INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGYMemory

MEMORY & MEMORY PROCESSING

Memory: the mental capacity to encode, store, and retrieve information

Similar to how a computer handles information*

Encoding: initial processing of information that leads to a memory; turns sensory input and perceptions into mental representations

Storage: retention over time of encoding information

Retrieval: the recovery of a mental representation at a later time

MEMORY & MEMORY PROCESSING

Information Processing Theory: based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. This perspective equates the mind to a computer, which is responsible for analyzing information from the environment

Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model: assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks

MEMORY & MEMORY PROCESSING

MEMORY STRATEGIESAttention

Use a variety of sensory modalities: Auditory Visual Tactile/Vestibular Olfactory/Gustatory

Use Intersensory Redundancy Simultaneously using multiple sensory modalities facilitates learning

and memory Auditory + Visual + Tactile

Using a specific rhythm or tempo aids in the memory process

SENSORY MEMORY

Sensory Memory: The initial, momentary storage of information, only lasting an instant

Echoic memory: stores incoming auditory information from the ears for 2-3 seconds What did you just say? Oh wait, got it…

Iconic Memory: memory specifically for the visual system; allows a very large amount of visual information to be stored for a brief period of time

SHORT TERM MEMORY Short Term Memory (STM): A limited capacity to hold a

small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short amount of time

Duration for STM (without rehearsal) is only a few seconds

Measures of short-term memory are often included in intelligence tests

Magic number 7 plus or minus 2 Can be improved by “chunking” information 7867121903 (786) 712 -1903

WORKING MEMORY Working Memory: memory resource that is used to

complete tasks and mentally work-through problems

Phonological loop: holds and manipulates speech-based information

Visuospatial sketchpad: holds and manipulates visual information – a mental picture

Central executive: controls attention and integrates information from multiple senses into one cohesive experience

Episodic buffer: allows for the integration of current sensations with past experiences in order to make sense of the world

LONG TERM MEMORY

Long Term Memory (LTM): an infinitely large and indefinitely long storehouse of all memories including events, facts, emotions, skills, words, rules, etc

Long term memory constitutes each person’s total knowledge of the world and themselves

Long term memory organizes information into categories (concepts; schemas) and in hierarchical levels

LONG TERM MEMORY

Explicit Memory: the conscious, intentional remembering of previous experiences and information

Implicit Memory: memory in which previous experiences help in the performance of a task without conscious awareness of the previous experience

EXPLICIT MEMORY

Explicit Memory:

Autobiographical Episodic Memory: memory of personal events from your point of view Emerges around age 3, previously referred to as “infantile

amnesia”

Semantic Memory: all other explicit memory; includes facts, individual recognition, vocabulary, rules of grammar and math, and rules of logic.

LONG TERM MEMORY

Implicit Memory

Procedural Memory: the memories of how to do things

Includes both conscious and nonconscious processing

When first acquiring a new skill, you are much more consciously aware and monitoring the different steps – with practice, this process becomes automatic

Example: riding a bike

MEMORY ODDITIES Eidetic Memory: also known as photographic memory or

total recall; the ability to remember images, sounds, or objects with perfect precision May or may not really exist

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon: the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach Occurs approx. 1/week and increases with age

Flashbulb Memory: an experience that was encoded during an emotionally-charged event and can be remembered extremely vividly Can be personal or public/historical

ENCODING ODDITIES Serial Position Effect: items in the beginning and

end of a list of unrelated items are easier to remember; items in the middle are most often lost Primacy Recency

Temporal Distinctiveness: the extent to which a particular item stands out from or is distinct from other items

Priming: an implicit memory phenomenon in which exposure to one stimulus influences the response to a subsequent stimulus without conscious awareness

MEMORY RETRIEVAL

Retrieval Cues: internal or external stimulus available to help with the retrieval of a memory

Recall: a method of retrieval in which an individual must reproduce the information previously presented Essay questions

Recognition: a method of retrieval in which an individual is required to identify stimuli as having been experienced before Multiple choice questions

CONTEXT DEPENDENT LEARNING & MEMORY

Transfer-appropriate processing: In order to retrieve or recall the information effectively, it may help to be in the same physical environment and physiological context as when the information was originally encoded

Environment: being in the same place as when the information was encoded

Physiology: having the same physiology as when the information was encoded

ENCODING

Levels-of-processing theory: the deeper the level at which information was processed, the more likely it is to be retained in memory Involves more analysis, interpretation,

comparison, and elaboration

We are more likely to remember something when, at the time of encoding, we relate the new information to existing personal memories

ENCODING AND MEMORY STRATEGIES

Elaborative Rehearsal: while rehearsing the information, you enrich the original information with a mental image or story Spider and structures of the ear

Mnemonics: devices the encode long series of facts by associating them with familiar and previously encoding information Acronyms and Poems (Please Excuse My Dear Aunt

Sally) Method of Loci

MEMORY INTERFERENCE

Proactive Interference: past memories making it more difficult to encode and retrieve new information

Retroactive Interference: acquisition of new information occurs when the acquisition of new information makes it harder for you to remember older information

METAMEMORY

Metamemory: thinking about remembering – being aware of what you remember and what you have forgotten

Feelings-of-Knowing: subjective sensations that you do have information stored in memory and that it is correct

Judgments-of-Learning: estimates of how well you have learned something

MEMORY & EYEWITNESS TESTIMONY

Eyewitness testimony is a lot more inaccurate than you would think!

Eyewitness testimony can be influenced by questioning techniques Leading questions Misinformation

People, especially children, can be extremely suggestible Memory is fluid

MEMORY

Reality Monitoring: the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (reality) or internal sources (imagination)

Source Monitoring: making attributions about the origins of memories

MEMORY & THE BRAIN Engram: a hypothetical physical area in the brain that

corresponds to a particular memory There actually is no “one” place for each memory, but

rather a memory is distributed over many connections in the cerebral cortex

Consolidation: a hypothetical process involving the conversion of information to long-term memory Occurs during REM sleep

Hippocampus: plays a central role in the encoding and consolidation of memories

Amygdala: involved in memories involving emotion

MEMORY DISORDERS Dementia: the development of multiple cognitive deficits

including memory impairment that are due to the direct physiological effect of a general medical condition

Effects the ability to learn new material and the ability to remember previously learned material

Also includes: decline in the ability to recognize objects (agnosia) deterioration of language function (aphasia) inability to perform motor tasks (apraxia)

Associated with many medical conditions including: Alzheimer’s Disease Parkinson’s Disease HIV Head trauma

MEMORY DISORDERS Alzheimer’s Disease: A progressive brain disorder that leads

to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities

Begins with minor forgetfulness

As the disease progresses, individuals suffer confusion, irritability, aggression, mood swings, trouble with language, and long-term memory loss

Currently no cure, treatments only address some symptoms and improve quality of life

Bodily functions are also lost, leading ultimately to death 4th leading cause of death among adults in the U.S.

MEMORY DISORDERS

Alzheimer’s Disease

MEMORY DISORDERS

Amnesia: a failure of memory caused by physical injury, disease, drug use, or psychological trauma

Anterograde Amnesia: inability to form new explicit memories for events that occur after the time of damage (HM; Memento)

Retrograde Amnesia: an inability to retrieve memories from the time before damage