Crash Course in Poetry

Poetic Subgenres

Narrative:

General characteristics:

1. The persona is the poet, but the events rendered are not those of the poet.

2. Non-dramatic, objective verse with regular rhyme scheme and meter which relates a

story or narrative.

3. The narrative poem tells a story, sometimes simple, sometimes complicated,

sometimes brief, sometimes long (as in the epic). Because of the increasing

acceptance of the novel and shorter forms of prose fiction, narrative verse appears

less frequently today. Almost opposite of the lyric, it can be characterized as follows:

4. It is highly objective.

5. It is told by a speaker detached from the action.

6. The thoughts and feelings of the speaker do not enter the poem.

7. The rhyme scheme is regular.

Specific types:

1. Epic: A long, dignified narrative poem that gives the account of a hero important to

his/her nation or race. Epics will follow many conventions, including: the invocation

of a muse, the use of epithets, the listing of heroes and combatants, and the beginning

in medias res.

a. Anonymous: Beowulf

b. Lord Byron: Don Juan

c. John Milton: Paradise Lost

d. Homer: The Iliad; The Odyssey

e. Longfellow: The Song of Hiawatha

2. Ballad: Simple, narrative verse which tells a story to be sung or recited; the folk

ballad is anonymously handed down, while the literary ballad has a single author.

Ballads were usually created for singing, dealing with a dramatic episode, usually

derived from a tragic incident in local history or legend. The story is told simply,

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impersonally, and often with vivid dialogue. Ballads are normally composed in

quatrains with alternating four-stress and three-stress lines, the second and fourth

lines rhyming; but some ballads are in couplet form, and some others have six-line

stanzas.

a. John Keats: “La Belle Dame sans Merci”

b. Edward Arlington Robinson: “Richard Cory”

c. William Butler Yeats: “The Fiddler of Dooney”

Dramatic:

General Characteristics:

The persona of the poem is not the poet, but some other “character.” The events

of the poem relate the experiences of this character.

Specific Type:

1. Dramatic Monologue: A poem in which the speaker tells a silent audience about a

dramatic moment in his/her life and, in doing so, reveals his/her character.

The Victorian poet Robert Browning brought the dramatic monologue to great

heights. As the title suggests, it is a poem told by one speaker about a significant event.

Several qualities exist in the form:

The speaker reveals in his/her own words some dramatic situation in which he/she

is involved.

The speaker demonstrates his/her character through the poem.

The speaker addresses a listener who does not engage in dialogue but helps to

develop the speech.

We enter the psyche of the speaker, and the skillful poet makes much of his/her

own nature, attitudes, and circumstances available in words to the reader who discerns

the implications of the poem.

The dramatic monologue differs from a soliloquy in a play in that, in drama, time

and place are developed before the character ascends the stage alone to make his/her

remarks, whereas the dramatic monologue by itself establishes time, place, and character.

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a. Robert Browning: “My Last Duchess”

b. T. S. Eliot: “The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock”

Lyric:

General Characteristics:

The persona is the poet (implied), and the events rendered are those of the persona.

Subjective, reflective poetry with regular rhyme scheme and meter which reveals the

poet’s thoughts and feelings to create a single, unique impression.

a. Matthew Arnold: “Dover Beach”

b. William Blake: “The Lamb,” “The Tiger”

c. Emily Dickinson: “Because I Could Not Stop for Death”

d. Langston Hughes: “Dream Deferred”

e. Andrew Marvell: “To His Coy Mistress”

f. Walt Whitman: “Out of the Cradle Endlessly Rocking”

The lyric is the most widely used type of poem, so diverse in its format that a

rigid definition is impossible. However, several qualities are common to all lyrics:

They are limited in length.

They are intensely subjective

They are personal expressions of personal emotions.

Each expresses the thoughts and feelings of a single speaker.

They are highly imaginative.

Each as a regular rhyme scheme.

Actually, many other types of poems are lyrics, but they occur so frequently that they merit a

separate classification. Among them are the following:

a. Aubade: a song written to praise the coming of dawn, or to lament the dawn’s separating

two lovers.

a. Shakespeare: Act III,v of Romeo and Juliet

b. Edna St. Vincent Millay: “Aubade”

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b. Ballade: a French poem of three eight-line stanzas, rhyming ababbcbc, and an envoy--a

four-line refrain--rhyming bcbc, recited to another person.

c. Dirge: a poem or song of lament, usually a commemoration for the dead.

d. Eclogue: a bucolic or pastoral poem such as Spenser’s Shepheardes Calendar.

e. Elegy: A poem of lament, meditating on the death of a friend or public figure.

a. W. H. Auden: “In Memory of W. B. Yeats”

b. John Milton: “Lycidas”

c. Theodore Roethke: “Elegy for Jane”

d. Alfred, Lord Tennyson: “In Memoriam A. H. H.”

During the classical period in Greece, the elegy took a specific form (couplets in

metric unison) to deal with the poet’s attitude not only about death, but also about life

and love. Now the term refers specifically to poems that mourn the death of an

individual, the absence of something deeply loved, or the transience of humankind.

A form of the lyric, the poem has a solemn, dignified tone as it laments the loss of

something dear to the poet or to humankind.

A particular subset is the Pastoral Elegy, a mourning poem with a joyous ending. The

format involves a shepherd set in a pastoral world, a rustic, fertile environment marked

by eternal summer and fecund nature. Among the more famous ones are Milton’s

“Lycidas” and Shelley’s “Adonais.”

f. Epithalamion: a poem written in celebration of marriage.

g. Hymn: a poem of religious emotion usually written for singing.

h. Idyll: Short, lyric poetry describing an incident of country life in terms of idealized

innocence and contentment.

a. Alfred, Lord Tennyson: “Idylls of the King”

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b. William Wordsworth: “The Solitary Reaper”

i. Monody: a poem similar to a dirge; a Greek poem of mourning sung by one person.

j. Ode: Elaborate lyric verse with deals seriously with a dignified theme.

An ode is an exalted, complex, rapturous lyric poem to ceremoniously address a

person or an abstract quality. The original ancient odes were written in Greece, delivered

by a chorus singing and performing an elaborate dance. The Greek poet Pindar

developed the first odes consisting of complex stanzaic forms in units of three, the

strophe, antistrophe, and epode. Each section had a movement of the chorus in dance

rhythm; together they were meant to correspond to ebbs and flows of emotion.

a. John Keats: “Ode on a Grecian Urn”

b. Percy Bysshe Shelley: “Ode to the West Wind”

c. William Wordsworth: “Ode: Intimations of Immortality”

In English there are three approximate types of odes:

a. The Pindaric or regular ode consists of the same strophe, antistrophe, epode

division of its historical antecedent. Metrics and verse vary at times, but a regular

rhythmic pattern emerges.

b. The Horation or homostrophic ode is patterned after the subject, form, and tone of

the Roman poet Horace’s verse. It consists of one repeated stanza type, although

it may vary within is form (e.g., Keat’s “Ode to Autumn”).

c. The irregular ode, growing from the work of the seventeenth century poet

Abraham Cowley, imitates the spirit of the Pindaric or regular ode, but disregards

the strophe and stanza rules. It is very flexible and offers the poet an opportunity

to change stanza line structure, length, meter, and rhyme to suit his/her subject,

mood, and tone. Because of the freedom in the irregular ode, it is the most

common in English poetry.

k. Pastoral: many forms of literature fit this category; its setting is a created world marked

by constant summer and fecund nature.

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l. Rondeau: a French poem for light topics; it has 15 octosyllabic lines, with refrains at lines

9 and 15, rhymed aabba, aabc, aabbac.

m. Rondel: a poem similar to a rondeau, with usually 13 (or sometimes 14) lines, with the

first two lines repeated at lines 7 and 8. The rhyme scheme is: ABba abAB abba A(B).

n. Song: a poem for musical expression, usually brief, straightforward, and emotional.

o. Sonnet: A rigid 14-line verse form, with variable structure and rhyme scheme according

to type. All sonnets are written in iambic pentameter.

a. Petrarchan (Italian)—an octave and sestet, between which a break in thought

occurs; usually two ideas are developed, either compared or contrasted.

Frequently the octave develops a question, a story, or an idea, and the sestet

presents the answer, a comment, or a proposition. The traditional rhyme scheme

is abba abba cde cde (or, in the sestet, any variation of c, d, e).

i. Elizabeth Barrett Browning: “How Do I Love Thee?”

ii. John Donne: “Death, Be Not Proud”

b. Shakespearean (English)—three quatrains and concluding couplet in iambic

pentameter, there are two standard variations: rhyming abab cdcd efef gg or abba

cddc effe gg. Each of the three quatrains develops a different aspect of the

subject, and the couplet makes a final comment.

c. Spenserian—a specialized English form with linking rhyme abab bcbc cdcd ee.

d. Miltonian—a specialized English form with the same octave scheme as the

Petrarchan sonnet (abba abba) but keeps the sestet as an integral part of the

meaning of the poem rather than coming to a conclusion.

i. Robert Lowell: “Salem”

ii. William Shakespeare: “Shall I Compare Thee?”; “Those Lips That Love's

Own Hand Did Make”

iii. John Milton: “On His Blindness”

Many great poets have maintained the sonnet tradition, among them (in

addition to those already mentioned) Sidney, Wordsworth, Rossetti, Elizabeth

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Barrett Browing, Wyatt (who first wrote them in English) and Surrey, along with

Americans Longfellow, Robinson, Millay, and cummings.

A very legitimate question to ask is why this form has existed so long,

given the incredible limitations and rigors it imposes on the poet. The most

obvious answer is that these very restrictions tax the poet’s skill to make the poem

seem to escape the form. What the sonneteer seeks is to adhere to the form but to

make the form totally subservient to the meaning and movement of the poem.

The compressed form invites intense expressions of idea, sound, and devices.

With little ground to dig into, the poet must be very exacting as he/she plants

ideas.

Many poets have chosen to write a series of sonnets unified by subject.

This is called a sonnet sequence. Some of the better known ones include

Spenser’s Amoretti, Sidney’s Astrophel and Stella, and E. B. Browning’s Sonnets

for the Portuguese.

p. Threnody: a poem similar to a dirge; in Greek poetry it mourns the dead and is sung by a

chorus.

q. Vers de société: light verse, written in a congenial, witty, amorous way, dealing with the

frivolous concerns of upper-class social life. It is a harmless, playful, poetic satire with

some technical elegance.

r. Villanelle: A French verse form, strictly calculated to appear simple and spontaneous;

five tercets and a final quatrain, rhyming aba aba aba aba aba abaa. Line 1 is repeated

exactly in lines 6, 12, and 18, while line 3 is repeated exactly in lines 9, 15, and 19.

Although a highly specialized form, the villanelle is a difficult kind of poem to

write without seeming trite or repetitive. Originally a light, pastoral verse, the villanelle

has been used by modern poets to outstanding effect.

a. Theodore Roethke: “The Walking”

b. Dylan Thomas: “Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night”

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Verse Types

Blank Verse: Unrhymed lines, but each line is basically iambic pentameter ( ).

Generally, we find this type used most often in plays, especially Shakespeare’s. The tone of

blank verse tends to be serious. Today, critics employ the term to include many unrhymed

metric forms, where iambic pentameter occurs but not constantly.

Good blank verse is hard to write. The absence of rhyme seemingly would leave a great

deal of latitude for the poet, but he/she must compensate for this in many other ways. The use of

enjambment (run-on lines) and caesuras (pauses within a line) must be meticulously done. In

addition, the form must accommodate many different emotions: humorous, solemn, happy,

melancholic, exalted, condescending, praising, angry, etc.

a. Robert Frost: “Birches”

b. John Milton: “Paradise Lost”

c. Theodore Roethke: “I Knew a Woman”

d. William Shakespeare: Macbeth

e. Robert Frost: “Mending Wall”

Free Verse (Vers libre): Unrhymed lines without regular rhythm.

Free verse is free from the limitations of fixed meter and rhyme; but this is not to say that

it lacks poetic techniques. In fact, its freedom allows the poet to pick and choose among many

rhyming, metric, and language devices to develop each line successively. Free verse is very

rhythmic, often patterned after the spoken word.

In the mid-1800s Walt Whitman introduced it extensively, and free verse had since

grown in usage. Given the extreme mechanization and technology of the twentieth century,

many modern poets turn to free verse in an effort to escape formal conventions and to give

freedom and life to their poetry.

In free verse, the poet makes frequent use of such devices as image, symbol, internal

rhyme, and figurative language. The difficulty of writing free verse lies in achieving unity

within the poem, given the endless possibilities for developing the ideas. Deciding lines,

grammar, and rhythm are formidable tasks. When the poet succeeds in gathering his/her

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resources to create a consistently unified poem, a great work develops. This characteristic of

unity is what separates excellent form mediocre free verse poems.

Light Verse: A general category of poetry written to entertain, such as lyric poetry, epigrams,

and limericks. It can also have a serious side, as in parody or satire.

a. Vachel Lindsay: “The Congo”

b. Lewis Carroll: “Jabberwocky”

Limerick: Humorous nonsense-verse in five anapestic lines rhyming aabba, a-lines being trimeter

and b-lines dimeter.

a. Edward Lear: various

Japanese Verse: Unrhymed verse in lines of particular number of syllables, often depicting a

delicate image.

Haiku—three lines of five, seven and five syllables.

Tanka—five lines of five, seven, five, seven, and seven syllables.

Cinquain—five lines of two, four, six, eight, and two syllables.

a. Matsuo Basko: various

Poetic Meter

Meter is poetry’s rhythm, or its pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. Meter is measured

in units of feet; the five basic kinds of meter are indicated below. Accent marks indicate stressed

( ) or unstressed ( ) syllable.

Iambic (Iamb): ( / )

Trochaic (Trochee): ( / )

Anapestic (Anapest): ( / )

Dactylic (Dactyl): ( / )

Spondaic (Spondee): ( // )

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Other Metric Terms

Amphibrach: a foot of unstressed, stressed, unstressed syllables ( / ).

Anàcrusis: an extra unaccented syllable at the beginning of a line before the regular line

begins.

Amphimacher: a foot with stressed, unstressed, stressed syllables ( // ).

Catalexis: an extra unaccented syllable at he ending of a line after the regular meter ends

(opposite of anàcrusis).

Caesura: a pause in the meter or rhythm of a line.

Enjambment: a run-on line, continuing into the next without a grammatical break.

Aspects of Poetry

Tone: the author’s attitude toward his/her audience and subject.

Theme: the author’s major idea or meaning.

Dramatic Situation: the circumstances of the speaker.

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GLOSSARY OF LITERARY TERMS

accentual meter: Lines of verse organized by number of stresses rather than by feet or number of syllables. This was the form of poetry written in Old English (which combined stress with alliteration). For a modern example, see Richard Wilbur, "Junk" (1961). Accentual meter is the basis of sprung rhythm.

accentual-stress meter: Lines of verse based on the metrical foot. This is the most common form of English poetry.

alliteration: The repetition of sounds in nearby words, most often involving the initial consonants of words (and sometimes the internal consonants in stressed syllables).

allusion: An indirect reference to a text, myth, event, or person outside the poem itself (compare echo). Although it is woven into the context of the poem, it carries its own history of meaning: for example, see the reference to Hamlet in T. S. Eliot, "The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" (1917).

ambiguity: The ability to mean more than one thing.

analogy: Resemblance in certain respects between things that are otherwise unlike; also, the use of such likeness to predict other similarities.

anapest: Two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed one, as in "unabridged" (see foot).

anaphora: Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive lines. For example, see Anne Bradstreet, "To My Dear and Loving Husband" (1678).

apostrophe: an address to a person or personified object not present.

assonance: The repetition of vowel sounds in a line or series of lines. Assonance often affects pace (by working against short and long vowel patterns) and seems to underscore the words included in the pattern. For example, see the beginning of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, "Kubla Khan" (1816).

antanaclasis: is the stylistic trope of repeating a single word, but with a different meaning each time. Antanaclasis is a common type of pun. Examples: "If you aren't fired with enthusiasm, you will be fired with enthusiasm." —Vince Lombardi; "Time flies like an arrow. Fruit flies like a banana." -Groucho Marx

aubade: A lyric about the dawn (e.g., see John Donne, "The Sun Rising" [1633]).

ballad: A narrative poem, impersonally related, that is (or originally was) meant to be sung. Characterized by repetition and often by a repeated refrain (a recurrent phrase or series of phrases), the earliest ballads were anonymous works transmitted orally from person to person through generations. For example, see "Sir Patrick Spens." Modern literary ballads imitate these folk creations (e.g., Samuel Taylor Coleridge, "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" [1798]).

ballad stanza: A four-line stanza, the second and fourth lines of which are iambic trimeter and rhyme with each other; the first and third lines, in iambic tetrameter, do not rhyme. This form, frequently used in hymns, is also known as "common meter"; a loose form of it is often used by Emily Dickinson.

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blank verse: Unrhymed iambic pentameter; for (or originally was) meant to be sung. Characterized by repetition and often by a repeated refrain (a recurrent phrase or series of phrases), the earliest ballads were anonymous works transmitted orally from person to person through generations. For example, see "Sir Patrick Spens." Modern literary ballads imitate these folk creations (e.g., Samuel Taylor Coleridge, "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" [1798]).

ballad stanza: A four-line stanza, the second and fourth lines of which are iambic trimeter and rhyme with each other; the first and third lines, in iambic tetrameter, do not rhyme. This form, frequently used in hymns, is also known as "common meter"; a loose form of it is often used by Emily Dickinson.

blank verse: Unrhymed iambic pentameter; for example, see Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "Ulysses" (1842).

caesura: A sign, used in scansion, that marks a natural pause in speaking a line of poetry.

conceit: an extended metaphor comparing two unlike objects with powerful effect. (It owes its roots to elaborate analogies in Petrarch and to the Metaphysical poets, particularly John Donne.)

concrete poetry: An attempt to supplement (or replace) verbal meaning with visual devices from painting and sculpture. A true concrete poem cannot be spoken; it is viewed, not read (compare pattern poetry).

confessional poem: A relatively new (or recently defined) kind of poetry in which the speaker focuses on the poet's own psychic biography. This label is often applied to writings of Robert Lowell, Sylvia Plath, and Anne Sexton.

connotation: What is suggested by a word, apart from what it explicitly and directly describes (compare denotation). For example, the "cypresses" of Eavan Boland's "That the Science of Cartography Is Limited" (1994) connote death, because of their traditional associations with mourning.

controlling metaphors: Metaphors that dominate or organize an entire poem. For example, metaphors of movement structure John Donne's "A Valediction Forbidding Mourning" (1633).

conventions: Standard ways of saying things in verse, employed to achieve certain expected effects. Conventions may pertain to style (e.g., the rhyme scheme of the sonnet) or content (e.g., the figure of the shepherd in the pastoral).

couplet: A pair of lines, almost always rhyming, that form a unit.

dactyl: A stressed syllable followed by two unstressed ones, as in "screwdriver" (see foot).

denotation: The direct and literal meaning of a word or phrase (as distinct from its implication). Compare connotation.

dramatic poetry: Poetry written in the voice of one or more characters assumed by the poet. For example, Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales are dramatic narratives.

dramatic monologue: A poem written in the voice of a character, set in a specific situation, and spoken to someone. This form is most strongly identified with poems of Robert Browning (e.g., "My Last Duchess" [1842]); see also Alfred, Lord Tennyson, "Ulysses" (1842).

echo: A reference that recalls a word, phrase, or sound in another text. For example, "And indeed there will be time" in Eliot's "Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock" (1917) recalls both Ecclesiastes 3.1 ("To

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everything there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven") and Andrew Marvell, "To His Coy Mistress" (1681; "Had we but world enough and time"). It is less specific than an allusion.

elegy: In classical times, any poem on any subject written in "elegiac" meter (dactylic couplets comprising a hexameter followed by a pentameter line), but since the Renaissance usually a formal lament for the death of a particular person. For example, see W. H. Auden, "In Memory of W. B. Yeats" (1940).

end stop: A line break that coincides with the end of the sentence (vs. a run-on line; compare enjambment).

English sonnet: Three four-line stanzas and a couplet, rhymed abab cdcd efef gg. For example, see William Shakespeare, Sonnet 146 (1609; "Poor soul, the center of my sinful earth").

enjambment: The use of a line that "runs on" to the next line, without pause, to complete its grammatical sense (compare end stop). For example, see Gwendolyn Brooks, "We Real Cool" (1960).

envoy: A short concluding stanza found in certain poetic forms (e.g., the sestina) that often provides a concise summing-up of the poem.

epic: A long poem, in a continuous narrative often divided into "books," on a great or serious subject. Traditionally, it celebrates the achievements of mighty heroes and heroines, using elevated language and a grand, high style (e.g., Homer's Iliad), but later epics have been more personal (e.g., William Wordsworth's Prelude [1805 / 1850]) and less formal in structure (e.g., H. D. 's Helen in Egypt [1961]).

epigram: Originally any poem carved in stone (on tombstones, buildings, gates, etc.), but in modern usage a very short, usually witty verse with a quick turn at the end (e.g., much of the light verse of Ogden Nash).

extended metaphors: Detailed and complex metaphors that extend over a long section of a poem (e.g., the metaphor of grass in Whitman's "Song of Myself" [1881], section 6 or of the compass in Donne's "A Valediction Forbidding Mourning").

feminine rhyme: Rhymes comprised of a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable (e.g., see George Gordon, Lord Byron, Don Juan 1.38 [1819]: "He learn'd the arts of riding, fencing, gunnery, / And how to scale a fortress— or a nunnery"). Compare masculine rhyme.

figures of speech: Uses of a word or words that go beyond the literal meaning to show or imply a relationship, evoking a further meaning. Such figures, sometimes called "tropes" (i.e., rhetorical "turns"), include anaphora, metaphor, metonymy, and irony.

foot: The basic unit, consisting of two or three syllables, into which a line is divided in scansion. Verse is labeled according to its dominant foot (e.g., iambic) and the number of feet per line (e.g., pentameter). Lines of one, two, three, four, five, and six feet are respectively called monometer, dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, pentameter, and hexameter. See anapest, iamb, dactyl, spondee, and trochee.

free verse: Poetry that does not follow the rules of regularized meter and strict form. However, these open forms continue to rely on patterns of rhythm and repetition to impose order; for example, see Whitman, "Song of Myself" (1881).

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heroic couplet: A pair of rhymed lines of iambic pentameter. For example, see Geoffrey Chaucer, "The Pardoner's Tale"; perhaps the most polished instances of this form are provided by Alexander Pope.

hyperbole: gross exaggeration for effect: overstatement.

iamb: An unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one, as in "above" (see foot). Iambic is the most common meter in English poetry.

image: A mental representation of a particular thing able to be visualized (and often able to be apprehended by senses other than sight).

irony: A figure in which what is stated is the opposite of what is meant or expected, or the contrast between actual meaning and the suggestion of another meaning.. For example, see Wilfred Owen's ironic use of Horace, Odes 3.2.13, in "Dulce Et Decorum Est" (1920).

verbal irony—meaning one thing and saying another.

dramatic irony—two levels of meaning—what the speaker says and what he/she means, and what the speaker says and the author means.

situational irony—when the reality of a situation differs from the anticipated or intended effect; when something unexpected occurs.

Italian sonnet: An octave (eight lines) and a sestet (six lines); typically rhymed abbaabba cdecde, it has many variations that still reflect the basic division into two parts separated by a rhetorical turn of argument (e.g., see Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Sonnets from the Portuguese [1850]).

limerick: A five-line light poem, usually in anapestic rhythm. The first, second, and fifth lines are rhymed trimeter; lines three and four are rhymed dimeter. The rhymes are frequently eccentric, and the subject matter is often nonsensical or obscene.

litotes: a form of understatement in which the negative of an antonym is used to achieve emphasis and intensity.

lyric: Originally a poem meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a lyre. Now, a lyric is the most common verse form: any fairly short poem in the voice of a single speaker, usually expressing personal concerns rather than describing a narrative or dramatic situation.

masculine rhyme: Rhymes that consist of a single stressed syllable. This is the most common form of end rhyme in English (compare feminine rhyme).

meditation: A contemplation of some physical object as a way of reflecting upon some larger truth, often (but not necessarily) a spiritual one. For example, see Wallace Stevens, "Sunday Morning" (1923).

metaphor: A figure of speech that relies on a likeness or analogy between two things to equate them and thus suggest a relationship between them. For example, in "A Far Cry from Africa" (1962) Derek Walcott portrays the continent as an animal, with a "tawny pelt" and "bloodstreams." Compare metonymy, simile.

meter: The formal organization of the rhythm of a line into regular patterns; see foot, scansion.

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metonymy: A figure that relies on a close relationship other than similarity (compare metaphor) in substituting a word or phrase for the thing meant. For example, the "scepter" in Tennyson's "Ulysses" (1842) represents the rule of Ithaca.

mnemonic devices: Forms, such as rhyme, built into poems to help reciters remember the poems.

motif: A recurrent device, formula, or situation that deliberately connects a poem with preexisting patterns and conventions. For example, Edmund Spenser's Sonnet 75 (1595; "One day I wrote her name upon the strand") relies on the motif of immortality through poetry (cf. William Shakespeare, Sonnet 55 [1609]).

mythologies: Large systems of belief and tradition on which cultures draw to explain and understand themselves. These are often political or religious, and often become conventional over time (for example, see the use of "Venus' son" in Elizabeth's "When I Was Fair and Young").

narrative: Poetry that tells a story and is primarily characterized by linear, chronological description.

occasional poem: A poem written about or for a specific occasion, public or private (e.g., Maya Angelou's poem for the 1993 presidential inauguration, "On the Pulse of Morning"). Such poems can transcend the particular incident that inspired them; for example, see William Butler Yeats, "Easter 1916" (1916).

ode: An extended lyric, usually elevated in style and with an elaborate stanzaic structure (e.g., see Samuel Taylor Coleridge, "Dejection: An Ode" [1817]).

off-rhyme: Rhyme that does not perfectly match in vowel or consonant sound; for example, see William Butler Yeats, "Easter 1916" (1916): faces / houses, gibe / club, etc.

onomatopoeia: Use of a word or words the sound of which approximates the sound of the thing denoted (e.g., "splash").

oxymoron: A figure of speech that combines two apparently contradictory words (e.g, John Milton's description of the flames of hell as giving "No light, but rather darkness visible" in Paradise Lost 1.63 [1667]).paradox: a statement which appears self-contradictory, but underlines a basis of truth.

parody: A poem that imitates another poem closely, but changes details for comic or critical effect. For example, "The Dover Bitch" by Anthony Hecht (1968) parodies Matthew Arnold's "Dover Beach" (1867).

pastoral: A poem (also called an eclogue, a bucolic, or an idyll) that portrays the simple life of country folk, usually shepherds, as a timeless world of beauty, peace, and contentment. From its beginnings (the Greek Idyls of Theocritus, third century B.C.), pastoral has idealized rural life; poets have used the conventions of this highly artificial form to explore subjects having little to do with any actual countryside (for example, see Christopher Marlowe, "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love" [1599, 1600]). There is also a large subgenre of pastoral elegy (e.g., see John Milton, "Lycidas" [1637]).

pattern poetry: A poem with lines in the shape of the subject of the poem. This form was popular in English poetry in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (e.g., George Herbert, "Easter Wings" [1633]) and again in the twentieth century (notably by John Hollander and May Swenson). Compare with concrete poetry.

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persona: A voice assumed by the author of a poem. See speaker.

personification: Treating an abstraction as if it were a person, endowing it with humanlike qualities. For an extended example, see Emily Dickinson, #712 (1890; "Because I could not stop for Death").

Petrarchan sonnet: See Italian sonnet.

prosopopoeia: See personification.

protest poem: An attack, sometimes indirect, on institutions or social injustices. For example, see Anna Letitia Barbauld, "The Rights of Woman" (1825).

quantitative meter: Lines of verse divided into feet, which are scanned by syllable length (actual duration of the sound) rather than stress (compare accentual meter). This is the form of classical Greek and Latin verse, and it is very difficult to reproduce in English, which privileges stress.

quatrain: A four-line stanza, whether rhymed or unrhymed. This is the most common stanza form in English poetry.

rhyme: The repetition of the same ("perfect rhyme") or similar sounds, most often at the ends of lines. See off-rhyme, vowel rhyme, and the following.

rime: old spelling of rhyme, which is the repetition of like sounds at regular intervals, employed in versification, the writing of verse.

end rhyme: rhyme occurring at the end of verse line; most common rhyme form.

internal rhyme: rhyme contained within a line of verse.

rhyme scheme: pattern of rhymes with a unit of verse; in analysis, each end rhyme-sound is represented by a letter.

masculine rhyme: rhyme in which only the last, accented syllable of the rhyming words correspond exactly in sound; most common kind of end rhyme.

feminine rhyme: rhyme in which two consecutive syllables of the rhyming words correspond, the first syllable carrying the accent; double rhyme.

half rhyme (slant rhyme): imperfect, approximate rhyme.

assonance: repetition of two or more vowel sounds within a line (see vowel rhyme).

consonance: repetition of two or more consonant sounds within a line.

alliteration: the repetition of one or more initial sounds, usually consonants, in words within a line.

onomatopoeia: the use of a word whose sound suggests its meaning.

euphony: the use of compatible, harmonious sounds to produce a pleasing, melodious effect.

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cacophony: the use of inharmonious sounds in conjunction for effect; opposite of euphony.

rhyme royal: A seven-line iambic pentameter stanza, rhymed ababbcc. For example, see Thomas Wyatt, "They Flee from Me" (1557).

scansion: The analysis of a line of poetry (by "scanning") to determine its pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables, which usually are divided into metrical feet. See foot.

sestina: Six six-line stanzas and a final three-line stanza in a complex form that repeats words, not lines (as in the villanelle) or rhymes. The final word in each line of the first stanza becomes the final word in other stanzas (in a set pattern: ABCDEF, FAEBDC, CFDABE, ECBFAD, DEACFB, BDFECA); the lines in the concluding stanza, or envoy, usually end ECA and each line contains one of the remaining three end words. Invented in the twelfth century by the troubadours, the form has again come into use in the twentieth century (e.g., by Marilyn Hacker); the repetitions often convey a sense of circling around a subject.

setting: The time and place of the action in a poem.Shakespearean sonnet: See English sonnet.

simile: A direct, explicit comparison of one thing to another that usually draws the connection with the words "like" or "as." Compare metaphor. situation: The context of the action in a poem; that is, what is happening when the poem begins.

sonnet: A form, usually only a single stanza, that offers several related possibilities for its rhyme scheme; however, it is always fourteen lines long and usually written in iambic pentameter. See English sonnet, Italian sonnet, and Spenserian sonnet.

speaker: The person, not necessarily the author, who is the voice of a poem. See persona.

Spenserian sonnet: Three four-line stanzas (interwoven by overlapping rhyme) and a couplet; this sonnet is rhymed abab bcbc cdcd ee. For example, see Edmund Spenser, Sonnet 71 (1595; "One day I wrote her name upon the strand").

Spenserian stanza: Eight lines of iambic pentameter and a ninth line of iambic hexameter, called an alexandrine, rhymed ababbcbbc. The name of the stanza comes from Edmund Spenser's use of it in The Faerie Queene (1596); see also John Keats, "The Eve of St. Agnes" (1820).

spondee: A stressed syllable followed by another syllable of approximately equal stress, as in "hot dog" (see foot).

sprung rhythm: Gerard Manley Hopkins' blending of accentual meter with the more familiar feet of accentual-syllable meter. In his system, each foot begins with a stress; the line is measured by the number of stresses, which fall with normal word stress (and need not be separated by unstressed syllables).

stanzas: Groups of lines, usually in some predetermined pattern of meter and rhyme, that are set off from one another by a space.

subject: The general or specific area of concern of a poem; also called its topic.

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syllabic verse: A form in which the poet establishes a precise number of syllables to a line, without regard to their stress, and repeats them in subsequent stanzas. For example, see Marianne Moore, "Poetry" (1921).

symbol: A word or image that stands for something else in a vivid but indeterminate way: it suggests more than what it actually says. For example, see Li-Young Lee, "Persimmons" (1986).

symbolic poem: A poem in which the use of symbols is so pervasive and internally consistent that the larger referential world is distanced, if not forgotten. For example, see Adrienne Rich, "Diving into the Wreck" (1973).

synecdoche: a figure of speech in which a part represents the whole object or idea.

synesthesia: Figurative expression of the perception of one sense in terms of another. For example, see William Blake, "London" (1794): "And the hapless Soldier's sigh / Runs in blood down Palace walls."

syntax: The formal arrangement of words in a sentence.

terza rima: A series of three-line stanzas with interlocking rhymes, invented by Dante for The Divine Comedy (aba, bcb, cdc, ded, etc.) in the early fourteenth century. For an English example, see Percy Bysshe Shelley, "Ode to the West Wind" (1820).

theme: The statement a poem makes about its subject. Although, generally speaking, the theme is what a poem is "about," the meaning of a poem can never be reduced to one or more of the themes within the poem.

tone: The attitude taken in or by a poem toward the subject and theme.

topic: See subject.

tradition: A customary practice or a widely accepted way of viewing or representing things; it usually includes many conventions.

trochee: A stressed syllable followed by an unstressed one, as in "liar" (see foot).

villanelle: A poem that contains five three-line stanzas and a final four-line stanza. Only two rhyme sounds are permitted in the entire poem, and the first and third lines of the first stanza are repeated, alternately, as the third line of subsequent three-line stanzas; the last stanza ends with these two lines. Like the sestina, the villanelle is a circular form; its movement recalls a dance, and indeed it was originally derived from an Italian folk song. For a loose example, see Rita Dove, "Parsley: 1. The Cane Fields" (1983); for a stricter example, see Dylan Thomas, "Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night" [1952]).

vowel rhyme: Rhyme words that have only their vowel sounds in common. For example, see Dylan Thomas, "Fern Hill" (1946): boughs / towns, green / leaves, etc.

zeugma: The use of one word (usually a verb) to "yoke" two or more words to which it applies in different senses (e.g., see Alexander Pope's Belinda, who may "stain her Honour, or her new Brocade"; The Rape of the Lock 2.107 [1714]).

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