i. geography. physical, human, and urban

8/10/2019 I. Geography. Physical, Human, And Urban

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IES COMPLUTENSE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY Jorge-Elías de la Peña y Montes de Oca

1st CSE YEAR UNIT 1. PREHISTORY

1 1 1 Geography 3rd CSEBlock I: Physical, human,

and urban geography

Jorge Elías de la Peña y Montes de Oca

Teacher at the Bilingual Section

Department of Geography and History

IES Complutense. Alcalá de Henares





1 1 1

Geography 3rd CSE

UNIT 0:

Descriptive Geography




3rd CSE YEAR UNIT 0. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

1

UNIT 0: DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

1. THE WORLD





2

2.

AFRICA

SEAS OF AFRICA/MARES DE ÁFRICA

Atlantic OceanOcéano Atlántico

Indian OceanOcéano Índico

Mar MediterráneoMar Mediterráneo

Red SeaMar Rojo

STRAITS AND CHANNELS OF AFRICA/ESTRECHOS Y CANALES DE ÁFRICA

Strait of GibraltarEstrecho de Gibraltar





3

ISLANDS OF AFRICA/ISLAS DE ÁFRICA

Canary IslandsIslas Canarias

Madagascar

MadeiraComorosComoras

Cape VerdeCabo Verde

SeychellesSão Tomé e PríncipeSanto Tomé y Príncipe

GULFS AND BAYS OF ÁFRICA/GOLFOS DE ÁFRICA

Gulf of GuineaGolfo de Guinea

Gulf of GabesGolfo de Gabés

Gulf of Sidra

Golfo de Sidra

Gulf of Aden

Golfo de Adén

CAPES OF AFRICA/CABOS DE ÁFRICA

Verde AgulhasLópez

GuardafuiGood HopeBuena Esperanza

PENINSULAS OF AFRICA/PENÍNSULAS DE ÁFRICA

Somalia

MOUNTAIN RANGES OF AFRICA/CORDILLERAS DE ÁFRICA

Mountain RangeSistema montañoso

PeaksPicos

Atlas Toubkal (4,167 m.)DrakensbergTibesti MountainsMacizo del Tibesti

Ahaggar MountainsMacizo del AhaggarEthiopian HighlandsMacizo EtíopeCameroon MountainsMontes Camerún

Cameroon (4,070 m.)CamerúnKilimanjaro (5,895 m.)Kenya (5,199 m.)Ruwenzori (5,109 m.)

PLAINS AND PLATEAUS OF AFRICA/LLANURAS Y MESETAS DE ÁFRICA

Congo Basin Gran Cubeta del Congo

South African PlainMeseta Sudafricana





4

RIVERS OF AFRICA/RÍOS DE ÁFRICA

Drainage BasinVertiente

RiverRío

Mediterranean Sea

Mar Mediterráneo

Nile (6,650 km.)

Nilo


Senegal (1,790 km.)Niger (4,180 km.)NígerCongo (4,700 km.) Orange (2,200 km.)


Limpopo (1,750 km.)Zambezi (3,540 km.)Zambeze

LAKES OF AFRICA/LAGOS DE ÁFRICA

Victoria TanganyikaTanganica

Turkana Malawi Albert Alberto

Chad

DESERTS OF AFRICA/DESIERTOS DE ÁFRICA

SaharaSáhara

Kalahari





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3.

ASIA

SEAS OF ASIA/MARES DE ASIA

Arctic OceanOcéano Glacial Ártico

South China SeaMar de la China Meridional

Bering SeaMar de Bering

Philippine SeaMar de Filipinas

Pacific OceanOcéano Pacífico


Sea of OkhotskMar de Ojotsk

Arabian SeaMar Arábigo

Yellow SeaMar Amarillo

Red SeaMar Rojo

East China SeaMar de la China Oriental

Mediterranean SeaMar Mediterráneo

Sea of JapanMar del Japón

Black SeaMar Negro





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MOUNTAIN RANGES OF ASIA/CORDILLERAS DE ASIA


PeaksPicos

Himalayas

Himalaya

Everest (8,848 m.)

K2 (8,611 m.)Hindu Kush Tirich Mir (7,690 m.)Pamir MountainsMeseta del Pamir

Ismoil Somoni/Comunism (7,495 m.)…/Comunismo

Altay MountainsMontes AltaiZagros MountainsMontes ZagrosCaucasusCáucaso

Yablonovy MountainsMontes Yablonovi

Stanovoiy RangeMontes Stanovoi Verkhoyansk RangeVerjoyanskUral MountainsUralesJapanese Alps

Alpes JaponesesFuji (3,776 m.)Fujiyama

PLAINS AND PLATEAUS OF ASIA/LLANURAS Y MESETAS DE ASIA

Tibetan PlateauMeseta del Tíbet

Iranian PlateauMeseta Iraní

Deccan PlateauMeseta del Decán

China PlainLlanura de China

Indo-Gangetic PlainLlanura Indo-Gangética

West Siberian PlainLlanura de Siberia occidental

RIVERS OF ASIA/RÍOS DE ASIA

Drainage Basin

Vertiente

River

Río


Yenisey (4,090 km.)Yeniséi Ob (2,962 km.)ObiLena (4,472 km.)Kolyma (2,129 km.)Kolima


Amur (2,824 km.)

Huang He/Yellow (5,464 km.)Huang Ho/Amarillo

Yangtze Kiang/Blue (6,300 km.)





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Yangtsé Kiang/AzulSikiang/Black (1,930 km.)Sikiang/NegroMekong (4,909 km.)


Brahmaputra (2,900 km.)

Ganges (2,510 km.)Indus (3,100 km.)Indo Tigris (1,850 km.)Euphrates (2,850 km.)Éufrates

Aral SeaMar de Aral

Amu Darya (2,400 km.) Amu DariaSyr Darya (2,212 km.)Sir Daria

LAKES OF ASIA/LAGOS DE ASIA

Caspian SeaMar Caspio

Lake BaikalLago Baikal

Aral SeaMar de Aral

Lake BalkhashLago Baljash

DESERTS OF ASIA/DESIERTOS DE ASIA

Gobi DesertDesierto del Gobi

Arabian DesertDesierto de Arabia





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4.

AMERICA





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SEAS OF AMERICA/MARES DE AMÉRICA


Antarctic OceanOcéano Glacial Antártico

Bering SeaMar de Bering


Pacific Ocean

Océano Pacífico

Caribbean Sea

Mar Caribe





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MOUNTAIN RANGES OF AMERICA/CORDILLERAS DE AMÉRICA


PeaksPicos

Andes Aconcagua (6,962 m.)Ojos del Salado (6,891 m.)Huascarán (6,768 m.)Chimborazo (6,267 m.)

Guiana HighlandsMacizo de las GuayanasSierra Madre del Sur

Sierra Madre OrientalOrizaba (5,747 m.)Popocatepetl (5,500 m.)

Sierra Madre OccidentalRocky MountainsMontañas Rocosas

McKinley (6,194 m.)

Appalachian MountainsMontes ApalachesSierra Nevada Whitney (4,418 m.)

PLAINS AND PLATEAUS OF AMERICA/LLANURAS Y MESETAS DE AMÉRICA

Altiplano (Bolivian Plateau) Altiplano de Bolivia Pampa

Mato Grosso PlateauMeseta del Mato Grosso

Great North American Plains

Grandes Llanuras Norteamericanas Amazon PlainsLlanuras del Amazonas

RIVERS OF AMERICA/RÍOS DE AMÉRICA


RiverRío


Amazon (6,800 km.) Amazonas

Orinoco (2,140 km.)

River Plate: Paraguay (2,621 km.), Paraná (4,880km.), Uruguay (1,600 km.)Río de la Plata:…

Mississippi (3,764 km.)-Missouri (3,767 km.)Misisispi-Misuri

Saint Lawrence (1,197 km.)San Lorenzo


Colorado (2,334 km.)

Yukon (1,984 km.)Yukón

Arctic OceanOcéano Glacial Ártico Mackenzie (1,738 km.)





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LAKES OF AMERICA /LAGOS DE AMÉRICA

Great Bear LakeGran Lago del Oso

Great Lakes: Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie,OntarioGrandes Lagos: …, Hurón,…

Great Slave LakeGran Lago del Esclavo Lake Titicaca

Lago TiticacaLake WinnipegLago Winnipeg

DESERTS OF AMERICA/DESIERTOS DE AMÉRICA

Atacama DesertDesierto de Atacama Mojave Desert

Desierto de MojaveSonora DesertDesierto de Sonora





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5.

OCEANIA





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SEAS OF OCEANIA/MARES DE OCEANÍA


Timor SeaMar de Timor

Indian Ocean

Océano Índico Coral SeaMar del CoralTasman Sea

Mar de Tasmania

STRAITS AND CHANNELS OF OCEANIA/ESTRECHOS Y CANALES DE OCEANÍA

Torres StraitEstrecho de Torres

Cook StraitEstrecho de Cook

ISLANDS AND ARCHIPELAGOS OF OCEANIA/ISLAS Y ARCHIPIÉLAGOS DE OCEANÍA

Australia

Melanesia: Solomon Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, New Caledonia, Fiji, VanuatuMelanesia: Islas Salomón, Archipiélago deBismarck, Nueva Caledonia, Fiyi,…

Tasmania

Micronesia: Marshall Islands, Caroline Islands,Mariana Islands, Guam, Palau, KiribatiMicronesia: Islas Marshall, Islas Carolinas, IslasM arianas,…

New Zealand: North Island, South IslandNueva Zelanda: Isla del Norte, Isla del Sur

Polinesia: Hawaiian Islands, Tuvalu, Samoa,Tonga, Cook Islands, French Polinesia, EasterIsland

Polinesia: Hawai,…, Islas Cook, PolinesiaFrancesa, Isla de Pascua

New GuineaNueva Guinea

GULFS AND BAYS OF OCEANIA/GOLFOS DE OCEANÍA

IslandIsla

Gulf or BayGolfo

Australia

Great Australian BightGran Bahía Australiana

Gulf of Carpentaria

Golfo de Carpentaria CAPES OF OCEANIA /CABOS DE OCEANÍA

IslandIsla

CapeCabo

Australia York

PENINSULAS OF OCEANIA/PENÍNSULAS DE OCEANÍA

IslandIsla

PeninsulaPenínsula





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Australia Cape York Peninsula (Australia)Península del Cabo York (Australia)

MOUNTAIN RANGES OF OCEANIA/CORDILLERAS DE OCEANÍA

IslandIsla


PeaksPicos

AustraliaGreat Dividing RangeGran Cordillera Divisoria Kosciusko (2,228 m.)

New Zealand Southern Alps Alpes Neozelandeses Cook (3,764 m.)

RIVERS OF OCEANIA/RÍOS DE OCEANÍA

IslandIsla


RiverRío

AustraliaIndian OceanOcéano Pacífico

Murray (2,375 km.)-Darling (1,472km.)

DESERTS OF OCEANIA/DESIERTOS DE OCEANÍA

IslandIsla

DesertDesierto

Australia

Great Sandy DesertGran Desierto de Arena

Great Victoria DesertGran Desierto VictoriaSimpson DesertDesierto SimpsonGibson DesertDesierto Gibson

https://docs.google.com/open?id=0Bwe1dU-54Dkea1lOXzg5TWFRWDg








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6.

EUROPE

SEAS OF EUROPE/MARES DE EUROPA


Black SeaMar Negro

Arctic OceanOceano Glacial Ártico

Sea of MarmaraMar de Mármara


Cantabrian SeaMar Cantábrico

Aegean SeaMar Egeo

North SeaMar del Norte

Adriatic SeaMar Adriático

Norwegian SeaMar de Noruega

Tyrrhenian SeaMar Tirreno Baltic SeaMar Báltico Ligurian SeaMar de Liguria

White SeaMar Blanco

Ionian SeaMar Jónico

Barents SeaMar de Barents





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STRAITS AND CHANNELS OF EUROPE/ESTRECHOS Y CANALES DE EUROPA


Strait of DoverPaso de Calais

Strait of MessinaEstrecho de Mesina

SkagerrakEstrecho de Skagerrak

Strait of BonifacioEstrecho de Bonifacio

KattegatEstrecho de Kattegat

Strait of BosphorusEstrecho del Bósforo

Denmark StraitEstrecho de Dinamarca

Strait of DardanellesEstrecho de los Dardanelos

English ChannelCanal de la Mancha

ISLANDS OF EUROPE/ISLAS DE EUROPA

IcelandIslandia SardiniaCerdeña

British Isles: Great Britain, Ireland, Isle ofMan, Hebrides, Orkney IslandsIslas Británicas: Gran Bretaña, Irlanda, Isla deMan, Islas Hébridas, Islas Órcadas

SicilySicilia

Channel IslandsIslas Anglo-Normandas

Malta

Shetland IslandsIslas Shetland

Ionian Islands: CorfuIslas Jónicas: Corfú

Faroe IslandsIslas Feroe

CreteCreta

Danish Islands: ZealandIslas Danesas: Selandia

Cyclades: Andros, Naxos, SantoriniCícladas : Andros, Naxos, Santorini

Balearic Islands: Majorca, Minorca, Ibiza,FormenteraIslas Baleares: Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza,Formentera

Northern SporadesEspóradas Septentrionales

CorsicaCórcega

Dodecanese: RhodesDodecadeno: Rodas

GULFS AND BAYS OF EUROPE/GOLFOS DE EUROPA

Bay of BiscayGolfo de Vizcaya Gulf of VeniceGolfo de VeneciaBay of CádizGolfo de Cádiz

Bay of PomeraniaGolfo de Pomerania

Gulf of ValenciaGolfo de Valencia

Gulf of FinlandGolfo de Finlandia

Gulf of LionGolfo del León Gulf of Bothnia

Golfo de BotniaGulf of GenoaGolfo de Génova





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CAPES OF EUROPE/CABOS DE EUROPA

North CapeCabo Norte

São VicenteSan Vicente

Land’s End Punta de Tarifa

Point du RazPunta de Raz Nao

Finisterre Matapan/TainaronMatapán/TénaroRoca

PENINSULAS OF EUROPE/PENÍNSULAS DE EUROPA

ScandinaviaEscandinavia

Italian peninsulaPeninsula italica

KolaBalkan peninsulaPenínsula Balcánica

JutlandJutlandia

Peloponnese/PeloponnesusPeloponeso

Iberian peninsulaPenínsula Ibérica

Crimean peninsulaPenínsula de Crimea

MOUNTAIN RANGES OF EUROPE/CORDILLERAS DE EUROPA


PeaksPicos

CaucasusCáucaso

Elbrus (5,642 m.)

Alps Alpes

Mont Blanc (4,810 m.)Monte Rosa (4,634 m.)

PyreneesPirineos

Aneto (3,404 m.)Monte Perdido (3,355 m.)

Baetic RangesSistemas Béticos

Mulhacén (3,478 m.) Veleta (3,398 m.)

Ural MountainsUrales

Narodnaya (1,895 m.)

Balkan MountainsBalcanes

Olympus (Olimpo, 2,917 m)

Dinaric Alps Alpes Dináricos

Carpathian MountainsCárpatos

Apennines Apeninos Corno Grande (2,912 m.)

Central MassifMacizo Central Puy de Sancy (1,886 m.)

Scandinavian Mountains Alpes EscandinavosScottish HighlandsHighlands escoceses

Ben Nevis (1,344 m.)





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PLAINS AND PLATEAUS OF EUROPE/LLANURAS Y MESETAS DE EUROPA

Iberian PlateauMeseta central ibérica

Pannonian PlainLlanura de Panonia

European Plain: North European Plain,

East European PlainGran Llanura Europea: Llanuraseptentrional europea, Llanura orientaleuropea

RIVERS OF EUROPE/RÍOS DE EUROPA


RiverRío


Volga (3,690 km)

Ural (2,428 km.)

Black SeaMar Negro

Danube (2,860 km.)DanubioDnieper (2,290 km.)Dniéper Dniester (1,352 km.)DniésterDon (1,950 km.)


Ebro (960 km)Rhone (815 km.)RódanoPo (682 km.)


Elbe (1,091 km.)ElbaRhine (1,236 km.)RinSeine (776 km.)SenaLoire (1,012 km.)LoiraGaronne (575 km.)GaronaDuero (897 km)Tagus (1,038 km.)TajoGuadiana (818 km.)Guadalquivir (657 km.)Thames (346 km.)Támesis

Baltic SeaMar Báltico

Oder (854 km.) Vistula (1,047 km.)Vístula


Northern Dvina (744 km.)Dvina SeptentrionalPechora (1,809 km.)





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LAKES OF EUROPE/LAGOS DE EUROPA


Lake OnegaLago Onega

Lake LadogaLago Ladoga

Lake Geneva/LémanLago de Ginebra/Lemán





1 1 1 Geography 3rd CSE

UNIT 1:Planet Earth




3rd CSE YEAR UNIT 1. PLANET EARTH

1

UNIT 1: PLANET EARTH

1. THE EARTH

1.1. The Earth in the Universe

The Earth is the only known inhabited planet. It is located in the Solar System,which belongs to the Milky Way galaxy.

o In the Universe there are many galaxies (circa 100 billions), nebulae andblack holes.

It is thought that the Universe was created after the Big Bang, circa13,700,000,000 years ago.

Our closest galaxy is called Andromeda, which is around 2.2 millionlight years.

o Within the Milky Way there are more than 250 Solar Systems.o Our Solar System was created when the big cloud of gas and dust reached

11,000,000ºC, which permitted the formation of a star, the Sun.o The Earth was formed around 4.5 billion years ago out of a group of rocks

that revolved around the sun after the Big Bang.In our Solar System there are eight planets and five dwarf planets.

o They have different sizes and satellites revolving around.o Moreover there are comets, asteroids, satellites, and meteorites.

o All the planets of the Solar System revolve around an only star, the Sun,whose diameter is around 1,391,000 kilometres.

o The orbits on which they revolve are elliptical.o The inner planets are mostly rocky and small, whereas the outer planets

are gaseous, big and they have many satellites revolving around them.

Planet

Distance to the

sun

(million km)

Diameter

(thousand km)Satellites

Orbit’s period

(years)

Rotation’s period

(days)

Inner

planets

Mercury 58 4.8 - 0.24 58.6

Venus 108 12.3 - 0.72 -243

Earth 149 12.8 1 1 1

Mars 228 6.9 2 1.88 1.03

Asteroids’ belt

Outer

planets

Jupiter 778 142 65 11.86 0.414

Saturn 1,428 120 62 29.46 0.426

Uranus 2,873 50.7 27 84.01 0.718

Neptune 4,498 48.6 13 164.79 0.675





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The Earth has a spherical shape, but its poles are slightly flattened and the equator isa little widened. That is the reason why it is said that its shape is a geoid.

o The Earth has an axial tilt of 23º 27’ from the vertex, whose result is theseasonal change in climate.

o Its surface is around 510 million square kilometres (the sun is circa1,300,000 bigger than the Earth).

The 70% consists of water (oceans, seas, rivers, and lakes. The 30% consists of land (continents and islands).

1.2. The Revolution of the Earth

The Earth has two kinds of movements:o Earth’s orbit around the sun. Our planet moves at 30 km/sec following its

elliptical orbit around the sun, which takes 365¼ days (that explains the leap

years every four years, which have 366 days). It fixes the duration of the day and the night according to the season. It provokes the seasonal change due to the axial tilt.

Spring. In the southern hemisphere it is autumn.Summer. In the southern hemisphere it is winter.

Autumn. In the southern hemisphere it is spring.Winter. In the southern hemisphere it is summer.

Dwarf

planet

Distance to the sun

(million km)

Diameter

(km)Satellites

Orbit’s

period

(years)

Rotation’s

period

(days)

Ceres 415.5 952.4 - 4.59 0.38Pluto 5850 2,302 4 247.92 -6.39

Haumea 6501 ? 2 285.4 0.16

Makemake 6868 ? - 309.9 ?

Eris 10,200 2,398 1 557 ?





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Climates are caused by this movement. There are three different kindof climate zones in the world:

One warm zone (Torrid Zone). It is located around theequator up to the tropics.Two temperate zones. They are located between the tropics

and the polar circles.Two cold zones (Frigid Zones). They are above the polarcircles.

o Rotation. The Earth spins on its own axis, which takes 24 hours: It moves from west to east. Day and night are caused by the rotation since the sun just lights half

of the Earth.The revolution of the Earth causes:

o

Equinoxes. It is the moment in which the sun is vertical to the equator. Day and night have the same duration across the world. There are two during the year:

21 March. It is the vernal equinox (northern hemisphere).21 September. It is the autumnal equinox (northernhemisphere).

o

Solstices. It is the moment in which the sun falls vertically on one of the twotropics (located at 23º 27’ N and 23º 27’S):

When there is a solstice the day or the night have their maximalduration (it depends on which solstice it is).

21 June. The sun strikes over the Tropic of Cancer (23º27’N) and it makes that the maximal day time is in the

northern hemisphere. It is the summer solstice (northern

hemisphere).21 December. The sun falls on the Tropic of Capricorn (23º27’ S) and it makes that the maximal day time is in the

southern hemisphere. It is the winter solstice (northernhemisphere).

o Seasons. There are four different seasons in the temperate zones. Their beginning is marked by the equinoxes and solstices that take place due to theEarth’s orbit. They change according on the hemisphere:

o

Eclipses. They are caused by the movement of the Earth around the sun andof the moon around the Earth.





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2.

MAPS

2.1. Geographic network

The geographic network is a grid of imaginary lines that let us locate a place on a

map:o Meridians. They are the imaginary lines that link the poles (they go from

the north to the south or vice versa). They fix the longitude, which can beeither east or west. All the meridians measure the same and there are 360 (upto 180ºE and 180ºW).

In 1884 it was agreed to fix the location of the Prime Meridian (0º)in Greenwich, hence its name. It has its antipodes at 180º.

Meridians fix the time zones, which are 24 in total basing on thelocation of each region and the sun (each time zone stretches 15º).The time we use as a reference is called Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). As we move eastwards, clocks move forward the same

number of hours as time zones travelled. On the contrary, if we movewestwards, clocks go back the same number of hours as time zonestravelled.

o Parallels. They are imaginary lines that are parallel to the equator (parallel0º). There are 180 in total (90ºN and 90ºS). They fix the latitude (north orsouth) and divide the world into two parts, the northern and the southernhemispheres. There are several major parallels.

Equator. It is located at 0º and it separates the northern and the

southern hemispheres. Tropics. They are the imaginary lines that are the maximal point of

perpendicular fall of the sun onto the Earth. They are caused due tothe axial tilt.

Tropic of Cancer. It is located at 23º27’N. Tropic of Capricorn. It is located at 23º27’S.

Polar Circles. They are the imaginary lines above which there is atleast 24 hours of day-time or night-time in a row. They are alsocaused by the axial tilt.

Arctic Circle. It is located at 66º33’N

Antarctic Circle. It is located at 66º33’S.





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2.2.

Geographic coordinates

They help find an exact point on a map through imaginary lines. The units taken forthat measure are degrees (º), minutes (’), and seconds (’’). It is essential to understand two terms that are part of these coordinates:

o

Latitude. It is the distance between any part of the world and the equator. Itis measured in north or south and there can be up to 90ºN or 90ºS.

o Longitude. It is the distance between any part of the world and the PrimeMeridian (Greenwich). It is measured in east or west and there can be up to180ºE or 180ºE.

3.

THE EARTH’S RELIEF 3.1. The structure of the Earth

The Earth has an internal composition based on concentric layers:o Crust. It is the most external and thinnest layer of the Earth.

Continental crust. It is composed by the emerged lands. It can reachup to 20 or 70 km. Its main composition is based on rocks and sands.

Oceanic crust. It is composed by the land that in submerged underthe sea. It only reaches 10 km under the oceans.

o Mantle. It is mostly composed of magma (molten rock) and constitutes the

70% of the Earth’s thickness. It is not a rigid layer. The crust lies above thislayer. Upper mantle. It is just below the crust and has a depth of 70 to 700

km. Lower mantle. This layer has a depth of 700 to 3,000 km.

o Core. It is the central part of the Earth and is composed of heavy metals,iron, and nickel. Temperatures are really high in this layer (up to 4,300ºC).





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The external composition lies on the crust and it consists on different tectonicplates (like a jigsaw puzzle) that ride on the astenosphere, a viscous and weakregion of the upper mantle of the Earth.

o These plates crash on each other, either under the ocean or in the continents.o The border areas where they crashed may suffer earthquakes and volcanic

eruptions. Earthquakes. They are sudden movements of the tectonic plates that

fracture. They can also occur owing to volcanic eruptions.They have destructive seismic waves that expand themovement and their origin are really located at two points:

o Hypocentre (focus). It is the position where the strainenergy stored in the rock is first released, marking the

point where the fault begins to rupture. This occurs atthe focal depth below the epicentre.

o Epicentre. It is the point on the Earth's surface that isdirectly above the hypocentre, the point where anearthquake or underground explosion originates.





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The intensity of the earthquakes is known thanks to theseismographs, which base on the Richter magnitude scale.Submarine quakes are called seaquakes and usually provoketidal waves (tsunami), which travel faster than 800 km/h.These waves can be higher than 15 metres.

Volcanoes. They are openings that expel magma through the vent and crater. They are usually located at the plate boundaries. Theyusually expel lava, ashes, and gases. There are three categories ofvolcanoes:

Active volcanoes. They have frequent eruptions.Dormant volcanoes. They are volcanoes which arerecharging their lava supply. Meanwhile they repose.

Extinct volcanoes. They are unlikely to erupt again becausethey have no lava supply.

3.2.

Types of relief

There can be two kinds of relief: continental relief (on emerged lands) and oceanic

or submarine relief (under the seas and oceans).The continental relief has several formations:





8

o

Mountains. They are elevations of the land with different origin. They were created during the orogenies some million years ago. The highest mountains emerged in more recent periods. Their

profiles are steeper. They usually form mountain ranges:The highest mountain range are the Himalayas (Everest is the

highest mountain in the world, 8,848 m).The longest mountain range is the Andes (together withSierra Madre and the Rocky Mountains).

The oldest mountains are lower and rounder. They are calledmassifs. They used to be high but they were eroded.

o Plateaux. They are large flat high areas higher than 400 metres. The highestones in the world are the Tibetan Plateau and the Altiplano (Bolivia), theyexceed 3,000 metres high. Most of Spain is composed by the Iberian

Plateau.o Plains. They are flat and low-lying lands that do not exceed 200 metres high.

They are usually along the coast (coastal plains) or by the rivers (river

plains). Some of them may be sedimentary basins, where eroded material

deposits. Some others have been produced by the erosion of old mountain

ranges.o Valleys. They have been created by the rivers in their flow towards their

mouth. They are usually low lands between mountains.o Depressions. They are large areas located below sea level, such as the Dead

Sea (-395 m), Death Valley (-86 m) or the Caspian Sea (-28 m).The submarine relief has also several kinds of formations:

o Continental shelf . They are vast coastal plateaux that are not deeper than200 metres. Their width is around 100-500 km. Most of the fishing groundsare in this part of the ocean.

o Continental slope. It is a steep step that descends from the continental shelfto the ocean basin.

o Ocean basin or abyssal plain. It is a major deep plain that is around 3,000-5,000 metres deep. There can be two other formations within the ocean

basin: Oceanic trenches, which are narrow but deep depressions of sea

floor when it sinks below a continental plate (the deepest one is theMariana Trench, 11,022 m).

Submarine ridge. They are submerged mountain ranges that arearound 3,000 metres higher than the abyssal plain. They are usuallythe boundary of the tectonic plates. Therefore magma comes outfrom the summit of these ranges. There can be volcanic islands ontheir highest points (Iceland, Azores).





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o Fresh water has been polluted due to population growth.A river is a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, alake, a sea, or another river.

o They get its water through rain or thaw.o The river that flows into another river is called tributary.o

There can be permanent rivers or seasonal rivers (called wadis).o When a river is analysed it is important to know:

Source. Many rivers start from groundwater which rises and formsprings, whereas some others originate from glaciers or lakes. It willexplain the flow and some other characteristics of the river.

Basin. It is an extent or an area of land where surface waterconverges to a single point, where the waters join another river orsea. The larger it is the more flow the river will have.

Length. It measures the kilometres of the river. The longest ones inthe world are the rivers Amazon (6,800 km) and Nile (6,756 km).

Flow or volume. It measures how much water flows in the river. The

more it rains the larger the flow will be. The river with a largest flowis the Amazon (average flow: 225,000 m3/sec).

River regime. It depends on what kind of water is supplied to theriver:

Melting regime. The flow of the river just comes out ofsnow. The flow will be larger in spring due to the thaw.Rainfall regime. The flow of the river just comes out of rain,so the flow will be larger in the rainy season.

o They have different areas where the erosion and sedimentation varies: Upper course. Erosion is hard due to the fast water flow and to the

slope.

Middle course. The river flows slower and there is less erosion. It isthe part where the eroded materials are carried. It is common that theriver makes meanders owing to the slow speed of the flow.

Lower course. Most of the materials are deposited and the soil isfilled with this alluvial materials.

o Rivers can have three different kinds of mouths: Estuary. The mouth opens to the sea and is caused by strong tides.

Fresh water mixes with saltwater from the sea. Major examples arethe estuaries of River Plate, Tagus or Thames.

Delta. They are accumulation of materials deposited by the river in ashallow part of the coast where it meets the sea. It is usually





11

triangular-shaped. Major examples are the deltas of the Nile,Amazon, Ganges or Ebro.

Ria. Coastal inlet formed by the partial submergence of a non-glaciated river valley. Major examples can be found on the coast ofGalicia.

A lake is a body of relatively still fresh or salt water of considerable size, localisedin a basin, which is surrounded by land.

o Their surface may vary. The largest one is the Caspian Sea (371,000 sq km)and the deepest one is Lake Baikal (1,638 m).

o Water can be supplied by rivers, glaciers, and aquifers.Groundwater runs and is stored under the ground. It is 25% of the water on thecontinents.

o Most of groundwater comes from precipitation and infiltration.o It is stored in aquifers and underground rivers and lakes.o

It can find a way to the surface, a spring.





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Glaciers make up most of the Earth’s fresh water. They are masses of ice created by

the accumulation of snow.o They are found in the polar regions and top of mountains.o They cover 10% of the Earth’s surface. o Glaciers have several parts:

Cirque. It is a bow-shaped depression formed at the head of theglacial valley. Moraine. It is the accumulation of debris caused by the glacial

erosion. Glacial valleys or toes. They are the region through which the

glacier flows. They are usually long and narrow and are highlyerosive.

4.2. Oceans and seas

Sea water is 97% of the Earth’s waters. o It is salty due to the salt dissolution.o It is saltier in hotter and seas surrounded by land (i.e. Dead Sea) where there

is more evaporation.Seas move constantly:

o Waves. They are caused by the wind and are undulations of the surface ofthe water. Their shape changes when they come into contact with the sea

floor.





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o

Tides. They are the rise and fall of sea levels caused by the combined effectsof the gravitational forces exerted by the moon and the sun and the rotationof the Earth:

High tide. It is the maximal level of the tide. Low tide. It is the minimal level of the tide.

o Ocean currents. It is a continuous, directed movement of ocean water

generated by the forces acting upon the water. There can be two kinds: Surface currents. They are caused by the wind and they influence

over the coastal climates. There can be two kinds:Warm currents. Their source is in the equator and thetropics and move towards the poles. They usually temper thetemperatures in high latitudes.Cold currents. Their source is in polar areas and movetowards the equator. They make rains difficult and areassociated to the best fishing grounds.

Deep currents. They flow around 4 or 5 km deep. They are caused by the salinity or temperature difference.

5. CLIMATES ON THE EARTH

Climate and weather are different concepts that are usually confused:o Weather is the present condition of these elements and their variations over

shorter periods. It is studied by the meteorology.





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o Instead, climate is the term for the average atmospheric conditions overlonger periods of time (usually over 30 years). It is studied by theclimatology.

To identify a climate some elements are measured:o Temperature. It measures how hot the air is.

It can be expressed in several kinds of degrees:Celsius (ºC). They base on the different states of water (solid,liquid, gaseous). Below 0ºC water freezes, over 100ºC water

boils and turns into vapour.Fahrenheit (ºF). It is widely used in North America and hasno relationship to states of water.Kelvin (K). It bases on the absolute zero (-273ºC).

The thermometer measures the temperatures. They are usually represented on the maps through isotherms.

There are several factors that make temperatures vary:Latitude. The sun falls on the earth in a different wayaccording to the latitude, hence the difference of temperaturesof the regions.Altitude. It descends as we are higher in a proportion of0.6ºC every 100 metres (c. 1ºC every 160 m).Coastal locations. Sea currents influence over thetemperatures and make them milder. The farther a place isfrom the coast the more extreme its temperatures are.

o Precipitations. It is the water fallen from the sky in a solid (snow or hail) orliquid state (rain).

They are expressed either in millimetres (mm) or litres/square

metre (l/m2). They are measured with a pluviometer or rain gauge.





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They are represented on the maps through isohyets. There are also several factors that make precipitations vary:

Latitude. There are many more precipitations in the equatordue to the warm and humid air that eases evaporation.Altitude. It rains more in high areas.Coastal location. Warm sea currents also favour rains, butcold sea currents make them difficult. Anyway coastal

regions are usually rainier than inland regions.o

Atmospheric pressure. It is the weight of air above the surface. In meteorology it is expressed in millibars (mb) or hectopascals

(hPa). It is measured with the barometer.

It is represented on the maps through isobars. Pressure is lower as the altitude increases because there is less air

above those regions.o

Air moisture. It is the amount of water vapour in the air.





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When it is the relative air moisture it is expressed in percentages

(%). It is measured with the hygrometer.

Cold air cannot withstand much air moisture. Instead warm air cando.

o Wind. It is the movement of air due to the pressure differences. It re-establishes pressure balance.

It is expressed in kilometres/hour (km/h). It is measured with an anemometer. Its direction is known thanks to the weathercock or weather vane.

There are several climate zones in the world: o One hot zone between both two tropics. It is due to the sun, which falls on

the surface vertically.o Two temperate zones between the tropics and the polar circles in each

hemisphere. The sun falls on the surface in an oblique way.o Two cold zones above each polar circle. Insolation is minimal since the sun

falls on the surface extremely obliquely.





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5.1. Hot climates

Hot climates. They are located between the tropics and their average temperaturesexceed 18ºC. They have high insolation:

o Tropical rainforest or equatorial climate. It is located around the equator,so it is only found in Africa, America, Indonesia and some Oceania’sislands.

Its temperatures are quite stable throughout the year and are usually25ºC average.

It is a really humid climate since its precipitations exceed 2,000mm/year.

There is not any seasonal change.





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o Tropical or savannah climate. It is located between the equator and thetropics, so it is just found in Africa, America and some parts of Australia. Itis a hot climate that has a dry and a humid season, so there are two kinds of

tropical climates: Wet tropical climate:

Its temperatures are quite high, although it is warmer duringthe humid season. They are never below 18ºC. It has a humid season with high precipitations. Total amountis between 500 and 2,000 mm/year. It has a short dry season when precipitations are almostnonexistent.

Dry tropical climate. This climate gets drier as it gets closer to the

tropic. Its temperatures are really high. It has irregular rain during the summer. This climate is a transition to the desert climate.





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o Hot desert climate. It is usually located close to the tropics. It is a really hot climate during the day (c. 50ºC), but it cools during

the night (c. 0ºC). However its average temperature is above 18ºC. It is extremely dry, since it rains less than 250 mm/year. When it

rains it falls as heavy downpours.





21

o

Mediterranean climate. It is mostly located around the Mediterranean Sea,although it has some other locations in South Africa, California, Chile, andAustralia:

Its winter is quite mild, but its summer is hot and dry. Its averagetemperature is around 15ºC.

Precipitations are quite irregular and non-abundant (never over 800mm/year). They are more common in spring and autumn.

o Continental climate. It is a climate with very little maritime influence sinceit is usually inland. It can only be found in the northern hemisphere (Europe,Asia, North America):

Temperatures vary a lot between summers (hot) and winters (reallycold). Its average temperature is around 9ºC.

Precipitations are irregular and they fall mostly in summer (circa 700mm/year).





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o Humid sub-tropical or Chinese climate. It can be mostly found in China,southeast of the USA, River Plate, and east of Australia:

Its winter is mild and dry.

Summer is really hot (almost tropical) and rainy. Precipitations are above 1,000 mm/year, whereas the average

temperature is between 15 and 20ºC.

5.3. Cold climates

Cold climates. They are located in high latitudes and altitudes. o Polar climate. It is located above the polar circles:

There is not any warm summer. Average temperatures are around 0ºC and they can reach up to -50ºC.

There are very few precipitations (less than 300 mm/year), althoughthey remain frozen due to the extremely low temperatures.





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o Alpine climate. It is located in the highest mountains of the world: Its temperatures are quite low, since their average does not exceed

5ºC. It is a rainy climate with more than 1,500 mm/year.

6. NATURAL LANDSCAPES

6.1. Hot climate landscapes

6.1.1. Equatorial landscapes

This landscape is affected by the equatorial climate.The typical vegetal formation is the rainforest.





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o It is really thick and evergreen.o Trees are quite high and do not let sunlight go down.o There are some shrubs, ferns, creepers, and lianas.o The typical trees are mahogany, ebony and rubber trees.

Rivers are regular and have a large flow. The main examples are the Amazon, andthe Congo.Its fauna is really varied of species, such as jaguar, monkey (chimpanzee, gorilla,and orangutan), snake (anaconda), spider, hummingbird, parrots, some

insects...Soils are quite poor and make agriculture difficult. They are mostly leached andhave very few nutrients.

6.1.2. Tropical landscapes This landscape varies according to the kind of tropical climate.

The wet tropical climate has a very similar landscape to the equatorial climate. The dry tropical climate can have several kinds of landscapes: o The most important formation is the savannah:

It is a grassland ecosystem characterised by the trees beingsufficiently small or widely spaced so that the canopy does not close.

They typical species are acacia and baobab. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to

support an unbroken herbaceous layer. They can grow up to 4 metres in the humid season.

o Around the rivers grows the gallery forest composed of species than need alot of water and that make a quite thick forest.

o

Next to the desert areas the steppe is usual, since there is very little waterand that does not let trees grow.





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Rivers are slightly irregular with high rises in flow during the humid season andlow water during the dry season. Major tropical rivers are the Orinoco, theZambezi, and the upper course of the Nile. Its fauna is really important since the great mammals live in this kind of landscape,such as the lion, cheetah, elephant, giraffe, zebra, hyena, rhinoceros,

hippopotamus, antelope... Soils are not really rich either and that makes agriculture difficult.

6.1.3. Monsoon Asian landscapes It is located in Southeast Asia (India, Bangladesh, Burma, Indochina and southeastChina).This landscape is affected by the monsoon, a kind of wind with two majorcharacteristics basing on the season:

o Winter monsoon. It is cold and dry wind that blows from Central Asiatowards the Indian Ocean.

o Summer monsoon. It is a warm and humid wind that blows from the IndianOcean towards Central Asia.

The vegetation is exposed to massive summer rainfalls:o Deciduous forest: Teak , shorea.o

Monsoon forest: Bamboo.

Rivers have a large flow and their level rises during the humid season: Ganges,Brahmaputra, Yangtze (Blue), Indus, Mekong.It is common to find a varied fauna, such as elephant, tiger, panda, snakes, or

spiders.Soils are quite rich due to the rainfalls.

6.1.4. Desert landscapes It is an extremely arid landscape due to the scarce and irregular rainfalls.Vegetation is quite poor:

o Plants have thick prickles and deep roots to get some water, such as cactus,esparto grass, or palmetto.

o Around the oasis there is a wider range with palm trees, fig trees, apricot

trees or pomegranate trees.Rivers are inexistent due to the lack of water. There are just irregular streams whenit rains, which are called wadis. The only permanent waters are the oases.





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There is little fauna which is adapted to the heat such as camels, dromedaries,coyotes, foxes, lizards, beetles, snakes or scorpions.There are three kinds of desert landscape:

o Sand desert (erg ): It is composed of dunes (hills of sand built by the wind).o

Stony desert (hamada): It is flat and composed of stones.o

Rocky desert (reg ): It is a vast extension of land covered of rocks.

6.2.

Temperate climate landscapes

6.2.1. Oceanic landscape The mild temperatures and the abundant precipitation let have a lot of vegetation:

o Oceanic deciduous forest: It is mostly composed of high trees such as oak ,beech, chestnut tree, elm or ash.

o

Scrubland or moors: In the areas where the oceanic forest disappears it iscommon to have bushes such as retama or heather.

o

Grasslands: It is common in the plains and it is the basis of the pastures.





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Rivers are quite regular due to the rainfall. They do not have any rise or low levels.Major rivers are the Rhine, Seine, Loire or Thames.There is a wide variety of fauna composed of foxes, boars, deer or bears.

Soils are really fertile and help agriculture and stockbreeding.

6.2.2.

Mediterranean landscape The Mediterranean landscape has its vegetation adapted to the irregular rainfall andto the severe and dry summers:

o

Mediterranean forest: It has evergreen trees with very deep roots to getwater. The mains species are the holm oak and the cork oak inland and pine

in coastal areas.

o

Scrublands are typical in this landscape due to the reduction of theextension of the Mediterranean forest. The main formations are: Maquis. It has high bushes like strawberry tree, rock rose, salvia,

and mastic. Garrigue. It is composed of minor bushes such as thyme, rosemary,

lavender, and retama. Steppe. When there is little water and the other scrublands have

disappeared it is common to find palmetto, esparto grass andasparagus.





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Rivers are quite irregular and have major rises and low level periods.o Most of them are quite short due to the fact that their source is close to the

sea.o The main rivers are Ebro, Rhone, and Po.

It has a quite varied fauna composed of rabbits, foxes, deer, wolves, boars,

squirrels, eagles, vultures, and sparrows.Soils are quite poor, but in the valleys.

6.2.3. Continental climate The northernmost continental landscape is defined by the coniferous forest (taiga):

o It has evergreen trees such as the pine and fir.o Some other trees are larch or birch.

The southern continental landscape is defined by two kinds of formations:o The areas which are cooler and more humid have large prairies, composed

of high grass, such in the American Midwest.o The areas which are warmer and drier have steppes, composed of low grass,

like in East Europe or Central Asia.





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Rivers have a large flow with important rises in the level in spring because of thethaw. They are frozen in winter. Major rivers are Volga, Danube or Missouri.Its fauna is adapted to the extreme temperatures and it is mostly composed bymoose, reindeers, bears, lynxes, wolves, otters, marmots, ferrets, ravens andowls.

Soils are really different according to the region:o Prairies are quite fertile and make agriculture possible.o

Steppes and taiga are quite barren.

6.3.

Cold climate landscapes

6.3.1.

Polar landscape It is located above the Polar circles.There is no vegetation owing to the perpetual ice.There are not rivers either.

Itsfauna

is adapted to the extreme cold. There are animals likepenguins

,whales

,polar bears, seals, and walrus.In the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans it is common to have floating ice blocks calledicebergs that are fragments which have detached from the icefield that covers thewhole ocean.

Antarctica is a continent completely covered of snow and really thick ice over theland called ice sheet.

o It is a completely uninhabited continent. Only scientists have settled there tostudy it.

Border lands have a milder climate: o Their vegetation appears after the thaw and it is based on tundra, which is

composed of lichens and moss. o

Their soils are quite infertile and their surface is quite muddy after the thaw, but it remains frozen in lower strata. They are called permafrost.





1 1 1 Geography 3rd CSE

UNIT 2:The physical landscape of

Spain




3rd CSE YEAR UNIT 2. THE PHYSICAL LANDSCAPE OF SPAIN

1

UNIT 2: THE PHYSICAL LANDSCAPE OF SPAIN

1. LOCATION OF SPAIN

Spain has 505,956 km2.o

493,484 km2 are in the Iberian Peninsula, whose 85% is occupied by Spain.o The other 12.472 km2 are outside the Peninsula:

7,447 km2 belong to the Canary Islands. 4,992 km2 are part of the Balearic Islands. 32 km2 are composed by Ceuta, Melilla and other islets.

The Iberian Peninsula is located between the rest of Europe, Africa, the AtlanticOcean, and the Mediterranean Sea.

o It is linked to the rest of Europe by a 435-km isthmus, the Pyrenees.o It is four-sided structure that is around 1,000 km long and 850 km wide.o Its extreme limits are:

Latitude:Punta de Estaca de Bares (La Coruña, 43º47’36”N). Punta de Tarifa o Marroquí (Cádiz, 36º00’18”N).

Longitude:Creus cape (Gerona, 3º19’05”E). Touriñán cape (La Coruña, 9º17’46”W)

The Balearic Islands are located in front of the coasts of Valencia.o Its extreme limits are:

Latitude:Isla de Sanitja o de los Porros (Minorca, 40º05’44”N). Cabo de Barbaria (Formentera, 38º38’32”N).

Longitude:Punta del Esperó (Minorca, 4º19’29”E) El Vedrá (Ibiza, 1º12’05”E)

The Canary Islands are just 115 km away from the Saharan coasts and around1,100 km from the Peninsula.

o Its extreme limits are: Latitude:

Punta Mosegos (Alegranza, 29º24’35”N). Punta de los Saltos (El Hierro, 27º38’12”N)

Longitude:

Roque del Este (Lanzarote, 13º19’57”W) Punta Orchilla (El Hierro, 18º09’36”W)

Ceuta (35º53’45”N, 5º17’28”W) is on the African coast at the other side of the

Strait of Gibraltar, whilst Melilla (35º17’15”N, 2º56’51”W) is eastbound by the

Tres Forcas cape.





2

2.

SPANISH PHYSICAL ELEMENTS

SEAS OF SPAIN/MARES DE ESPAÑA

Atlantic OceanOcéano Atlántico Cantabrian Sea

Mar CantábricoMediterranean SeaMar Mediterráneo

STRAITS OF SPAIN/ESTRECHOS DE ESPAÑA


ISLANDS OF SPAIN/ISLAS DE ESPAÑA

Balearic Islands: Majorca, Minorca, Ibiza,Formentera, CabreraIslas Baleares: Mallorca, Menorca, Ibiza,Formentera, Cabrera

Medas

Canary Islands: Tenerife, La Gomera, LaPalma, El Hierro, Gran Canaria,

Fuerteventura, LanzaroteIslas Canarias:…

Columbretes





3

North African Islands: Chafarinas Islands,Peñón de Alhucemas, Peñón de Vélez de laGomera, PerejilIslas norteafricanas: Islas Chaf arinas,…

Galician Atlantic Islands: Cíes, Sálvora, OnsIslas atlánticas gallegas: Cíes,…

Alborán

GULFS AND BAYS OF SPAIN/GOLFOS DE SPAIN

Gulf of RosasGolfo de Rosas

Gulf of MazarrónGolfo de Mazarrón

Gulf of San JorgeGolfo de San Jorge

Gulf of AlmeríaGolfo de Almería

Gulf of ValenciaGolfo de Valencia

Bay of CádizGolfo de Cádiz

Gulf of AlicanteGolfo de Alicante

Bay of BiscayGolfo de Vizcaya

CAPES OF SPAIN/CABOS DE ESPAÑA

Creus San Vicente

San Jorge Roca

San Antonio Finisterre

Nao Punta de Estaca de Bares

Palos OrtegalGata PeñasSacratif Ajo

Punta de Tarifa MachichacoTrafalgar





4

PLAINS AND PLATEAUS OF SPAIN/LLANURAS Y MESETAS DE ESPAÑA

Iberian PlateauMeseta Central: Submeseta norte o septentrional, Submeseta sur o meridional.

DEPRESSIONS OF SPAIN/DEPRESIONES DE ESPAÑA

Guadalquivir Ebro

MOUNTAIN RANGES OF SPAIN/CORDILLERAS DE ESPAÑA


RangesSierras

PeaksPicos

Sistema Central

Sierra de Ayllón Ocejón (2,049 m.)

Somosierra Pico de las Tres Provincias(2,130 m.)

Sierra de Guadarrama Peñalara (2,428 m.)

Sierra de GredosPico del Moro Almanzor(2,592 m.)

Sierra de Gata Peña de Francia (1,723 m.)Montes de ToledoMontes de León Teleno (2,188 m.)

Cantabrian Mountains

Cordillera Cantábrica

Macizo Asturiano

Picos de Europa

Torre Cerredo (2,650 m.)Peña Vieja (2,617 m.)Peña Santa de Castilla (2,598m.)Naranjo de Bulnes (2,519 m.)

Montaña cántabra

Iberian SystemSistema Ibérico

Montes de OcaSierra de la DemandaPicos de UrbiónSierra del Moncayo Moncayo (2,313 m.)Sierra de AlbarracínSerranía de CuencaSierra de JavalambreSierra de GúdarSierra del Maestrazgo

Sierra MorenaSierra MadronaSierra de los PedrochesSierra de Aracena

Macizo Galaico

Sierra del FaroSierra del CourelSierra del EjeSierra Segundera

Sierra de QueixaCabeza de Manzaneda (1,781m.)

Sierra de los Ancares

Basque MountainsMontes Vascos

Sierra de Aralar

Aizgorri Aizgorri (1,528 m.)Gorbea Peña Gorbea (1,482 m.)





5

PyreneesPirineos

Western or Navarran PyreneesPirineos occidentales o navarros

Mesa de los Tres Reyes(2,424 m.)

Central or Aragonese PyreneesPirineo central o aragonés

Aneto (3,404 m.)Monte Perdido (3,355 m.)Maldito (3,350 m.)Maladeta (3,308 m.)

Eastern or Catalan PyreneesPirineo oriental o catalán

Pica d’Estats (3,140 m) Puigmal (2,909 m.)

Catalan Coastal RangeCordillera Costero Catalana

Sierra del Montseny Turó de l’Home (1,712 m.) Sierra de MonstserratSierra de Montsant

Baetic System: CordilleraPenibéticaSistemas Béticos: CordilleraPenibética

Serranía de Ronda

Sierra Nevada Mulhacén (3,482 m.) Veleta (3,398 m.)

Sierra de GádorSierra de los Filabres

Baetic System: CordilleraSubbéticaSistemas Béticos: CordilleraSubbética

Sierra de Grazalema

Sierra MáginaSierra de CazorlaSierra de SeguraSierra de EspuñaSierra de Aitana

Sierra de Tramontana(Majorca)Sierra de Tramontana(Mallorca)

Puigmajor (1,445 m.)

Canarian volcanoesVolcanes canarios

Teide (Tenerife, 3,718 m.)Roque de los Muchachos (LaPalma, 2,426 m.)

Pico de las Nieves (GranCanaria, 1,949 m.)





6

RIVERS OF SPAIN/RÍOS DE ESPAÑA


RiverRío

Tributary Afluente

Cantabrian SeaMar Cantábrico

Bidasoa (67 km.)Nervión (69 km.)Pas (57 km.)Besaya (58 km.)Sella (56 km.)Nalón (129 km.) NarceaEo (79 km.)


Tambre (134 km.)Ulla (126 km.)Lérez (60 km.)Miño (310 km.) Sil

Duero (897 km.)

Pisuerga (Arlanza, Carrión) ValderadueyEsla

Adaja-EresmaTormes

Águeda

Tagus (1,038 km.)Tajo

Jarama (Henares,Manzanares, Tajuña)Guadarrama

AlbercheTiétar

AlagónGuadiela

Almonte

Guadiana (818 km.)

CigüelaZáncaraJabalónZújarMatachel

ArdilaOdiel (121 km.)Tinto (93 km.)

Guadalquivir (657 km.)

Guadiana MenorGenilGuadaíra

GuadalimarGuadalete (173 km.)





7


Guadalhorce (154 km.) Almanzora (105 km.)

Segura (325 km.)MundoSangonera o Guadalentín

Júcar (498 km.) CabrielTuria (280 km.)Mijares (156 km.)

Ebro (960 km)

Aragón (Ega, Arga)GállegoSegre (Cinca, NogueraPallaresa, NogueraRibagorzana)Jalón (Jiloca)Guadalope

Llobregat (157 km.)

Ter (209 km.)Fluviá (98 km.)

LAKES OF SPAIN/LAGOS DE ESPAÑA

Lagunas de RuideraBañolas

Sanabria

3.

SPANISH COASTS

Most of the peninsular coasts are quite straight, but there are some differences:o Cantabrian coasts. They are quite straight and they have major cliffs, some

beaches and some estuaries and rias.o Galician coasts. They are extremely jagged coasts due to the existence of

numerous rias.o Andalusian Atlantic coasts. They are low and sandy where we can find

marshes, beaches, and dunes created by the wind.o Mediterranean coasts:

Next to the Baetic Ranges, Catalan Coastal Range, and Sierra de

Tramontana (Majorca), there are many cliffs and some coves. The rest of the coasts are quite low and sandy (even in the BalearicIslands). There are many beaches, some deltas, and some sealagoons.

The coasts in the Canary Islands are quite straight buy high, since there are manycliffs caused by the volcanoes. There are few volcanic beaches, but in theeasternmost islands.

4. SPANISH SOILS

The soils in Spain are different basing on the rock nature. Hence, there are four

major types:





9

On the coast the sea makes summers (22ºC) and winters (6-10ºC)milder.

In inland areas there is not any sea influence and that makes wintersmuch colder (under 6ºC) and its diurnal temperature range is around12-15ºC.

5.2. Mediterranean Climate

It is the largest climate area in Spain, since it occupies the entire peninsula at thesouth of the Oceanic climate area, as well as the Balearic Islands, Ceuta, andMelilla.Precipitations are scarce and irregular.

o They never exceed 800 mm/year.o Their distribution is quite irregular since drought is common in summer.

Most of the rain falls in spring and autumn, save in those areas close to theAtlantic Ocean, where it rains more in winter.o Downpours are quite common, they thus erode soil.

Temperatures are not homogeneous since they are varying from the coast to inlandareas and from the north to the south.There are three different sub-types of Mediterranean climate.

5.2.1. Coastal Mediterranean climate

It is located by the Mediterranean coast (save the southeast), South Atlantic coast,Balearic Islands, Ceuta, and Melilla.Precipitations stretch from 300 to 800 mm/year and there are differences between

the Mediterranean and South Atlantic coasts.





10

o It rains less on the Mediterranean coasts (save in north Catalonia). Themaximal precipitations fall in autumn due to the cold drop.

o On the South Atlantic coasts precipitations are higher due to the arrival ofmore depressions. Most of the rain falls in winter or at the end of autumn.

Temperatures are higher as we go southwards and there is a medium annual

temperature range (12-16ºC).o Summer is hot since it exceeds 22º C average.o Winters are mild due to the influence of the sea; the coldest month is not

colder than 10ºC.o Annual average temperatures vary from 15ºC in Gerona to 18ºC in Málaga.

5.2.2. Inland or Continental Mediterranean climate

It occupies all the inland regions of the peninsula but the mid-Ebro valley.It has not got any sea influence. Hence it has continental characteristics.Precipitations stretch from 300 to 800 mm/year with important differences.

o It rains less on the Castilian depressions and Ebro valley due to themountains that surround these areas. The rainiest seasons are winter andautumn.

o In the western area precipitations are higher because of the depressions thatcome from the Atlantic Ocean. The rainiest month in January.

Temperatures are quite extreme and there is a high annual temperature range thatexceeds 16ºC. Average temperatures stretch from 7 to 19ºC. Hence there are severalsub-types:

o North Plateau, Teruel, and Highlands of Guadalajara and Cuenca have mildsummers (lower than 22ºC) and really cold winters (between -3 and 6ºC).Frosts and fogs are common in winter. Ávila and Soria show the lowest

average temperatures (10.4ºC).o South Plateau and borders of the Ebro valley have hot summers (the hottestmonth exceeds 22ºC) and cold winters, but with less frosts. The annualaverage temperatures stretch from 12.2ºC in Cuenca to 15ºC in Toledo.

o Extremadura and the interior of Andalusia have really hot summers and mildwinters (6-10ºC). This area has the highest average temperatures of Europe:18.8ºC in Seville and 18ºC in Cordova.

5.2.3. Dry or Sub-desert Mediterranean climate

It occupies the southeast and the mid-Ebro valley.Precipitations are under 300 mm/year.

o

Depressions cannot reach these areas easily.o Cabo de Gata is the driest place in Europe with around 150 mm/year.

Temperatures vary according to the area:o The coastal southeast is a torrid steppe. Its average temperature is between

17 and 18ºC. Winters are not cold (never under 10ºC).o Interior southeast and mid-Ebro valley is the cold steppe. Its average

temperature is lower than 17ºC and winters are moderate or cold (-3 to10ºC).

5.3. Alpine climate

It occupies those areas above 1,000 metres high.Precipitations increase and temperatures decrease as altitude is higher.





11

Precipitations exceed 1,000 mm/year.Temperatures are cool (<10ºC) with mild summers (never above 22ºC) and coldwinters (below 0ºC).Pyrenees and Cantabrian Range have not got any dry month.All the other mountain ranges have less rainfall in summer, when temperatures may

exceed 22ºC in some areas.

5.4. Sub-tropical climate

It is just located in the Canary Islands. It is really influenced by the trade winds, which make the northward mountains bemore humid and have milder temperatures.Precipitations vary according to the altitude and to the location of the islands.

o The east islands (Lanzarote, Fuerteventura) have less than 150 mm/year. o On the other islands it changes basing on the altitude:

The lowlands have 150-300 mm/year.

Highlands located to windward have more than 1,000 mm/year because of the trade winds.

o Most of the rain falls in winter. Temperatures are hot during the entire year in the lowlands (not less than 17ºC) witha low temperature range (<8ºC).

o Highlands are much cooler.

6. SPANISH VEGETATION

6.1. Atlantic vegetation

Deciduous forest. It has high trees with straight and smooth trunks and big leavesthat fall in autumn.

o It has few species but they create large forests, such as beech, oak , andchestnut tree. There are also elms, hazels, lime trees, and ash trees.

o There are some evergreen species such as holly and yew. o Eucalyptuses and pines have been recently grown for industrial purposes. o Its understorey is composed of fern and moss due to its shady and wet

atmosphere.





12

Scrublands or moors. There is dense vegetation of high shrubs. o The most common species are heather and retama.

Grasslands occupy large areas and they have grass for pasture.

6.2.

Mediterranean vegetation

Evergreen forest. Its trees are not very high and are quite adapted to drought. Theirroots are quite deep and their crowns are wide. Some of the leaves may have

prickles. o The most common trees are holm oak , cork oak (in more humid areas), and

pine.o Understorey is composed of retama, mastic, sarsaparilla, rock rose, and

strawberry tree.o In Extremadura and Salamanca it is common to find dehesas , where cork

oaks are combined with stockbreeding and sheepherding.

Scrublands are typical in this landscape due to the reduction of the extension of theMediterranean forest. The main formations are:o

Maquis. It has high bushes like strawberry tree, rock rose, salvia, andmastic.

o Garrigue. It is composed of minor bushes such as thyme, rosemary,lavender, and retama.

o Steppe. When there is little water and the other scrublands have disappearedit is common to find palmetto, esparto grass and asparagus. It is thetypical vegetation in the southeast.





13

6.3. Alpine vegetation

Vegetation is in tiers basing on temperature and precipitations given by the altitude.It changes according to the kind of mountains:

o Pyrenees (typical Alpine mountain). Above the common oak and holm oakforest (Montane level) we can find:

Sub-alpine level (1,200-2,400 m). It is composed of conifers likefirs, and different kinds of pines. Its understorey is composed ofrhododendron, cranberry, blueberry, and juniper.

Alpine level (2,400-3,000 m). It is composed of grassland that iscovered by the snow around 7 or 8 months per year. There can also be some flowers.

Snow level (>3,000 m). There are just some rock plants such as moss or lichens. There is no vegetation on flat areas since they are covered

by the snow.o Other mountains have not got any sub-alpine level. From the montane level

it passes to Super-forest level composed of shrubs. Above that there aregrasslands.

6.4. Vegetation of the Canaries

It is extraordinary and really varied and belongs to the Macaronesia region.There are some endemism (exclusive vegetal formations) and relics (commonvegetation from other geological and climate periods). They are around 50% of the

plants of the archipelago.The different species are in tiers:

o

Foothill level (<300-500 m.). It is a completely arid level and the commonspecies may have prickles. We can find Canary Island spurge and someEuphorbia species.

o Intermediate level (200-800 m.). It is marked by the decrease of

temperatures and increase of moisture. Hence there are palm trees, drago, junipers.





14

o Termocanario level (800-1,200 m). Vegetation is adapted to the mist created by the trade winds on the windward side, and to the low sunshine.

Laurisilva. It is composed of more than 20 species and it is a relic. Itis common to find laurel

Faya-Heathland. It is the result of human degradation of the

laurisilva.o Canario level (1,200-2,200 m). It is composed of conifers, whose main

species in the Canary Island pine, which adapts to cold and aridity. Athigher altitudes there may be Canary Island cedars.

o Supracanario level (> 2,200 m). It just exists on Tenerife and La Palma.There is not any tree but shrubs. None the less it is really rich and we canfind Teide violet, Teide bugloss, Teide daisy, and Teide white broom.

7. PROTECTED AREAS

At the article 45 of the Spanish Constitution (1978) it is recognised the right to havethe environment protect and it foresees sanctions to all those who attack it.

None the less, the environmental protection began in 1916 when the Marquis ofVillaviciosa stimulated the National Parks Act. Since them many other acts have

been passed to protect our environment.There are many protected spaces in Spain that occupy around 7% of the nationalarea:

o

Parks are spaces with a very high environmental and natural value whichhave been scarcely transformed by human being. There are some kinds:

National Parks (there are 14). They have very important geologic,hydrologic, animal, and botanic characteristics. Their preservation isessential and that function dominates over the others.

Montaña de Covadonga y Picos de Europa (1918, Asturias,León, Cantabria). It was enlarged in 1995 to incorporate thePicos de Europa. It has 65,000 Ha with common Atlanticmountain and glacier modelling.





15

Ordesa y Monte Perdido (1918, Huesca). It was enlarged in1982 to include Monte Perdido. 16,000 Ha of Alpinemountains are protected.Aigües Tortes y Lago San Mauricio (1955, Lérida). It has

protected 14,000 Ha of glaciers, mountain lakes, and alpine

vegetation.Caldera de Taburiente (1954, La Palma). 4,700 Ha ofvolcanic geology and endemic vegetation of the CanaryIslands.Cañadas del Teide (1955, Tenerife). Circa 19,000 Ha ofvolcanic structures are protected.Coto de Doñana (1969, Huelva, Seville). Its 50,000 Ha

protect wetlands, dunes and cork oak fields. It has majorexamples of Iberian fauna, such as the lynx.Tablas de Daimiel (1973, Ciudad Real). These wetlandshave around 1,900 Ha.Timanfaya (1974, Lanzarote). There are 5,100 Ha of perfectvolcanic morphology.Garajonay (1981, La Gomera). 4,000 Ha of the best

preserved laurisilva forest of the Canary Islands.Archipiélago de Cabrera (1991, Balearic Islands). This parkcomprises of land and sea areas. It has major meadows ofPosidonia.Cabañeros (1995, Ciudad Real). 40,000 Ha of a perfectexample of Mediterranean vegetation on the Montes deToledo.

Sierra Nevada (1999, Granada, Almería). 82,000 Ha of perfect Mediterranean mountain.Islas Atlánticas de Galicia (2002, Pontevedra). It has 8,400Ha protected with sea and land areas. It has major meadowsof Posidonia.Monfragüe (2007, Cáceres). A perfect example of dehesa and a really varied fauna.





16

Natural Parks (there are 106). They are less and they let theexploitation of primary resources. They are controlled by theAutonomous Regions.

o

Natural Reserves (there are 184). They protect spaces whose bioticelements are not common or are endangered.

o

Natural Monuments (there are 84). Natural formations that are speciallysingular, strange or beautiful.o There are also some spaces protected by the European Union as Natura

2000 (there are 1,096 Special Areas of Conservation) or by the UNESCOwith the Biosphere Reserves (there are 22 across Spain).

8.

NATURAL RESOURCES

Natural resources are given by nature and they are essential for our development.Their rational use is basic so that they may last more time and to avoid theirdepletion.

There are several kinds of resources in Spain:o Relief . It is basic for settlement and for infrastructures.

Plains are highly demanded to build new towns. Our relief makes construct roads or railways very difficult since

many bridges and tunnels are needed. Agriculture is difficult in Spain due to the steep areas. Relief also affects mining and mineral resources. Tourism can be attracted by the coasts and mountain areas.

o Soil. Its quality is quite low, so new techniques must be developed to getmore profit in crops.

The construction of houses is also affected by the quality of soil,since stable soils are necessary.

o Climate. It affects human beings in many ways: Settlement. Places with abundant rains are preferably sought by

humans to settle. Agriculture and stockbreeding. Renewable sources. Wind power or solar power are highly

developed in Spain due to its characteristics. Tourism can be attracted by sunshine, high temperatures and low

rainfall on the coast.o Water. It is quite limited in Spain due to periodical droughts but it is basic

for many uses: Human consumption. Agriculture and stockbreeding. Industry. Energy production, such as hydroelectricity.

o Vegetation. They provide raw materials (wood, resin, cork...). It also protects soils and prevents any pollution.

o Sea. Spain has many coasts and sea provides many resources such as fish,water (desalinisation), trade routes, and they also attract tourism.




3rd CSE YEAR UNIT 3. POPULATION

1

UNIT 3. POPULATION

1. DEMOGRAPHIC SOURCES

Demography is the science that studies population and it has some sources to know

about its characteristics and evolution: o Censuses. They are done periodically (every 10 years) and count how many

people live in a country and their social, cultural and economic characteristics. InSpain they have been carried out every year that ends in 1 since 1981 (althoughthe first census was done in 1857) and they are executed by the Instituto

Nacional de Estadística (INE). o

Municipal registers. They are local registers that show the people that live in amunicipality. They also collect personal data such as sex, place and date of birth,nationality...

o

Registry office. It is the official organism that registers births, deaths, marriages,divorces... It is compulsory to be registered at this office.

2. WORLD POPULATION

2.1. Evolution of population

Censuses are taken to know the amount of population in every country of the world.In 2011 there were around 7 billion people on the Earth (c. 52 inhabitants/sq km).There have been different periods of demographic growth:

o Until mid 18th century: World’s population was stable, with slight increases and decreases.

o

Between mid 18th

century and mid 20th

century: Growth has been continuous due to the Industrial Revolution. Decrease of death rate. Increase of life expectancy. Developed countries were affected first World’s population has duplicated every 25 years during the 20th century.

World's population evolution (1800-2050)

1000 1300 1800

2600

6000

8500

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

70008000

9000

1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050

World'spopulation(millions)

o

After the mid 20th century:





2

Growth began to be slower in richer countries, which are ageing. Nonethe less population in underdeveloped countries still grows quickly.

World’s population grows 77 million inhabitants every year (1.2% of

annual growth). By 2050 85% of world’s population will live in underdeveloped countries

basing on UN’s estimations. By the end of the 21st century it is estimated that there will be 12 billion

inhabitants on the Earth.

Evolution of the population per continents (in million inhabitants)

Year Asia* Europe* Africa America Oceania

1800 631 146 102 24 21900 903 295 138 165 61950 1,393 395 219 330 132000 3,696 506 872 835 30

2025** 4,939 574 1,510 1,081 39*Russian population is included in Asia.**UN’s estimations.

2.2. Stages of demographic growth

There are several models that characterise every demographic period (demographic

transition model):Stage one (Traditional model).

o Birthrate is high or slightly decreasing (circa 35 0/00).o Death rate is high too (higher than 30 0/00).o Infant mortality higher than 200 0/00.o

Natural increase is thus low or slightly negative.o This is the common model up to mid 18th century.

Stage two (Demographic transition).o Birthrate is high (circa 40 0/00).o Death rate decreases notably (circa 15 0/00).o There is a big natural increase; hence it causes a demographic explosion.o This is the common model of the Industrial Revolution.

Stage three (Modern demographic model).o Birthrate decreases a lot (circa 15 0/00).o Death rate stabilises in low levels (around 11 0/00).

o

Infant mortality is around 150

/00.o Natural increase is thus low or inexistent.o This is the common model of the second half of the 20th century.

Stage four.o Birthrate is very low (10-15 0/00).o Death rate increases a little due to population’s ageing (higher than 30 0/00).o Natural increase is thus low or slightly negative.o This is the common model of the current developed countries.





3

Demographic stages

0

10

20

30

40

50

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

Death rate

Birthrate

2.3. Distribution of population

Population’s distribution is completely uneven: o 90% of the people live in the Northern Hemispher e (between 20º and 60º).o Instead, only 10% of the people live in the Southern Hemisphere.o The largest concentrations of population are:

South and East Asia.China has around 1.3 billion inhabitants.India is inhabited by 1.2 billion people.

Europe. It is a historically populated continent that counts on around 700million inhabitants. Some of its countries are inhabited by over 500inhabitants/km2.

North American Atlantic coast. There is a megalopolis that stretches fromBoston to Washington D.C. where 120 million people live. Moreoverthere are vast cities like Mexico City (c. 20 million inhabitants).

o On the contrary, the largest empty spaces are: Cold and desert areas: Poles, Sahara Desert, Kalahari Desert, Gobi

Desert. Moist and hot areas: Congo Basin, Amazon Basin.

There are some factors that explain why the land is occupied:





4

o

Physical factors. Climate. People are attracted by temperate climates with sufficient

rainfall. Water. It is necessary to have enough water to live, so it is common to

settle next to rivers or other water sources.

Altitude. Most of the people live in areas that are close to the sea (60% ofthe population live below 200 metres). Soil. Fertile soils have always been demanded. Energy resources. Modern society claims for resources. Hence minerals,

petrol or other natural resources are a reason to settle somewhere.o Human factors.

Age of settlement. The most inhabited areas have always been populated. Social growth. Migrations. Wars. Economic and urban development.

In order to make demographic studies it is essential to know the population density.o It shows how many people live in a place.o It is obtained by making a simple operation:

Land’s population o Population density (inhabitants/sq km)=

Area

3.

NATURAL MOVEMENT OF POPULATION

The natural increase is the difference between birthrate and death rate.

Births - deathso

Natural growth rate = x100Total population

o Birthrate (or natality): it is the number of births that take place in a population

over a year. There is a formula to know the proportion of born people comparedto the total population:





5

Number of born people in one year Crude birthrate = x1,000(born/1,000 inhabitants) Total population

o Birthrate is commonly related to the fertility rate, which shows the average

number of births women have during their fertile lifetime (15-49 years old). Theaverage number of children per woman helps us know the future populationgrowth. In order to maintain the population and guarantee replacement rates,women should bear an average of 2.15 children.

o Mortality: it is the number of deaths that take place in a population over a year.There is another formula to know the proportion of deceased people compared tothe total population:

Number of deceased people in one year Crude death rate = x 1,000(deceased/1,000 inh.) Total population

o When the birthrate is higher than the death rate, therefore the natural increase is positive. On the contrary, it is negative when the death rate is higher than the birthrate.

o None the less, it is more accurate to know the infant mortality rate to determine

the health system of a country:





7

Working women. Economic level. Birth control traditions. Government policies of birthrate.

4.

MIGRATIONS

A migration is physical movement by humans from one area to another.o

Emigration. It happens when a person goes away from a territory to anothercountry or region.

o

Immigration. It is the arrival of people that have gone away from a territory andarrive in another country or region.

To explain the migrations there may be several reasons:o Economic reasons:

Search for better life conditions.o Natural reasons:

Disasters, like earthquakes, floods, droughts, volcanic eruptions...o Political reasons:

Flight from a hostile territory to a safer one. Forced migrations. Refugees.

When it is spoken about migrations, there are several kinds:o Basing on the origin and destinations:

Internal migrations. They take place within a same country.It is usually from the countryside towards the city: rural exodus.

International migrations. They involve the change of country and they

can be either continental or transcontinental.In the past it was common that migration went from Europe tosome American countries (USA, Canada, Argentina or Brazil) orto Australia. Later it changed and those migratory movementstook place within Europe (mostly to Germany, France or the UK).

Nowadays those migrations take place from the poorer countries(mostly in Africa, Asia, and some Latin American areas) towardsEurope, North America or Australia.

o Basing on the duration: Seasonal migrations. Residence is just changed a part of the year due to

work or holidays.

Pendular migrations (commuting). They are daily round trips betweenthe residence and the working places. Permanent migrations. They involve a stable change of residence.

The USA received millions of immigrants until the beginning of the 20 th century.Currently it is Western Europe the area that receives large amounts of immigrants fromEastern Europe, Africa, and some parts of Asia.Migrations cause several consequences:

o Consequences for origin countries. Loss of population. Birthrate decrease due to the emigration of young people. Population ageing.

Loss of enterprising people.





8

Initial enhancement of the economic situation when emigrants sendforeign currency to their families.

o Consequences for destination countries. Population increases. Birthrate increases.

Rejuvenation of population. Cultural exchange. Initial coexistence problems:

Failure to adapt to the new situation.Difficult integration.Some people may take advantage of their difficult situation.

5. COMPOSITION OF POPULATION

It is based on the amount of youngsters, adults or elderly people and on the sex ratio between men and women.

o Sex composition. There is not the same amount of men and women (in 2010 there were

101.6 males to every 100 females in the whole world).

There are more men in underdeveloped countries. Instead there are more women in developed countries. More boys are born than girls (105/100).

There is a higher death rate among men.Balance takes place in mature ages.

In elderly ages there are fewer men than women (up to the half). Women have longer life expectancy.

Number of men or women Sex ratio = x 100

Total population

Number of men

Masculinity rate = x 100 Number of women





9

Number of women Feminity rate = x 100

Number of meno Age composition.

Youngsters. They are the people who are under 15 years of age. Theyrepresent 26.9% of world’s population (2010). The amount of youngsters is really high in the underdevelopedworld; they even reach to be circa 50% of the total population.

Adults. They are the people who are between 16 and 64 years of age. Elderly people. They are the people who are 65 years of age or more.

They represent 7.6% of world’s population (2010).The amount of elderly people is considerably higher in thedeveloped countries.

o Economic composition. Active population. They are people who want to work and have the legal

age (although unemployed). Inactive population. They are either young or elderly people or others

who cannot or do not want to work. Economic sectors:

Primary sector. Agriculture, stockbreeding, fishing, and mining.In the developed countries the people that work in this sector islower than 10%, whereas in the underdeveloped is more than50%.Secondary sector. Industry, construction. In the developedcountries it may be between 25 and 35% of the population, whilst

it may not exist in some underdeveloped areas.Tertiary sector. Services. In the developed countries the peoplewho work in this sector exceeds 60% of the employees.

The age and sex composition is reflected in the population pyramid.o It is a graphical representation divided into two sexes:

In the vertical axis the groups of age are shown (in 5-year groups). In the horizontal axis it is found the percentage of people or the total

amount for each group of age.o There are different kinds of population pyramid:

Expansive pyramid (pyramid-shaped).It has large birthrate and death rate.

Its base is wide and its summit is quite narrow.It is common in the underdeveloped countries.





10

Stationary or stable pyramid (bell-shaped).

Birthrate is moderate and death rate is low instead.It is common in the developing countries.

Constrictive pyramid (urn-shaped).Birthrate is low.The summit is really wide (it shows long life expectancy).It is common in the developed countries.





11

Ace of spades-shaped pyramid.There is a mark in the intermediate groups caused by wars,migrations or natural catastrophes.

6.

SPANISH POPULATION

Spain had 47.129.783 inhabitants on 1 January 2013, so 93.15 inhabitants per km2.

6.1. Population distribution

Spanish density is slightly lower than the density of the European Union.There are serious differences in the distribution of population:

o Most populated provinces (2013)

Madrid (6,495,551).

Barcelona (5,540,925). Valencia (2,566,474). Alicante (1,945,642). Seville (1,942,155).

o Most unpopulated provinces (2013). Soria (93,291). Teruel (142,183). Segovia (161,702). Palencia (168,955). Ávila (168,825).

Concerning regions there are also important differences:o Andalusia has 8.440.300, Catalonia 7.553.650, and Madrid 6,495,551 inhabitants

(2013).o Instead, La Rioja is just populated by 322.027, Cantabria by 591.888, and

Navarre by 644.477 inhabitants (2013).Most of the people live along the coastline, whereas inland regions are almostunpopulated (save Madrid), due to the rural exodus carried out between the 1950s and1970s.

o Rural and mountain areas are quite uninhabited. On the contrary, population isconcentrated in provincial capitals.

o The provinces with a higher density are (2013):

Madrid (809.11). Barcelona (716.99).





12

Vizcaya (521.63). Guipúzcoa (360.51). Alicante (334.48).

o Instead, the ones which have a lower density are (2013): Soria (9.05).

Teruel (9.60). Cuenca (12.36). Huesca (14.47) Zamora (17.83).

Concerning regions, there are major differences:o The most densely populated are (2013):

Comunidad de Madrid (809.11). Basque Country (302.93). Canary Islands (284.50)

o The least densely populated are (2013): Castilla-La Mancha (26.44).

Extremadura (26.55). Castilla y León (26.74). Aragón (28.23).

Spanish population (1900-2010)

0

10

20

30

40

50

Population 18,6 20 21,4 23,7 26 28 30,5 34 37 39,4 41,1 47,2

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011





13

6.2.

Natural movement

Spain’s natural movement is: o Low birthrate (circa 10.50/00). It even reached 9.10/00 in 1998.o Low death rate (circa 80/00).o

Low infant mortality rate (circa 2.50

/00).o Low natural increase (circa 2.50/00).

There are several reasons that may explain that change in the evolution:o People marry much later than before.o Women have incorporated to the labour market.o Increase of single-person homes and single-parent families.o Social and political changes since the 1970s.

The fastest population growth takes place in areas with higher immigration (Madrid,coastal areas, Balearic Islands, Ceuta, and Melilla), whereas the growth is slower or it isnegative in some regions such as Asturias, Castilla y León, and Galicia.

6.3.

Population structure

The characteristics of the Spanish structure are very similar to the other developedcountries of the world.Spanish population composition is:

o Sex. There are slightly more women than men because they live more (none theless more baby boys than girls are born):

23,283,187 men, so 49.34% (2011). 23,907,306 women, so 50.66% (2011).

o

Age. Spanish population is ageing.

10,014,178 youngsters, so 21.22% (2011). 29,083,229 adults, so 61.63% (2011). 8,093,557 elderly people, so 17.15% (2011).

6.4.

Migration

Internal migration was very important between the 1950s and 1980s:o Rural exodus was very common from the countryside to the provincial capitals

or to Madrid, Barcelona, Bilbao, and Valencia.





14

Nowadays there is another kind of internal migration:o Many people have moved from the capitals to satellite towns on the outskirts of

major cities.o Many retired people have moved to coastal areas or have gone back to their

original towns from those cities they had migrated in the 1950-1980s.

Concerning foreign migration, until the 1970s Spanish population used to emigrate toLatin America, Switzerland, France, and Germany.

o Spain has recently received many immigrants that are around 10% of present-day population.

o Immigrants mostly come from Eastern Europe (mostly Romania, Bulgaria, andUkraine), Latin America (mostly Ecuador, Colombia, and Argentina), and Africa(mostly Morocco or Gulf of Guinea).

o The main destinations for the immigrants are Madrid, Catalonia, Valencia,Andalusia, and the Balearic Islands.




SPACES

1

Geography 3rd CSE

UNIT 4:

Rural and urban spaces




3rd CSE YEAR UNIT 4. RURAL AND URBAN SPACES

1

UNIT 4. RURAL AND URBAN SPACES

1. SETTLEMENTS

Settlement refers to the action of people settling down in an area.

These settlements can be either rural (in the countryside) or urban (in cities),depending on their nature.

2. RURAL SETTLEMENTS

Settlements in the countryside are called rural settlements. o The size of these settlements vary according to the country (i.e., in Spain it is

every place under 10,000 inhabitants, instead in Sweden it must be under 200). There are several kinds of rural settlements:

o

Scattered settlements.

Buildings are dispersed among the fields, forests and farms. There is not any group of houses. It is common in the USA, Canada, Australia and some parts of Europe.

o Clustered or nucleated settlements. Buildings are grouped together and separate from farming land. Agricultural activity is located around the village or town. It is common from most of Europe, Asia, and Africa.





2

o

Interdispersed settlements. There are isolated buildings between villages.

Following the plan of those villages, they can be classified in different types: o Linear villages. When all the houses are making a row following a road. o Nucleated villages. When they are completely clustered and grouped. o

Radial villages. They have a central space out of which all the main streetsdepart. We can distinguish several kinds of rural housing:

o Single farmhouse unit. The area designed for living is connected to the area foranimals.

o Farmhouse with outbuildings. People and animals live in different buildingsarranged around a courtyard.

o Shapes, materials and sizes vary according to the traditions of each region.

3. URBAN SETTLEMENTS

3.1.

Origin of the cities

Cities appeared in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India and China around 5000 BC. o The greatest evolution of the cities took place after the Industrial Revolution

(mid 18th century). o The foundation of cities may be caused by several reasons, although the most

common ones were strategic, military, economic, political and/or religious. o Greeks founded cities with two main parts: acropolis and agora. o Romans did grid-layout cities around a cardo and a decumanus, which met in the

forum. o Mediaeval cities were completely walled and irregular-planned. o

In the Modern Age cities were beautified by noble families, the kings or theChurch.

o Instead after the Industrial Revolution (mid 18th century), cities grew a lot byattracting people to the factories. The size of the cities may change forever.

3.2.

Urbanisation processes

The urbanisation process refers to the movement of rural people to the cities.o This process has been common in the Western countries since the Industrial

Revolution (mid 18th century).

Only 3% of the population of the world lived in cities in 1800.o It has become common across the world since the 1950s, when it reached 30% of

world’s population. o In 2008 the global urbanisation rate was around 50%, but it is foreseen to reach

circa 70% by 2050. In advanced countries it is common that 75% of the population lives in

cities, whereas in non-advanced countries it is circa 40%. The process is now really important in the developing countries, where

the greatest metropolises are concentrating.The causes of the urbanisation may vary basing on the country:

o Developed countries.

It began in the Industrial Revolution associated to industrialisation.





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There are very few large cities, although there are some megacities (theyexceed 10,000,000 inhabitants), such as Tokyo (more than 35 million),

New York or Moscow. Whereas it is more common to have medium-size cities.

o Developing countries.

This process began at the beginning of the 20th

century in America, in the1920s in Asia and in the 1960s in Africa. Rural exodus and demographic growth are the causes of the urbanisation. Most of the megacities are in these countries:

There are 20 out of 26, such as Mexico City, Lagos, Mumbai, orSão Paulo.They are quite unbalanced and do not provide equal services.

It is common to have many slums and shantytowns around these cities. The largest cities in the world are foreseen to exist in these countries.

3.3. Characteristics of the cities

Cities are commonly found in areas with a lot of industry and services.To define a city there are two criteria that may be useful:

o Quantity criterion. It defines the city as a space with a densely concentrated

population. None the less this criterion is not homogeneous since the countrieschange the figures to speak about cities. Thus, Sweden understands that a city isevery populated centre with more than 200 inhabitants, whilst Japan increasesthat figure up to 30,000 people. In Spain the minimum to be considered a city bythe Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE) is 10,000 inhabitants.

o

Qualitative criterion. It refers to the functions of the city and its economicactivities. Therefore the most common sectors in a city are industry and services,never agriculture or stockbreeding.

As a result, the main characteristics of the cities are:o They have a high population density with a large number of inhabitants.o They have great influence over the surrounding area.o

They have many functions: economic, social, health, cultural, political,religious...





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3.4. Urban functions

The main function of a city is to provide many services to the surrounding area; hence ithas many different functions:

o

Commercial and industrial functions. It is the most common function cities provide since they have always been the economic centre of the regions.o Political and administrative functions. These functions may be found in the

capital cities (either national or regional). They host the main headquarters of theadministration.

o

Military functions. Some cities have been created to host different military barracks to protect boundaries or some regions of the country.

o

Educational functions. Some educational levels are only provided in the maincities, such as the universities. Some cities have grown basing on this function,such as Bologna, Oxford, Cambridge, Salamanca, Coimbra or Uppsala.

o

Cultural functions. This function is common in most of the cities, since they

have museums, theatres, cinemas...o

Religious functions. Cities have always concentrated the religious functions ofthe surrounding regions, but there have been some cities that have grown basingon this function, such as Jerusalem, Mecca, or Santiago de Compostela.

o Entertainment functions. Some cities have been founded as entertainment places where people go to have fun, like Las Vegas.

The more important the city is the more functions it provides (multifunctional cities),that is to say that not all the cities provide all of them, only a few of them.

3.5. Elements of the cities

The site is the place where a city is located: on a hill, on a plain, in a valley, on anisland...

o Historical cities are commonly built on hills due to defensive reasons. o Instead, modern cities are built on plains to enhance communication and trade.

The location of the cities fixes their connection to otherso A city can be on the coast or inland, in the centre of a country or in an extreme... o Communication has always been essential; hence most of the cities are located

by rivers, main harbours or trading posts. The urban layout can be represented by the map or street plan of the city. It shows thestructure of the city and its historical evolution:

o

Irregular layout. It is characterised by winding and narrow streets that have no pattern. There are few and small squares

It is common of the historical centres of the cities.





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o Regular layout. There is a model which is followed to build the city. There aretwo kinds of regular patterns:

Grid pattern (or checkerboard).It has Greek and Roman origins and bases on perpendicular and

parallel streets that form right angles. It is common in the USA and in most of the modern cities(included 19th century’s enlargements).

Radial pattern. It is based on concentric rings, with streets radiating from itscentre and cross streets forming circles around it. It can be found in some cities such as Paris, Moscow, and Milan...





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Linear plan. It follows a road or a river and it becomes a long and narrow city.

The urban housing can be varied depending on the function. Size, height andarchitectural design.

o Old buildings can be palaces, churches, town halls... They have historical valueand most of them are protected.

o Blocks of buildings are very common. They have several floors and they canreach to be skyscrapers. They can be offices, residential flats, commercialareas...

o Single-family houses are very common nowadays. There are detached, semi-detached or terraced houses with one or two floors. They usually have a gardenand they are commonly on the outskirts.

o

Shacks or shanties. They are made with scrap materials and inhabited by very poor people.

3.6. Structure of the city

It is easy to distinguish several parts within a city:o CBD (Central Business District). It is usually in the centre and most of the

commercial and financial activities develop there. Not too many people live theresince most of the buildings are offices (usually skyscrapers).

o Historical centre. It is the oldest part in the city and the attraction for tourists. Itis full of historical buildings such as palaces, churches, and some official offices.





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o Enlargements. They were built in the 19th and early 20th centuries. They areclose to the historical centre and they usually show a grid layout. They areexpensive areas with many bank offices and shops.

o

Periphery. It extends around the central area of the city and has two major parts: Residential areas. Most of the people live here and there can be both

blocks of flats and low houses. Most of the services are located here(schools, hospitals, sport facilities, commercial centres...).





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Industrial estates and business parks. They lie next to the main roadsand they host factories and different companies.

3.7.

Urban hierarchy

Cities may have a greater influence, not only over its surrounding region, but also acrossthe world. As a consequence there are different types of cities that are interlinked basingon the urban hierarchy:

o International metropolises. Their influence extends across the world. They host the headquarters of most of the multinational companies. They are world stock exchange markets. All technology and press media are attracted to these cities. New York, London, Paris and Tokyo are the best examples of this type of

metropolis.o

National metropolises. They are usually the capitals of the countries and their influence extends

over the whole country. They are connected to the international metropolises. That is the case of Berlin and Madrid.

o

Regional cities. They may be large cities but they depend on national and international

metropolises. Their functions are less than in the other groups and thus their influence,

which is only applied to the region where they lie.

That is the case of Milan and Munich.o Smaller cities and towns.

Their influence is very limited. It is the case of most provincial capitals.

3.8. Urban agglomerations

Cities may have different kinds of settlements.o According to their size, they may be small, medium or large cities.o Large cities have formed urban agglomerations around which some other

cities or towns have grown.

Metropolitan areas.





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They are the result of the growth of a big city (metropolis) thathas absorbed surrounding towns. There are satellite towns around that major city that depend on it. It can be found in Paris, London, New York, and Madrid...

Conurbations.

They are the result of the physical union of more than one citywith the same characteristics and size. It can be found in Amsterdam-Rotterdam (Netherlands) orLiverpool-Manchester (UK).

Urban regions.They are caused when a large territory has several majorindividual towns. The Ruhr region in Germany may be the best example.

Megalopolis. It is a large territory that includes several metropolises and

conurbations. The result is a chain of metropolitan areas that extend a lot. The best examples can be found in the East coast of the USA(Boston-Washington DC) and in Japan (Tokyo-Fukuoka).

Metropolitan areas Millions of inhabitants

Tokyo 37Mexico City 22.7 New York 22.7

Seoul 22.5Mumbai 20.4

São Paulo 19.6Manila 18.4Jakarta 18.2

New Delhi 18Los Angeles 17.9

4. URBAN PROBLEMS

The main problems of the cities can be: o Deterioration of certain areas.

There is overexploitation of the land and that is why there are very few

green areas. Speculation has raised the prices of the plots of lands and houses. Lack of planning has existed in prior times in the developed countries,

whereas it is still common in the developing countries. o

Pollution. It is mostly caused by cars, heating systems, and factories. Public authorities try to reduce the impact of this pollution on

environment. o

Transportation. Due to the size of the cities, it has been necessary to provide new means

of transportation so that people may move: Bus.





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Underground. Railway.

Parking has become almost impossible in some cities, mostly in thecentre. That is why some car parks have been built.

o

Rubbish.

Cities produce a lot of rubbish that cannot be easily processed. Most of the rubbish is taken to dumping sites, whereas some other is

incinerated. In the developed countries recycling has become common in the cities.

o Poverty. It is associated to the urban life and causes social exclusion. It is much more common in the developing countries, where there are

many shantytowns.

5. SPANISH SETTLEMENTS

5.1.

Rural spaces

Rural spaces in Spain have less than 10,000 inhabitants.Agriculture and stockbreeding have been the most common functions in these areas.There are two typical rural settlements in Spain:

o In the North and in the mountains (Galicia, Asturias, Cantabria, Basque Countryand Navarre) it is common to have dispersed settlements, with separated countryhouses and farmhouses.

o In the rest of Spain (both Castiles, Aragon, Extremadura, and Andalusia)settlement is clustered.

In the Duero and Ebro valleys they are commonly small and are close toeach other. In the south of Spain, Mediterranean area and Balearic Islands villages

are bigger and farther from each other.There have been major changes in the last years:

o Interior and mountain areas are highly uninhabited due to the rural exodus. Nowthere is some revitalisation due to rural tourism.

o In coastal areas they grew a lot thanks to the arrival of tourism.o Some villages close to big towns have taken on urban functions and are part of

their metropolitan area.

5.2.

Spanish cities

According to the Instituto Nacional de Estadística in Spain a city must exceed 10,000inhabitants.

o The Spanish urbanisation rate is close to 80%.Spanish cities have changed a lot in history:

o Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians founded the first cities in Spain, whichwere quite small and were like trading posts on the coast.

o Romans founded many cities across Spain and had military, commercial andadministrative functions.




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The modern Spanish cities have several parts:o Historical centre. It is the origin of the city, where the monumental area stands

and its layout is usually irregular. It is commonly an area for commerce andrestaurants.

o Ensanche . It was built in the 19th and early 20th centuries and it has blocks of

houses for medium-class families in wide avenues and luxurious buildings. Thereare many shops there too.o Periphery. It can have different kinds of uses:

Residential areas. They are occupied by houses which can be both forworking classes and for middle classes. There can be both blocks of

buildings or individual low houses (they are usually closer to thesuburbs).

Communal areas. They include all the public services for the population: sport facilities, parks, schools, hospitals... They can beusually found at the outskirts of the city.

Industrial estates They are commonly at the outskirts and they are

i. geography. physical, human, and urban

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