesco

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