hydrogeological study in bangsing deurali vdc, syangja...each of them we extend our sincere...

Hydrogeological Study in Bangsing Deurali VDC, SyangjaAn Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Mountain Ecosystem in Nepal

supported by:

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The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN.

Published by: IUCN Nepal, Kupondole, Lalitpur, Nepal

Edited by: Amit Poudyal & Anu Adhikari, IUCN Nepal

Designed by: Naresh Subba (Limbu), IUCN Nepal

Language editing: Dr. Bishnu Hari Baral

Copyright: © July, 2013 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources

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Available from:IUCN NepalKupondole, LalitpurP.O. Box 3923, Kathmandu, NepalTel: (977-1) 5528781Fax: (977-1) 5536786E-mail: [email protected]: www.iucn.org/nepal

Hydrogeological Study in Bangsing Deurali VDC, Syangja

This Report has been published under ‘Ecosystem-based Adaptation in Mountain Ecosyestem’ Project, jointly

implemented by International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP) and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) with financial support from Germany’s Federal

Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU).

supported by:

Research Team:Basanta Raj AdhikariMadan Krishna Suwal

Technical Advisor Team of IUCN Nepal:Anu AdhikariRajendra KhanalRacchya ShahSony BaralDr. Yam Malla

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study would not have been possible without the support of many individuals and organizations toeach of them we extend our sincere gratitude. IUCN, International Union for Conservation of Nature, isgrateful to all people who provided their technical and administrative support to prepare this report. Weare also thankful to Practical Solution Consultancy Nepal Pvt Ltd (PSPL) for conducting this study on“Hydrogeological Study in Bangsing Deurali VDC, Syangja” and support to prepare this documentin the present form. Precisely, Mr. Basanta Raj Adhikari and Mr. Madan Krishna Suwal of PSPL aresincerely acknowledged for conducting this research.

We would like to express our gratitude to all the residents of Bangsing Deurali VDC for their help andparticipation in this study during the field work.

Our heart-felt thanks go to Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management, Departmentof Hydrology and Meteorology, Department of Survey, Department of Forest, Agriculture TechnologyCentre and all district level government and non-government stakeholders for their co-operation.

July, 2013

I

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Mountain springs are a major source of fresh water for drinking and other household uses in Nepal.Recharge of ground water increases discharge of the springs and seepages, and thus, causes morerapid outflow of ground water. Recharge and discharge processes are the cause of seasonal, local, andshort-term fluctuations in spring water yield in the young and dynamically active Himalayan ecosystem.To yield water from nature, sustainable development is necessary where the Ecosystem-based Adaptation(EbA) approach can be adopted. In EbA approach, the yield of water from an ecosystem can be enhancedby managing forests at upslope to increase recharge of ground water and to retain water in soil. Differentgreen water infrastructures such as retention pond, recharge pond can also be constructed, to increasewater yield from ecosystems. The present study therefore attempted to understand the effect of rainfall,physiography, lithology, slope and aspect, land use, vegetation, altitude, soil type and anthropogenicinterferences (e.g. road construction, deforestation, settlement, etc.) to analyze recharge of the springsof Bangsing Deurali VDC of Syangja district and to develop feasible EbA options for wise use of water forsustainable supply.

Participatory, consultative, field-based inventory and spring sampling were used in the study. Geologicalsurvey, land use and land cover survey, soil sampling, discharge measurement of spring water andidentification of potential sites for green water infrastructure development were carried out in the fieldwhile water holding capacity and physiochemical characteristics of soil were analysed in the laboratory.Focus group discussions were prompt to generate idea about existing springs, water use and supplysituations and EbA options. Information on past and present scenarios of water resources and theirrelationship with climate change was sought in the discussion.

Spring water discharge was basically controlled by geology, soil types, vegetation and land use patterns.Meteorology data analysis showed that the number of rainy days was decreasing throughout the yearwith decreasing winter precipitation, resulting in gradual drying out of the springs in the VDC. Presentwater discharge of the springs was adequate to meet the current requirements, but sustainable supplywill not exists unless the current management system is strengthened because the demand is alwaysjeopardized by exponential growth of human population. Participatory management of water and itsallied resources was imperative to develop ownership and responsibility among the local communities.To increase water yield in springs, the existing forest areas should be restored and afforestation initiated.Afforestation is likely to be feasible in ward number 1, 4, 5, 8 and 9 and restoration in 2, 3, 6 and 7 of theVDC. Different twelve potential green water infrastructure development sites were identified for thegroundwater recharge. Micro-watershed water transfer is the best way to meet water demand in thewater scarce areas. Construction of small water collecting reservoirs, rain water harvesting at thehousehold level and conducting different awareness raising programmes for communities on theimportance of watershed, forest, water and biodiversity are helpful to overcome water deficit. Paymentfor Ecosystem Services (PES) scheme may be one of the best options to sensitise the local peopleabout the importance of water and apply it later: however, researches on ecosystem services of the VDCand willingness to pay by the community for respective services are to be conducted immediately.

III

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

a.s.l. Above Sea LevelBMU Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear SafetyCC Climate ChangeDDC District Development CommitteeDFO District Forest OfficeDHM Department of Hydrology and MeteorologyDMG Department of Mines and GeologyDSCO District Soil Conservation OfficeDSCWM Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed ManagementDWS District Water SupplyEbA Ecosystem-based AdaptationFGD Focus Group DiscussionGIS Geographic Information SystemGoN Government of NepalGPS Global Positioning SystemHa HectareHHs HouseholdsHHZ Higher Himalayan ZoneIDW Inverse Distance WeightedINGOs International Non-governmental OrganizationsIPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeIUCN International Union for Conservation of NatureLHZ Lesser Himalayan Zonem MeterMBT Main Boundary ThrustMCT Main Central ThrustMFT Main Frontal Thrustmm MillimeterMoFSC Ministry of Forests and Soil ConservationNE North- EastNGOs Non-governmental OrganizationsNW North -WestPES Payment for Ecosystem Services\PSPL Practical Solution Consultancy Nepal Pvt. Ltd.STDS South Tibetian Detachment SystemTTZ Tibetan Tethys ZoneUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeVDC Village Development Committee

IV

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................................IEXECUTIVE SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................IIIACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................IVCHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND ................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 11.2 Statement of problem and rationale ......................................................................................... 11.3 Objectives ................................................................................................... 21.4 Limitations of the study ................................................................................................... 2

CHAPTER II: APPROACHES AND METHODS ..................................................................................... 32.1 Approaches ................................................................................................... 3

2.1.1 Participatory, consultative and multi-perspective (poly-vocal) approach: ..................... 32.1.2 Building on current experience – experiential learning as a building block: ................. 32.1.3 Ecological sampling and Ecosystem-based Adaptation approach: .............................. 3

2.2 Study area ................................................................................................... 32.3 Methodology ................................................................................................... 4

2.3.1 Literature review ................................................................................................... 42.3.2 Field visit ................................................................................................... 42.3.3 Geological and hydro-geological survey ....................................................................... 42.3.4 Focus group discussion................................................................................................. 52.3.5 Land use and land cover survey ................................................................................... 52.3.6 Soil sampling ................................................................................................... 52.3.7 Meteorological study ................................................................................................... 52.3.8 Water availability study .................................................................................................. 62.3.9 Watershed run off and water retention .......................................................................... 62.3.10 Identification of potential sites and water transfer ......................................................... 7

CHAPTER III: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................ 83.1 Geology ................................................................................................... 8

3.1.1 Geology of Nepal Himalayas ......................................................................................... 83.1.1.1 Sub-Himalayan Zone (Siwalik) ....................................................................... 83.1.1.2 Lesser Himalayan Zone (LHZ) ....................................................................... 83.1.1.3 Higher Himalayan Zone (HHZ) ....................................................................... 93.1.1.4 Tibetan Tethys Zone (TTZ) ............................................................................. 9

3.1.2 Geology of Bangsing Deurali VDC ................................................................................ 93.1.3 Hydro-geology ................................................................................................. 113.1.4 Land use and land cover ............................................................................................. 123.1.5 Soil ................................................................................................. 13

3.2 Climate Change ................................................................................................. 153.2.1 Temperature ................................................................................................. 153.2.2 Precipitation ................................................................................................. 153.2.3 Changes and variations ............................................................................................... 17

3.3 Water availability ................................................................................................. 183.3.1 Community perception on springs and their discharge .............................................. 183.3.2 Springs and their discharge measurement ................................................................. 20

3.4 Potentiality of water transfer ................................................................................................. 223.5 Potential sites for green water infrastructure development ................................................... 22

CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS............................................................. 244.1 Conclusions ................................................................................................. 244.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................. 24

4.2.1 Short term recommendations ...................................................................................... 244.2.2 Medium term recommendations .................................................................................. 254.2.3 Long term recommendations ...................................................................................... 25

REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................28

ANNEX ................................................................................................. 29Annex1: Spring details with ward number, geographic position, seasonal discharge amount .............. 29Annex 2: Geology, Landuse Around Springs ........................................................................................... 32Annex 3: Trend of Number of Rainy Days Above 0mm/24 Hours in Last 30 years for Different Stations34Annex 4: Trend of Number of Rainy Days Above 1mm/24 Hours in Last 30 years for Different Stations35Annex 5: Trend of Annual Precipitation Amount (mm) in last 30 Years for Different Stations................. 36Annex 6: Winter (December, January and February) Precipitation (mm) ............................................... 37Annex 7: Number of Rainy Days During Winter (December, January and February) ............................ 38Annex 8: Extreme (Maximum) Precipitation in Different Years at Different Stations ............................... 39Annex 9: Number of Rainy Days with Above 0mm/24 Hours .................................................................. 40Annex 10: Number of Rainy Days with Above 1mm/24 Hours ............................................................ 41Annex 11: Maximum Rainfall ...................................................................................................... 42Annex 12: Annual Average Minimum Temperature (1981-2011). ....................................................... 43Annex 13: Annual Average Maximum Temperature in Last 3 Decades .............................................. 44Annex 14: Soil Test Result ...................................................................................................... 45Annex 15: Potential sites for Green Water Infrastructure Development ............................................. 46Annex 16: Pictures of springs ...................................................................................................... 47

LIST OF FIGURES/PHOTOS

Figure 1: Location map of Bangsing Deurali VDC ...........................................................................................3Figure 2: Soil sampling .....................................................................................................................................5Figure 3: Location map of meteorological stations ..........................................................................................5Figure 4: Measuring discharge of a spring .......................................................................................................7Figure 5: Geological map of Nepal (Upreti and Le Fort, 1999) ........................................................................8Figure 6: Geological map of the study area .....................................................................................................9Figure 7: Highly fractured white quartzite ..................................................................................................... 10Figure 8: Thinly foliated green phyllite .......................................................................................................... 10Figure 9: Quartzite exposure showing foliation planes and joints foliation planes and joints ..................... 10Figure 10:Schematic geological cross-section of the study area showing gently north dipping rock strata .. 11Figure 11:Water flowing through the fractured quartzite rocks (Daha Khola) ............................................... 12Figure 12:Landuse map of Bangsing Deurali VDC ........................................................................................ 13Figure 13:Soil sample locations ..................................................................................................................... 14Figure 14:Graph plot between average temperature Vs month .................................................................... 15Figure 15:Number of average rainy days for selected 9 stations .................................................................. 16Figure 16:Average of total annual precipitation of 9 stations ......................................................................... 16Figure 17:Average winter precipitation for 9 stations ..................................................................................... 16Figure 18:Spatial distribution of current precipitation ..................................................................................... 18Figure 19:Spatial distribution of future (2050s) forecasted precipitation ....................................................... 18Figure 20:Spatial distribution of future (2080s) forecasted precipitation ....................................................... 18Figure 21:Location map of springs ................................................................................................................. 18Figure 22:Uprethar Kuwa (Rimal Swanra) ..................................................................................................... 19Figure 23:Map depicting amount of water discharge in class intervals ......................................................... 19Figure 24:Streams in Bangsing Deurali VDC ................................................................................................. 22Figure 25:Possible water sharing mechanism ............................................................................................... 22Figure 26:Potential sites for green water infrastructure development ........................................................... 23

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Population distribution by ward in Bangsing Deurali VDC, Syangja ......................................... 4Table 2: List of meteorological stations ................................................................................................... 6Table 3: Physical properties of the soils ................................................................................................ 14Table 4: Precipitation (mm/year) at different climatic scenarios ........................................................... 17Table 5: Seasonal discharge (liter/day) interpolated based on peoples’ perception ............................ 20Table 6: Estimation of annual runoff and retention in the study area ................................................... 21Table 7: Potential sites for green water infrastructure development ..................................................... 23Table 8: Priority ranking for recommendations ..................................................................................... 25Table 9: Priority ranking for green water infrastructure development ................................................... 27

Hydrogeological Study in Bangsing Deurali VDC, Syangja, Nepal

1

CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND

1.1 Introduction

Himalayan ecosystem is young, dynamic, tectonically active, and potentially erosive.Anthropogenic activities are continuously disturbing the natural system of the Himalayanenvironment, impacts of which can be seen in the hydrological behavior of streams and springs(Negi and Joshi 2004).The Fourth Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change(IPCC 2007) states that due to increasing concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere,for the next two decades, a global warming of about 0.2°C per decade is projected and expectedto affect the hydrological recharge of streams and springs through which in turn will affect wateravailability, run off and the discharge regime of rivers.

Mountain springs are the main source of fresh water for drinking and other household usage(Negi and Joshi, 2004). Generally, a spring either formed when an aquifer underlined orsandwiched between impermeable strata, is intersected by topographical features or when thewater bearing horizons outcrop on the surface. The direct source of water for a spring isprecipitation in most cases, and in some instance, aquifers are fed by fresh water sources likelosing river, pond or other fresh water bodies indirectly through connecting such aquifers orfissures in rocks. In both cases, the amount of water that enters the spring bearing aquifer andits yield depend on hydraulic properties of overlying materials, i.e. infiltration rate, percolationrate and transmissivity. Therefore, discharge from the spring is proportional to precipitation ofthe area or volume of water available in recharging source, if the hydraulic properties remainconstant, and fluctuates accordingly.

Seasonal variation of the spring water is mainly due to abundant availability of rechargeablewater in monsoon than in other seasons of the year. Following rain, un-intercepted water reachesthe surface of land and starts to infiltrate if the slope permits, otherwise, infiltration is limited tosoaking of land only followed by direct run off. The recharge of ground water increases thedischarge of springs and seepages, and thus, causes more rapid outflow of ground water. Higherrate of discharge lowers the water table, reduces its gradient, and diminishes the pressure inpore spaces

1.2 Statement of problem and rationale

Fluctuation of water discharge in different seasons and increasing amount of sediment load instreams are the most pressing problems of the Himalayas. Human interference, unscientificdevelopmental activities, extension of agricultural practices, and geologically unplanned way ofdevelopment works are creating hydrological imbalance. At the premises of climate change, thestudy area, Bangsing Deurali VDC, has witnessed several changes in precipitation andtemperature along with dehydration and desiccation of springs and other water sources.

To yield water from nature, a sustainable development is necessary, where Ecosystem-basedAdaptation (EbA) approach can be adopted. Ecosystem-based Adaptation refers to the targeteduse of natural ecosystem functions and services within overarching strategies that help societyadapt to the impacts from climate change. In EbA approach, yield of water from ecosystem canbe enhanced by managing forests in upslope to increase recharge of ground water and to retainwater in soil. Similarly, in the same approach, different green water infrastructures such asretention ponds, recharge ponds can also be constructed to increase water yield from ecosystem.In connection with this background, the present study attempted to understand the effect ofrainfall, physiography, lithology, slope and slope aspect, land use, vegetation, altitude, soil typeand anthropogenic interferences (e.g. road construction, deforestation, settlement, etc), to analyserecharge of the springs of Bangsing Deurali VDC of Syangja district and to develop feasible


2

options for rational use of water available and EbA options for sustainable water supply ofsprings and watersheds. It is expected that the results of this study would be useful to addressthe prevailing water supply problem in the study area.

1.3 Objectives

The objectives of this study were to :• study geology of the study area from the perspective of springs;• analyse meteorological data (temperature and precipitation);• study changes in the precipitation regime at IPCC A1B scenario;• study water availability in springs;• assess changes in run off and water retention of the study area;• identify most potential sites for green water infrastructure development; and• assess feasibility of micro-watershed transfer in the study area.

1.4 Limitations of the study

This study has the following limitations:• Very small water discharge springs (according to local people) were not included.• Spring water discharge measurement was carried out in the month of December 2012.• Physical, chemical, and biological parameters were not studied.


3

CHAPTER II: APPROACHES AND METHODS

2.1 Approaches

2.1.1 Participatory, consultative and multi-perspective (poly-vocal)approach: Multi-perspective (poly-vocal) approach was used aiming at reflectingviews and concerns of stakeholders who are directly/indirectly related and/or benefited.This study tried to understand the opinions of various interest groups and stakeholders.Local officials and the various stakeholders involved in development programmes werea major source of information and inputs to this study. We also gathered inputs andinformation from authorities of Village Development Committees (VDCs) and lineagencies.

2.1.2 Building on current experience – experiential learning as a buildingblock: To understand the situation of water availability in the past, this study built onthe current experience of local people and involved intensive consultation with localpolitical and social leaders and stakeholders, who had direct experience about wateravailability, causes of decrease in water sources and possible recommendation activities.Available experience was explored to the best possible way for water conservation andoptimum utilisation, and this forms the basis for our recommendations.

2.1.3 Ecological sampling and Ecosystem-based Adaptation approach:This approach allowed us to gather soil samples at different slopes, aspects and landuses. The samples were collected from different sites. Based on the EbA approach,species selection for plantation has been recommended.

2.2 Study area

The study area, Bangsing Deurali VDC, islocated in Syangja district of Western Nepal(Figure 1). The total area of the VDC is 12.6647km2 and population is 3,687 (1,812 female and1,875 male) (Table 1). The altitude of the VDCranges from 960 m to 2200 m. Some of thehigher areas of the VDC fall under the PanchaseProtected Forest, which was gazetted in 2012(GoN 2012).

Bangsing Deurali VDC has subtropical climatein lower areas and temperate climate in upperareas of the VDC. The area receives highestamount of rainfall during three months ofmonsoon and occasional precipitation duringwinter, pre-monsoon and post-monsoon. Thisarea has about 3355mm of precipitation inaverage every year (MoFSC, 2013). Thesettlements are scattered throughout the VDC.Therefore, the rational use and supply of springwater is valuable for various livelihood purposes.

Figure 1: Location map of Bangsing DeuraliVDC


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2.3 Methodology

Hydrogeological studies require observations and measurements of various parameters on ashort-term basis as well as on a long-term basis. Hence, the study was conducted by usingfollowing methodologies.

2.3.1 Literature Review

Different geological maps, published literature of hydro-geological investigations, and geologicallandform were reviewed to identify a range of representative springs on the basis of geology,geomorphology, altitude, slope and aspect, meteorological conditions, land use and land cover,and anthropogenic influence. Various national and international literature on hydrogeology werereviewed to understand the hydrogeological contexts of the project area.

2.3.2 Field visit

Extensive field visits were undertaken by a team of experts (hydro-geologist andenvironmentalist). Altogether 54 springs were visited and studied in detail (Annex 1). Thesesprings were distributed in the different geographical slopes of the region. They represented alltypes of topography, altitude, geology, rock, catchment area, land use and land cover andanthropogenic influence in the spring recharge zone (as reflected by the settlements).

2.3.3 Geological and hydro-geological surveyA detailed field excursion in the project area enabled to delineate different geological litho unitsof the area in the topographic map of the scale 1:25000 produced by the Department of Surveyalong with the locations (along with elevation) of springs both using the map and Global PositioningSystem (GPS). Moreover, common rock types, their structural discontinuities (folds, faults, joints)and orientation, extension, slope and slope aspects were depicted with the help of a BruntonCompass. Similarly, the slope and aspect of the recharge zone of each spring were determinedwith the help of a Brunton Compass.

Table 1: Population distribution by ward inBangsing Deurali VDC, Syangja


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2.3.4 Focus group discussion

Information on location of springs, water discharge throughout the year, land use type, use ofspring water, and other relevant information was collected through a focus group discussion indifferent places.

2.3.5 Land use and land cover survey

Different land use practices in the recharge zones of the identified springs were assessed byfield observations on a subjective basis. This study has assessed the land use in the followingcategories : cultivation, forestland, shrubland, grassland, barren land and other land uses. Thecombined effect of surface run off, water infiltration, ground water recharge and evaporationultimately determine the water yield of a spring.

2.3.6 Soil sampling

Soil samples from 14 different locations ofspring recharge zones and potential greenwater infrastructure development sites assuggested by communities were collected andanalysed in the laboratory to study theirphysical properties (e.g. water holdingcapacity, pH, moisture content) (Figure2).Some of the samples were taken from anearby spring and few of them were frompotential sites for green water infrastructuredevelopment sites.

Soil samples were collected from both surfaceand 15 cm below the surface for pH, moisturecontent and water holding capacity whereasonly surface soil samples were used for bulkdensity.The collected samples were packedin air tight sample bags and were subjectedto various lab tests.

2.3.7 Meteorological study

Precipitation data from 1981 to 2011 of ninemeteorological stations (Table 2) (Karki Neta,Kushma, Pokhara Airport, Syangja, BhadaureDeurali, Lumle, Lamachaur, Salyan andPamdur) and temperature records of fourstations (Kushma, Pokhara Airport, Syangja,and Lumle) nearby of Bangsing Deurali VDCwere collected from the Department ofHydrology and Meteorology (DHM), theGovernment of Nepal. The precipitation datawere studied in different aspects to identifychanges in the last three decades. The numberof rainy days and the intensity of rain above 0mm per hour and above 1mm per hour wereestimated for the last three decades for allstations based on data available. Similarly, thenumber of rainy days during winter season,

Figure 2: Soil sampling

Figure 3: Location map ofmeteorological stations


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particularly December, of the year 2012 and January and February of the year 2013 wereestimated for all stations. The total amount of annual precipitation was estimated for all ninestations and a maximum precipitation of each year for each station was calculated. All thesedata were plotted in graph and a linear regression model was used to forecast the trend. Thisstudy analysed a future climatic scenario of precipitation at A1B emission scenario defined byIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The precipitation data for A1B scenariowas retrieved from www.worldclim.org. This study compared three time series precipitation, i.e.current precipitation, future precipitation in 2050 and 2080 AD. All available temperature recordsof the last three decades from four stations were analysed. Average minimum and maximumtemperatures were also analysed whereas unavailable data were disregarded.

2.3.8 Water availability study

Spring discharge was measured during the field visit by bucket method. Discharge was measuredthrice on each spring site and mean value was calculated (Figure 4) whereas whenever thedischarge measurement was time consuming and difficult (e.g. scattered dripping cases), anestimate was made.

2.3.9 Watershed run off and water retention

There was no river discharge measuring gauge in any of rivers/streams in or around BangsingDeurali VDC. Therefore, this study used run off data from other watershed (average of Kulekhani,Tistung, Subbakuna, Jhikhukhola and Yarshakhola). The average value of run off, which is 14.8per cent of the annual rainfall (DSCWM, 2003), was used to estimate annual run off using thefollowing equation:

Total Watershed Run Off = 14.8 per cent of Annual Precipitation

Water retention of any watershed or area is the amount of water that is hold by the soil or rockthat is infiltrated and percolated during precipitation. It can be estimated using the followingwater budget equation:

Water Retention (WR) = Precipitation (P) –Runoff (R) – Evaporation (E)-Transpiration (T)

Where,

Table 2: List of meteorological stations


7

• Precipitation (P) = precipitation data from nine stations (Table 3) is used. For missing data,mean annual precipitation is used. Each year precipitation for nine stations is used to prepareannual precipitation (from 1981 to 2011) by Thiessen Polygon method (in ArcGIS 10) forwhole Bangsing Deurali VDC.

• Runoff(R) = Run off map is prepared by taking 14.8 per cent from the interpolated precipitationmap of the VDC.

• Evaporation (E) is used from Lumle station (station number 0814) from 1981 to 2011. Forthe missing data of evaporation, mean of 30 years is used.

• Transpiration (T) for the mountain area of Nepal is calculated as average from Baral (2011)as 422 mm/year.

2.3.10 Identification of potential sites and water transfer

Different locations of recharge zone of springs and potential green water infrastructuredevelopment sites within the study area were identified based on consultations with communities,field geology, slope and available water and area. Possibilities of transferring water from onemicro-watershed to another for drinking purpose, household use and irrigation based on theamount of water available in sources were also assessed. Relationship was scoped betweenpopulation dynamics and water resources which is a first step toward designing policies thatcan make this relationships more sustainable.

Figure 4: Measuring discharge of a spring


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CHAPTER III: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Geology

3.1.1 Geology of Nepal Himalayas

Nepal Himalayas lies in the central part of the Himalayan arc, which covers nearly one third ofits total length. According to Gansser (1964) widely accepted classification, the central NepalHimalayas can be divided longitudinally into five tectonic zones from south to north based ongeological evolution (Figure 5). These tectonic zones are separated from each other by principalHimalayan thrust faults.

3.1.1.1 Sub-Himalayan Zone (Siwalik)

Siwalik is bounded to the south by Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) and Main Boundary Thrust (MBT)to the north (Figure 5). The Siwalik group consists of about 5 km thick upward coarseningsequence of mudstone, sandstone and conglomerate. It consists of three informal units whichare lower, middle and upper members (Tokuoka et al. 1986). It can also be regarded as fluvialsediments strongly influenced by Himalayan uplift and climatic change through the developmentof monsoon climate.

3.1.1.2 Lesser Himalayan Zone (LHZ)

It is bounded by MBT to the south and Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the north. It is structurallyvery complex; between the MBT and MCT several thrust sheets lie stacked on over the otherand folded and faulted on a large scale. This zone is composed of two principal components:

Figure 5: Geological map of Nepal (Upreti and Le Fort, 1999)


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sedimentary and low-grade meta-sedimentary including quartzite, limestone, slate, siltstone;and crystalline thrust sheets comprising metamorphic rocks like schist, gneiss, marble andgranites ranging age from Precambrian to Eocene. This study area lies in this zone.

3.1.1.3 Higher Himalayan Zone (HHZ)

South Tibetan Detachment System (STDS) binds the Higher Himalayan System in the northand MCT in the south (Figure 5). It is composed of various kinds of gneisses. This zone consistsof 10-12 km thick succession of high-grade metamorphic rocks which is also known as TibetanSlab (Le Fort 1975). Along the Himalayan range in many areas, the Higher Himalayan Zone isseparated from the Tethyan sedimentary rocks by intervening bodies of Tertiary leucogranitesforming the Higher Himalayan Granites (Upreti 1999). It consists of high-grade crystalline rocksincluding various kinds of gneisses, schists and migmatites extends continuously along theentire length of the country.

3.1.1.4 Tibetan Tethys Zone (TTZ)

The Tibetan Tethys Zone, the northernmost tectonic zone of the Himalayas, occupies a widebelt consisting of sedimentary rocks. It is approximately a 40 km wide unit made of a synclinorialpile of Late Precambrian–Early Paleozoic to Upper Cretaceous, rich fossiferous, clastic andcarbonate sediments deposited in the Tethys Ocean. This zone is well exposed to riversMarsyangdi, Thakkhola and Kaligandaki, and Manang area. This zone is composed of sandstone,limestone, quartzite, and shale with fossiliferous layer.

3.1.2 Geology of Bangsing Deurali VDC

The study area is geologically located withinthe Kusma Formation of the Pokhara Sub-group in the Lesser Himalayan zone of theNepal Himalayas (Figure 6) (DMG, 1987).The area witnesses a great variation inlithological and tectonic set up with varyingmicro climatic and socio-economic attributes.The area is composed of greenish grey whitefine to medium grained at ripple markedhighly jointed quartzite (Figure 7) intercalatedwith green phyllites (Figure 8). The rocks aredipping towards north direction (Figure 9).The dipping ranges from NE to NW and thedip amount ranges from 15° to 35°.

Physiographically, the area represents apeculiar type of lesser Himalayasmorphology with ridges along withsubsequent primary and secondary ridgeshaving varying slopes and climatic aspects,draining all run off water into the trunk river, i.e. Saradi. Such diversity in lithologies, land formassemblage and micro climate may have diverse impacts on recharge- flowage- discharge. Inthe Nepalese mountains, great variations in geology play an important role in controlling thespring outflow. Springs occur with faults, fractures, joints, shear zone, and alluvial and colluvialdeposits.

The spring catchment slope ranges from 5° to 45° and altitude ranges from 1155 m to 1984 masl. As the springs are basically controlled by hydrology and geology of the area, most of thesprings are in north-western and west slopes of the mountain.

Figure 6: Geological map of the study area


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Figure 7: Highly fractured whitequartzite

Figure 8: Thinly foliated green phyllite

Figure 9: Quartzite exposure showingfoliation planes and joints


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3.1.3 Hydro-geology

Hydrology and geology of mountainouslandscape are more complex than they appear.In the study area, quartzite and phyllite ofKusma Formation makes the hill slopes andvariable yielding aquifers on the eastern slopeof the Bangsing village (Figure 10). Mountain-ridges and overburden soil are thin and poorlydeveloped. On the steep western escarpment,the geology is more diverse, with thickexposures of medium grained, fresh to slightlyweathered, heavily jointed quartzite. Thecontrast in permeability of jointed quartzite andtightly packed phyllite, which lacks definedbedding plane and joints, is the major cause offormation of springs in the area. Therefore,most of the springs are located in quartziteplanes, the joints of which act as both therecharging conduit and reservoir.

Many springs discharge from fractured quartzite beds at various levels (Figure 11). Despite highrainfall in the Panchase area and the multitude of springs, there are only few perennial streamsthat carry run off water from the slopes concluding that a major portion of the rainfall getsinfiltrated to recharge the reservoirs of these springs.

Ground water flows from the top of the mountains to lower elevations mostly towards north-west(NW) portion (Ghyaisiri) of the village. Within the mountains, quartzite and phyllite combine withregional fracture systems to create a complex hydrologic system. This system allows a significantportion of high-altitude precipitation to move relatively quickly through a series of fractures andjoints into underground water reservoirs called aquifers. These aquifers are connected by jointnetworks within the rocks. The evaporation and transpiration loss from the rock aquifer systemis very much low as compared to that of the soil aquifers system as radiation becomes unable topenetrate through the rocks.

Trees which have their roots embedded in the fractures and joints of the rock help to lose waterfrom the reservoirs through transpiration and the rate of which is simply higher than that of thevegetation on soils. But it’s good that their roots can’t invade as they do in soils. So, losses fromboth evaporation and transpiration are less as quartzite rock does not live in company with thevegetation most cases, leaving the dominant proportion of water for subsurface flow which laterreleases from the aquifer. Sometimes the aquifer can be partially or completely detached fromthe regional ground water table to create its own aquifer system called perched aquifer. A springoriginated from such system does have high discharge during the monsoon season and remainsdry in other seasons. The reason for fluctuation in discharge of the springs from the regionalaquifer system is the hydrostatic pressure. Even less permeable phyllite can yield a significantquantity of water under high hydrostatic pressure.

However, the ground cover or land use types play a major role in controlling the amount of wateravailable for infiltration and run off (Haigh et al.1988). Exposed barren rocks are supported byrun off rather than infiltration and the vegetation just does the opposite. They trap the rainfalland encourage it to infiltrate directly and indirectly and encourage infiltration by reducing thevelocity of run off and increasing contact time with the ground. Moreover, they loosen the groundthrough their roots and create more pressure underneath to increase percolation and hydraulicconductivity of the water bearing aquifers. In Pakistan, out of 57 to 61 mm rainfall, 49 to 58percent is converted to direct run off in barren rock exposures as compared to 21 to 23 percenton the vegetative ground (Haigh et al. 1988).

Figure 10: Schematic geological cross-section of the study area showing gently

north dipping rock strata


12

Along with the increased rate of infiltration, loss of water through transpiration from the vegetativeground is equally high. They store radiation in saturated soils and hence increase evaporationas well. Despite this fact, springs, which have their recharge zone in forests and vegetativeareas, has longer and steadie discharge than in other areas. Similarly, the high return flow fromthe irrigated/cultivated land increases and sustains the discharge of the spring.

Summer and winter precipitation contributes significantly to the regional ground water system.Average precipitation of this area since 1981 has shown that the amount of precipitation isdecreasing in the winter (Annex 6). This observation has important implications on how thishydrologic system responds to climate change in the near future. Rainwater harvesting andartificial recharge either by injection or recharge/retention ponds is necessary to maintain thelevel of ground water system and hence to sustain down-gradient ground water resources.

3.1.4 Land use and land cover

A subjective assessment of land use around the springs found that most of the springs areoriginating nearby the forest and agriculture land terraces (Annex 2). Some common trees ofthese terraces are Schima wallichii, Castanopsis indica, Engelhardtia spicata, and Prunuscerasoides. The land use map of the study area (Figure 12) depicts most of forest areas in ward2 and 3. This also correlates with water availability in these wards. In contrary, ward no. 7 hasless water, although it also covers a good proportion of forest. The reason behind is the geologyof the area and the pine forest. Similarly, ward no. 6 also has a good coverage of forest, but dueto geological control, it has low water yield compared to that of ward 2 and 3.

Figure 11: Water flowing through the fractured quartziterocks (Daha Khola)


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3.1.5 Soil

The soil of Bangsing Deurali VDC is slightly acidic, with pH values ranging from 5.6 to 4.85(Table 3) (Annex 14). This pH range is suitable for the growth and development of Shorearobusta at lower altitudes and Schima wallichii, Prunus domestica and Ficus semicordata athigher altitudes of the VDC. Similarly, maximum bulk density was found 1.12g/cc and minimum0.84 g/cc. This suggests that the surface soil is poorly compacted and it implies that the soil issuitable for ground water recharge and for the growth of plants.

The water holding capacity of soil is a specific ability of a particular type of soil to hold wateragainst force of gravity. Water holding capacity is controlled primarily by soil texture and organicmatter. Though water holding capacity has nothing to do with yield, it can be used as a materialwhich when combines with suitable hydraulic properties can be a good aquifer. The water holdingcapacity of the soil samples ranged from 23 to 39 per cent which shows that these soils aregood for ground water recharge if their hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity are good enoughto yield the water they hold. But these soils are not good for water holding or water storage. So,the bottom of the proposed rain water collection pond should be sealed with impermeable layer,such as plastic or thick layer of clay, plain concrete, reinforced concrete, to collect a sufficientamount of water.

The varying moisture content of soil indicates that different water holding capacity and hydraulicproperties are quite inverse to soil moisture content or soil having high moisture content doeshave lower order hydraulic properties. But high moisture content is indicative of high waterholding capacity as well. Hhigh moisture content as well as as high water holding capacity,therefore, is like axiom and does not resemble any hydrological significance, but definitelyrelatively very low bulk density of soil indicates a high chance of infiltration.

Figure 12: Landuse map of BangsingDeurali VDC


14

Figure 13: Soil sample locations

Table 3: Physical properties of the soils


15

3.2 Climate change

3.2.1 Temperature

Monthly temperature records of two stations closest to Bangsing Deurali VDC (Kushma-0614and Syanja-0805) vary from 5°C to 32°C (Figure 14). Maximum temperature was recorded inJuly whereas minimum in January. As the study area is located in a mountainous region,temperature from April to September does not vary significantly, but in the rest of the months itfluctuates significantly. In all, temperature was in increasing trend (Annex 14 and 15). Theconclusion was inconsistent with Station No. 0614 (Kushma), as it contains many missing data(Annex 13 and 14).

Due to increased temperature, soil moisture evaporation rate as well as transpiration increased,reducing the available volume of water. Conversely, it triggers the rainfall as a result of increasedwater loss from the surface of land. In addition, the water demand for drinking and householduses (bathing, cleaning, cooking, livestock usage, etc) will also increase in the future with thiswarming trend. This can worsen the water demand situation during dry seasons.

3.2.2 Precipitation

Recorded numbers of rainy days were analysed in two ways: by counting the number of dayswith more than 0 mm of rainfall (precipitation not recorded by gage) and by counting the numberof days with more than 1mm of rainfall in 24 hours. The result shows that there is a decrease inthe number of rainy days with over 0 mm per 24 hours while the linear regression line for thenumber of rainy days over 1mm does not show observable changes in the last 30 years whichsuggests that there is reduction in the number of rainy days with 0 to 1mm of precipitation in 24hours (Figure 15).

The records show that there is an increase in total annual precipitation around the study area inthe last 30 years with some dry and wet years (Figure 16). The trend line fails to describeunusual events that occurred between 1995 and 2000, which could be because of regular

Figure 14: Graph plot between average temperature Vs month


16

Figure 15: Number of average rainy days for selected 9 stations

Figure 16: Average of total annual precipitation of 9 stations

Figure 17: Average winter precipitation for 9 stations


17

climatic cycles or the reoccurrence of some extreme events. Most of the precipitation increaseis in the monsoon season with more extreme rainfalls. These extreme precipitations saturatethe soil and when it exceeds the infiltration rate, surface run off takes place. Hence, theseextreme events are not very useful for sustainable spring water supply as the infiltration rate ofsoil is limited, but high pressure definitely induces some additional infiltration.

Similarly, the winter (December, January and February) precipitation shows that there is adecreasing trend in the total amount of winter precipitation in the last 30 years (Figure 17) withextreme events in the middle of the series. But the average maximum precipitation has beenincreasing surprisingly for few years to obliterate the decreasing trend. The number of rainydays is also decreasing (Figure 18) in winter. The winter precipitation provides recharge toground water and supports in perennial supply of water from springs in the dry season. Therefore,more studies on cross-cutting themes of hydrology are needed for actual prediction of the trend.

This scientific analysis resembled the perception of local communities. Decreasing precipitationconcurred with the idea of local communities as they have experienced short-fall of precipitationand increasing temperature. These both arguments support that springs are becoming dry ascompared to the past.

3.2.3 Changes and variations

Precipitation analyses for climatic scenarios show that the amount of rainfall will decrease in thefuture. The scenario is depicted in Table 4. There will be about 209 mm less precipitation in highrainfall areas of the study area and about 226 mm decrease in low rainfall areas of the study by2080.

The spatial change in precipitation amount is depicted in Figures 19, 23 and 24. In the figures,it is clear that the northern part of Bangsing Deurali VDC (north part of ward 2 and 3) will havemore reduced annual precipitation in the future. Overall, the whole VDC will face reducedprecipitation if the projected climate change will follow the A1B scenario defined by IPCC.

Summer and winter precipitation contributes significantly to the regional ground water system.The average precipitation of this area since 1981 has sown that the amount of precipitation isdecreasing in winter (Annex 6). This observation has important implications on how this hydrologicsystem responds to climate change in the near future.

A decrease in rainfall and increase in temperature, which is predicted by climate models, willreduce the amount of water available for infiltration by reducing the overall volume of groundwater. Clearly, we need a better understanding of how ongoing climate change will ultimatelyaffect regional weather patterns like our summer monsoons. Rainwater harvesting and artificialrecharge either by injection or recharge/retention ponds is necessary to maintain the level ofground water system and hence to sustain down-gradient ground water resources.

Table 4: Precipitation (in mm/year) at difference climatic scenarios


18

3.3 Water availability

Water availability in the study area was assessed through two approaches: dischargemeasurement for the month of December/winter, and consultation with local people for otherseasons.

3.3.1 Community perception on springs and their discharge

This study has recorded 54 springs inBangsing Deurali VDC, out of which eightsprings are intermittent and the rest areperennial source of water (based on localpeople). This study also found that thereis no spring in ward no. 7 as it is southernpart of the VDC and local geology hasdirected most of springs at northern slopeof the VDC as the bedrock is dippingtoward that direction. Locations of allsprings are depicted in Figure 21.

Most of the springs have originated fromrocks, basically quartzite and some ofthem have originated from colluviums.Some of the dry springs that used to bedischarged are Uprethar Kuwa (at RimalSwanra), Guiche, Gagan Pani, Gahira KoChautaro. After the field study andprecipitation pattern analysis, it is foundthat the reasons behind drying out of thesprings are basically the change in winterprecipitation and decreasing trend of theprecipitation. Increasing ground cover ledby various anthropogenic factors can beother probable factors that reduced thearea available to recharge undergroundreservoir resulting in dry discharge.

Figure 20: Spatialdistribution of future(2080s) forecasted

precipitation

Figure 19: Spatialdistribution of future(2050s) forecasted

precipitation

Figure 18: Spatialdistribution of current

precipitation

Figure 21: Location map of springs


19

For example, the land movement at RimalSwanra (Figure 22) during the roadconstruction was the main cause of dryingout of spring Uprethar Kuwa. Similarly,Gahira ko Chautaro spring was dried outas there was a natural land movement.So all anthropogenic as well as naturalfactors that can cause the relocation ofwater table and affect available dischargesource shall be managed and maintainedto the extent possible to preserve theclimate and mountainous ecosystem.

The present study found that waterdischarge in winter (December) is about535,248l /day in the study area.Distribution of springs, i.e. dischargedwater, and the settlement are not spatiallyuniform in all wards of the VDC (Figure23). Table 5 illustrates the number ofsprings and the amount of waterdischarged by them in different wards ofthe VDC. Local communities consentedthat during pre-monsoon, springdischarge is about 45 per cent lesscompared to winter discharge. Similarly,discharge in the monsoon season isexpected to be about 500 per cent greaterthan the winter discharge and finallyduring the post-monsoon season, thespring discharge will be about 150 percent than the winter discharge. Theamounts of discharge for other seasonsof springs that are dried in winter werenot calculated. With following the samplesurvey and community consents, morethan 4.54 million liters of water is dailydischarged from Bangsing Deurali VDC.Water availability per capita was about1,234l/day (Table 5) which wassignificantly less than national average(7,191l/day) (UNDP 2003, World Bank2011). According to Sphere Handbook(2011), about 15 litres of water/person/dayis necessary for basic survival whereasonly about 50l/day is a usual practice inthe mountain area of Nepal.

Usage of water varied: drinking,household use, irrigation and for lvestock.The amount of water in springs fluctuatesaccording to seaon. According to localpeople, most of the springs dischargedecrease in dry seasona because thereservoir capacity, joints and fractureshere are limited to the volume. As per their

Figure 23: Map depicting amount of waterdischarge in class intervals

Figure 22: Uprethar Kuwa (Rimal Swanra)


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understanding, during the dry season (i.e. pre-monsoon), discharge of springs reduced to halfof the amount than that of the monsoon. The springs used for irrigation during monsoon werealmost common to the VDC as they were supplying a sufficient amount of water during monsoon.

However, in other seasons the rainfall was decreasing, forcing communities to become involvedin off-farm activities. As the distribution of springs and population in each ward were not uniform,there was water surplus and deficit in wards. Ward no. 5 had surplus water discharge whereasward nos. 7 and 9 were most deficit in water discharge. Along with unequal discharge, theirlocation was also conflicting. Some springs were found in private land. Therefore, jurisdiction onusage of those springs was controversial. To address this conflict, the supply managementcould use ‘Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES)’ scheme. PES may be one of the best optionsto sensitise the local people about the importance and rational use of water; however, studies ofecosystem services of the VDC and willingness to pay by the community for these services areprerequisite.

3.3.2 Springs and their discharge measurement

This study has estimated the amount of water discharge from the study area by finding run offvalue as percentage of total precipitation each year. The amount of run off from the study areais depicted in Table 6. The amount of run off is highly fluctuating and is in accordance withprecipitation. This study has estimated the amount of water retention in the whole study area byusing water budget method. The amount of water retention each year from 1981 to 2011 isdepicted in Table 6. There is fluctuation in the amount of retained water in accordance withprecipitation. The whole retained amount of water is not available for Bangsing Deurali VDC asthose water flows to other watersheds.

Figure 25 shows that ward numbers 1, 2 and 3 have more number of streams than other wards.This correlates with number of springs in these wards and higher amount of water yield. Thereare only few streams in ward no 7 which are short in length as well and there is no spring in thatward.

Table 5: Seasonal discharge (liter/day) interpolated based on peoples’ perception


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Table 6: Estimation of annual runoff and retention in the study area


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3.4 Potentiality of water transfer

It was found that there was uneven spatialdistribution of springs and watersheds as wellas their discharges in VDC (Table 9). Tomanage the water crisis, water from fewsprings need to be transferred from one micro-catchment to another micro-catchment(Figure 24) to quench the thirst of drierlocations. It is feasible since they can bemaintained as gravity flow system. This studyhas identified few springs whose water canbe transferred to settlements in anotherwards. It was also found that the supply ofwater was not enough to meet water demandfor irrigation. The analysis shows that wardnos 6, 7 and 9 need more water to meet theirdaily household requirements (Table 9).

In Figure 25, the pink line with arrow headshows the direction of water flow under thegravity (which means there is no need for anymachinery application) in the water distributionsystem. This study revealed that the followingsprings are rich in water discharge: Khark (SN35), Shrawan Kumar Khola (SN 27), PokhleKuwa (Sepat) (SN 51), and Rolako Kuwa (SN54). Assuming 50 l /person/day demand, theabove springs can support over 1000 peopleuntil December. So, water of these springscan be transfered to drier parts. Currently,spring no. 17 (Juke Pani) is being used byward numbers 8 and 9 (Figure 25) and somesprings are also being piped for the past fewyears to nearby settlements. Before arrangingthe distribution system, it may be necessaryto construct small engineering structures(such as diversion dam, collection tank) tocollect the scattered amount of water. Then,the water can be distributed by constructingreservoirs and pipelines. It may reduce theexisting water conflict in few areas.

3.5 Potential sites for greenwater infrastructuredevelopment

This study has listed 12 sites (Table 7) thatare potential for green water infrastructuredevelopment (Figure 26). These are suitablefor developing artificial recharge ponds. Theyfeed rain water which they will hold for sometime and serve the collected water to recharge

Figure 24: Streams in Bangsing Deurali VDC

Figure 25: Possible water sharingmechanism


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ground water. Hence, the recharge water will be readily available during post rainy season. Thisstudy proposed most of the sites in ward number 3 which are at high altitudes and some are atmid-altitudes. These proposed recharge sites will hold water and slowly recharge ground water.As a result, there will be an increase in spring water. There are some natural and man-madeponds which are being used for aahal and drinking purpose of cattle.

Table 7: Potential sites for green water infrastructure development

Figure 26: Potential sites for green water infrastructure development


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CHAPTER IV: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

4.1 Conclusions

This study has come up with the following conclusions:

• Dominant springs are located in north-western slope and few on southern slope.

• Most of the springs are fed by the rock aquifer system and restricted to quartzite rockswith a small amount on colluviums.

• The spring discharge is basically controlled by geology, soil types, vegetation and landuse patterns.

• There is enough amount of water within the VDC boundary for household use, but themain reason behind water crisis was uneven distribution of the source, resulting inimparity on discharge, resource use, and management prescription.

• Decrease in number of rainy days throughout the year, during winter season andrelocation of land (due to natural as well as artificial causes) is a prime factor for dryingout of the springs. Climate change may be a potential factor to impact the precipitationand temperature of the VDC; hence the recharge and discharge phenomena.

• Run off from the study area fluctuaes with precipitation. The average annual run off is11,637,299m3.

• Water retention of the study area in average is 61,275,680m3 per year.

• Twelve potential green water infrastructure development areas identified can be usedfor ground water recharge.

• Transferring water from one micro-watershed to another to meet household waterdemand is the best way as there is a sufficient amount of water nearby micro-watershed.

• To address this conflict, supply management may require addressing ‘Payment forEcosystem Services (PES)’ scheme but may need pre-hand assessment aboutwillingness to pay.

4.2 Recommendations

To overcome the problem of water-related issues by sustainable development and evendistribution of water, different interventions and green water infrastructure are suggested ondifferent priorities (I, II, III) based on short, medium and long term nature (Table 10 and 11) foreffective implementation.

4.2.1 Short term recommendations

At present water is collected only from the feasible location. Water from inaccessible sources isnot used directly. Thus, most of water is not used properly. To address this, the following short-term recommendations are made:

• Conduct different awareness raising programmes for communities on the importanceof watershed, forest, water, and biodiversity;

• Construct reservoirs/retention ponds at suitable sites;

• Collect 24 hours flowing spring water for distribution;

• Encourage for economic use of water by sensitising on the importance of water;

• For wise use of water, introduce a nominal charge system by introducing payment foran environmental system mechanism so that communities can recognizes that the water


25

they consume is valuable; and,

• Promote community participation in the conservation of existing forests and waterresources through management of existing forests, plantations, users’ groups, andmonitoring committees. These groups and committees will help to check misuse ofwater and make people aware of sustainable supply of water.

4.2.2 Medium term recommendations

It is clear that only the above short-term measures cannot solve the water crisis in the studyarea. This study has identified different problems associated with water crisis. Here, water fromfew springs needs to be transferred from one micro-catchment to another (Figure 26) to quenchthe thirst of drier locations. To fulfill water demands, following recommendations are made:

• Rain water harvesting at the household level;

• Construction of recharge ponds;

• Managing water by transferring it from neighboring micro-watersheds; and,

• Monitoring and supervision from the government level.

4.2.3 Long term recommendations

Short term and medium term solutions may not be sufficient for perennial supply of water forlong time. It is well known that the geology of this area cannot be changed, but we can changethe land use pattern which will help to enhance the ground water recharge. To address this, thefollowing recommendations are made for a long term plan:

• Manage and preserve properly existing forests at higher altitudes of the VDC;

• Promote afforestation in ward nos 1, 4, 5, 8 and 9 and restoration in ward nos 2, 3, 6,and 7;

• Strengthen linkages and network of the local people with district- level governmentagencies (DWS, DDC, Irrigation, DSCO, DFO, etc) and I/NGOs;

• Encourage to create pervious cover on land; and,

• Discourage to create impervious cover, especially in the recharge area.

Table 8: Priority ranking for recommendations

Prio

rity

I


26

Prio

rity

IIP

riorit

y III


27

Table 9: Priority ranking for green water infrastructure development


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REFERENCES

Baral, T. (2011). Evapotranspiration from Natural and Planted Forest in the Middle Mountain ofNepal, ITC, The Netherlands

DCSWM. (2003). Soil Erosion Studies in Nepal: Results and Implications, Department of SoilConservation and Watershed Management, Kathmandu

Department of Mines and Geology. (1987). Geological map of western Nepal

IPCC. (2007). Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution ofWorking Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Le Fort, P. (1975). Himalayas: The collided range. Present Knowledge of the continental arc.Ame. Jour. Sci., vol. 275-A, pp. 1-44.

MFSC. (2013). Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation, http://eba.org.np/about-project-site/

Negi, G.S.C and Joshi, V. (2004). Rainfall and Discharge Patterns in Two Small DrainageCatchments in the Western Himalayan Mountains, India. The Environmentalist, vol. 24,pp. 19-28.

Sphere Project. (2011) .The Sphere Handbook. Humanitarian charter and minimum humanitarianstandards in humanitarian response, p. 97.Practical Action Publishing, Rugby, UK.

Tokuoka, T., Takayasu, K., Yoshida, M. and Hisatomi, K. (1986).The Churia (Siwalik) Group inthe Western part of the ArungKhola area, West Central Nepal. Mem. Fac. Shim. Univ.,vol. 22, pp. 131–143.

Upreti, B.N. (1999). An overview of the stratigraphy and tectonics of the Nepal Himalaya. Journalof Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 17, pp. 577-606.

Upreti, B.N. and Le Fort, P. (1999). Lesser Himalayan crystalline nappe of Nepal: Problems oftheir origin. Geological Society of America Special Paper, vol.328, pp. 225-238.

VDC Profile. (2011). VDC Profile of Bangsing Deurali VDC, Village Development Committee.

www.worldclim.org


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AN

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31


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Annex 2: Geology, Landuse Around Springs


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Annex 3: Trend of Number of Rainy Days Above 0mm/24 Hoursin Last 30 years for Different Stations

(Dash line is linear regression line and solid line is change in number of rainy days above 0mm/24 hours in each year)


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Annex 4: Trend of Number of Rainy Days Above 1mm/24 Hoursin Last 30 Years for Different Stations

(Dash line is linear regression line and solid line is change in number of rainy days above 1mm/24 hours in each year)


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Annex 5: Trend of Annual Precipitation Amount (mm) in last30 Years for Different Stations

(Dash line is linear regression line and solid line is change in amount of precipitation each year)


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Annex 6: Winter (December, January and February)Precipitation (mm)



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Annex 7: Number of Rainy Days During Winter (December,January and February)

(Dash line is linear regression line and solid line is change in number of rainy days in each year)


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Annex 8: Extreme (Maximum) Precipitation in Different Yearsat Different Stations



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Annex 9: Number of Rainy Days with Above 0mm/24 Hours


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Annex 10: Number of Rainy Days with Above 1mm/24 Hours


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Annex 11: Maximum Rainfall


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Annex 12: Annual Average Minimum Temperature (1981-2011).

(Dash line is linear regression line and solid line is change in temperature each year)


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Annex 13: Annual Average Maximum Temperature in Last 3Decades

(Dash line is linear regression line and solid line is change in temperature each year)


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An

nex

14:

So

il Te

st R

esu

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Annex 15: Potential sites for Green Water InfrastructureDevelopment

Dil Ko Pokhari

Patla (Lapsibota)

Barah Ko Pokhari

Sepata (Kartike)

Dil Ko Pokhari

Danda Khutkeri

DahaChiple Gaunda


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Annex 16: Pictures of springs

Chumla Bot Daha Khola (Sisneghari)

Daha Marare

Ghopte Bira ko Dhara (Bharsagni)

Gagan Pani

Ghopte Bira ko Dhara (Bharsagni)

Khola Kharka Khutkeri Kuwa


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Khujuri Pandhero

Mudhe ko Khola Patre

Musure Khalto Shrawan Kumar Khola

Mulako Dhahro, Lapsibot

Lampata Pandhero (using for irrigation)

Tallo Pandhero BharsagnJuke Pani

INTERNATIONAL UNION

Nepal Country OfficeKupondole, LalitpurP.O.Box 3923, Kathmandu, NepalTel: +977 1 5528781Fax: +977 1 5536786Email: [email protected]/nepal

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