hybrid vehicle report

8/11/2019 Hybrid Vehicle report

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HYBRID VEHICLE

Project report submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of

the degree B.Tech in Mechanical Engineering

BY

M. KARTHIK RAJA (09241A0316)

M.RAMESH BABU (09241A0328)

K.SANDEEP KUMAR (09241A0338)

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and Technology

Bachupally, Hyderabad 500090, A.P., INDIA

April, 2013


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Department of Mechanical Engineering

Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and TechnologyBachupally, Hyderabad 500090

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that project on HYBRID VEHICLEthat is to be submitted by M.

KATHIK RAJA (09241A0316), M.RAMESH BABU (09241A0328), K. SANDEEP

KUMAR (09241A0338) in partial fulfilment for the award of B.Tech in Mechanical

Engineering to the department of Mechanical Engineering; GokarajuRangaraju Institute of

Engineering and Technology; affiliated to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University

Hyderabad is a record of bona fide work carried out by them under our guidance and

supervision.

The results embodied in this Project Report have not been submitted to any other

university or institute for award of any degree or diploma.

PROJECT GUIDE:

M. V. ADITYA NAG

Asst. Professor, GRIET


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to take this opportunity and express our sincere thanks to all those whohelped us in the course of this project work.

We are deeply indebted to our guide Mr.M.V. Aditya Nag, Asst. Professor,

for her expert guidance during the entire course of project work, without which it would not

have been possible to successfully complete this project.

We would like to thank Dr. Jandhyala N Murthy, Principal, GRIET for

having permitted us in pursuing our project. We are thankful to Dr. K.G.K Murti, Head of

Department and professor.

We would like to thank Dr. P.A.P.N. NagendraVarma,Professor forcoordinating our project work throughout the semester.

We would also like to thank Mr.P.V.R.K. AnjaneyaRaju for his support and

suggestions and all staff members who gave their valuable advice in doing this project.

We also thank our parents who have supported us and also each and every

person who has influenced our project in one way or other.

M. KARTHIK RAJA - 09241A0316

M. RAMESH BABU - 09241A0328

K. SANDEEP KUMAR - 09241A0338


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ABSTRACT

In the present energy scenario the fossil fuel sources are fast depleting and their

combustion products are causing global environmental problems. So it is inevitable to shifttowards these of renewable energy resources which in turn will reduce pollution levels and

save fossil fuels. One possible alternative is HYBRID VEHICLE. Our main idea is to use

AIR and SOLAR ENERGY.

Air powered cars runs on compressed air instead of gasoline. This car is powered by a

compressed engine. Battery power drawn from the engine could possibly be used to power

the compressor. And we can develop the power required to drive the compressor by using

solar energy.

Hybrid vehicle is cheaper and beneficial compared to hydrogen engines, bio-diesel

engines. Nevertheless, the compressed air vehicle will contribute in reducing urban air

pollution in the long run. This project deals with the manufacturing and analysis of air

compressor powered vehicles powered using solar energy.


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INDEX

S No. TopicPage No

i. Cover Page i

ii.

Certificate ii

iii. Acknowledgement iii

iv. Abstract iv

v. Index v

vi. List of Figures Vii

vii. List of Tables viii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 History of Hybrid Vehicles 1

1.2 Need for hybrid vehicles 3

1.3 Concept of a hybrid vehicle 5

2 Air engine powered by using solar energy 6

2.1 Aim & objective 6

2.2 Block diagram of the project 6

3 Air engine 7

3.1 Design & working 7

3.2 Technical specification of the engine 7

3.3 Changing from 4-stroke to 2-stroke 8

3.4 Transmission losses 9

4 Air compressor 11

4.1 Introduction 11

4.2 Working 11

4.3 Types 12

5 Solar panels (photo voltaic system) 13

5.1 Introduction 13

5.2 Types of solar panels 13

5.3 Panels used for project 18


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5.4 Block diagram 20

6 Charge controller, batteries and inverter 21

6.1 Charge controller 21

6.2 Inverter 21

6.3 Battery 28

7 Assembly of hybrid vehicle 31

8 Auxiliaries and parts 32

8.1 The piping system: 32

8.2 Connectors 32

8.3 Valves 33

9 Analysis of hybrid vehicle 36

9.1 Analysis on air compressor 36

9.2 Analysis on engine 40

9.3 Determination of optimum tilt angles in solar panels: 44

10 Conclusion 49

11 References 54


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LIST OF TABLES

S.No Table No Description Page No

1 6.1 Controller Configuration Comparison 24

2 6.2 Battery and Charge Controller Troubleshooting 26

3 9.1 Analysis of air compressor 37

4 9.2 Results table 38

5 9.3 Pressure & brake horse power 44

6 9.4 Load and BHP 45

7 Table-1

(10 am)

Voltage and resistance 46

8 Table-2

(12 pm)


9 Table-3

(2 pm)


10 Table-4

(4 pm)


11 Table-5 Average voltage and angle 50


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LIST OF FIGURES

S. No Figure

No.

Description Page No

1 1.1 Pneumatic Locomotive 2

2 1.2 Early 19th century air engines 3

3 1.3 Temperature and CO2for last 1000 years & sea level raiseanalysis

4

4 1.4 Radial IC engine 5

5 3.1 IC engine used for the project 7

6 3.2 Cam shaft before modifications 8

7 3.3 Modified cam shaft 9

8 3.4 Design of rear shaft 10

9 4.1 Air compressor 11

10 5.1 Solar panels that are mounted on structure with seriesconnection

19

11 5.2 solar charging system block diagram 20

12 6.1 Charge controller 21

13 6.2 Backside of a charge controller 22

14 6.3 Inverter used in the project 28

15 6.4 Working model of battery 29

16 6.5 Batteries used in the project 30

17 7.1 Assembly of hybrid vehicle. 31

18 8.1 Pipes used in the project 32

19 8.2 Connectors used 33


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20 8.3 Valves used in the project 34

21 9.4 engine used in the project 41

22 10.1 Solar cells used in the project 50

23 10.2 Experimental Setup of Solar Embedded Air compressorpowered vehicle (Hybrid Vehicle)

51


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1. INTRODUCTION

Air engine is a new green project, where the main aim lies in using non-

conventional energy source to produce power output i.e. , air is used as the power source

which is used to run the engine. The laws of physics dictate that uncontained gases will fill

any given space. The easiest way to see this in action is to inflate a balloon. The elastic skin

of the balloon holds the air tightly inside, but the moment you use a pin to create a hole in the

balloon's surface, the air expands outward with so much energy that the balloon explodes.

Compressing a gas into a small space is a way to store energy. Working of an air engine or an

air car is based on the above mentioned principle. Instead of piston displacement by burning

of air-fuel mixture, compressed air is introduced into the chamber which results in similarpiston displacement. This new technology brings scope for an eco-friendly car. Though this is

the cleanest and most energy efficient process, a power source is required to run the air

compressor which in turn powers the air engine. The potential problem lies in powering the

air compressor. There are various ways of powering the air compressor, but the best non

conventional source is through solar power.

Air compressor contains a motor which is used for the basic function of

compressing the air. The efficiency and the output of the compressor depend on the capacity

of the motor. The compressor will use air from around the car to refill the compressed air

tank. Unfortunately, this is a rather slow method of refuelling and will probably take up to

two hours for a complete refill. If the idea of an air car catches on, air refuelling stations willbecome available at ordinary gas stations, where the tank can be refilled much more rapidly

with air that's already been compressed. Filling your tank at the pump will probably take

about three minutes. Similarly this project focuses on running the air car running

continuously with an air compressor attached in the car. By doing so, there will not be any

necessity for air filling stations. A 2H.P motor powered air compressor is sufficient for

running an air car at low speeds of 20-30kmph. Air cars also required to be as light as

possible. Thus, Aluminium or its respective alloys are most suitable for the building of air

cars. The current project focuses on the aspect of building an air powered car with its built-in

compressor.

Complete exhaust system can be omitted because air will not be contaminated or polluted

after exiting the air engine.


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1.1 HISTORY OF HYBRID VEHICLES:

Compressed air has been used since the 19th century to

power mine locomotives and trams in cities such as Paris and was previously the basis of

naval torpedo propulsion. During the construction of the Gotthardbahn from 1872 to 1882 ,

. 103, manufactured a number of compressed-air and liquefied-air cars. The major problem with

these cars and all compressed-air cars is the lack of torque produced by the "engines" and the

cost of compressing the air.

FIG 1.1:Pneumatic Locomotive

After years of working on a system for driving an automobile by means of

compressed air Louis C. Kiser, a 77 year old from Decatur USA has succeeded in converting

his gasoline engine into an air compressed system. A special cylinder head is substituted and

a compressed-air tank added in place of the gasoline tank. In 1926 Lee Barton Williams of

Pittsburg USA presented his invention: an automobile which, he claims runs on air. The

motor starts on gasoline, but after it has reached a speed of ten miles an hour the gasoline

supply is shut off and the air starts to work. At the first test his invention attained a speed of

62 miles an hour. The first hybrid diesel and compressed air locomotive appeared in 1930, in

Germany. The pressures brought to bear by the oil industry in the transport sector were ever

greater and the truth of the matter is that they managed to block investigation in this field.

In January 1975 driving on compressed air was proposed by Sorgato in Italy

as a viable fuel-economy alternative to the electric car for industrial and urban use. The first

experimental model had nine air bottles charged to 2840 psi. By an external compressor. Top

speed of this near-silent and non-polluting vehicle was said to be 30 miles per hour and had

duration of around two hours. In 1976 Ray Starboard from Vacaville, California developed a

truck that is able to drive on compressed air. He felt that he had invented the power system of

the future, a system that would greatly change the automotive face of the world.


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In 1979, Terry Miller decided that compressed air was the perfect medium for

storing energy. He developed Air Car One, which he built for $ 1,500. Terrys engines

showed that it was feasible to manufacture a car that could run on compressed air. He

patented his method in 1983 (US4370857).

FIG 1.2: Early 19th

century air engines

In the 1980s Carl Leissler developed a motor that was able to function on air.

The retired horticulturalist had been working from his garage in Hollywood for over 15 years.

He says that to use his motor in a car you might have to use a small electric or gas energy

source to help drive the air compressor. We might be able to get 2000 miles per gallon; air is

a power in itself Leissler comments.

Recently several companies have started to develop compressed aircars,

although none have been released to the public, or have been tested by third parties

The first air cars will almost certainly use the Compressed Air Engine

(CAE) developed by the French company, Motor Development International (MDI). Air cars

using this engine will have tanks that will probably hold about 3,200 cubic feet (90.6

kiloliters) of compressed air. The vehicle's accelerator operates a valve on its tank that allows

air to be released into a pipe and then into the engine, where the pressure of the air's

expansion will push against the pistons and turn the crankshaft. This will produce

enough power for speeds of about 35 miles (56 kilometres) per hour. When the air car

surpasses that speed, a motor will start to operate the in-car air compressor so it can compress

more air on the fly and provide extra power to the engine. The air is also heated as it hits the

engine, increasing its volume to allow the car to move faster.


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1.3 CONCEPT OF A HYBRID VEHICLE:

Air compressors collect and store air in a pressurized tank, anduse pistons and valves to achieve the appropriate pressure levels within an air storage tank

that is attached to the motorized unit. There are a few different types of piston compressors

that can deliver even air pressures to the user. Automotive compressors are combustion

engine compressors that use the up-and-down stroke of the piston to allow air in and

pressurize the air within the storage tank. Other piston compressors utilize a diaphragm, oil-

free piston. These pull air in, and pressurize it by not allowing air to escape during the

collection period.

Typical air engines use one or more expander pistons or rotary

expander. It is necessary to heat the air or the engine during expansion. Like other non-combustion energy storage technologies, an air vehicle displaces the emission source from

the vehicle's tail pipe to the central electrical generating plant. Where low emissions sources

are available, net production of pollutants can be reduced. Emission control measures at a

central generating plant may be more effective and less costly than treating the emissions of

widely dispersed vehicles. Since the compressed air is filtered to protect the compressor

machinery, the air discharged has less suspended dust in it, though there may be carry-over of

lubricants used in the engine.


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FIG 1.4 : Radial IC engine


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2. AIR ENGINE POWERED BY USING SOLAR ENERGY

2.1 AIM & OBJECTIVE:

The main aim of our project work is to use renewable energy resources to run the vehicle. In

this project we have used Air energy and solar energy to run the vehicle. Air energy is used

as a fuel input to the vehicle. Solar energy is used to charge the batteries. This battery power

is used to run the compressor.

2.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT:

The solar energy is absorbed by the solar panels which are connected in series. This solar

energy is used to charge the batteries. Here we have used 3 batteries each of 35 AH having

12volts. We used this battery power to run the compressor.

The compressor supplies the compressed air to the engine. We can regulate the flow of

compressed air into the engine by a proper valve arrangement


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3. AIR ENGINE

3.1 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATION OF THE ENGINE:

FIG 3.1 IC engine used for the project

100

50

50

100

( ) 5.5

10.2 7500


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3.2 DESIGN & WORKING:

The operation of this engine is similar to a regular 2-stroke, but with a few changes. In this engine,

instead of ports on the cylinder walls, valves are used for injection and exhaustion of fuel, i.e. air, in

the cylinder. This is an open cycle system and only two processes takes place during the operation,expansion and exhaust, expansion being the power stroke. The engine has been tested for various

valve timings and the best one has been adopted.

When the piston is at TDC, the inlet valve opens and the compressed air gushes into the cylinder

from the storage tank and pushes the downwards. In this process air expands providing momentum to

the piston and hence rotating the crankshaft. As the piston reaches the BDC, through a small opening

which is bored on the cylinder wall, some volume of air escapes to the atmosphere, reducing the

resistance force that will be acting on the piston as it trying to come up. Now the exhaust valve opens

and the remaining air is exhausted out. This process continues for each cycle and the engine runs

accordingly. As the pressure of the air in the tank reduces, so does the output derived from the engine.

3.3 CHANGING FROM 4-STROKE TO 2-STROKE:

To convert the four stroke to two stroke engine we have designed a camshaft. For replacing

the original cylinder head, a new set of two flank cams has been designed for operating the

inlet and exhaust valves of the modified engine. Both the exhaust and inlet cams are

symmetric about the centreline of the cam shaft. The cams are made of mild steels.

FIG 3.2:Cam shaft before modifications

These cams provide determined motion to the follower based on the assumed cam profile

which is done in actual practice. The design of this cam shaft has been altered to run the

original four-stroke engine as a two-stroke engine. This can be done in two ways. One of the


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methods is by changing the timing ratio, i.e. for one rotation of the camshaft the crankshaft

also rotates once, hence becoming a two-stroke engine. For this, a smaller sprocket that

matches the one that is mounted on the crankshaft is machined and mounted on the camshaft.

The cam chain will then run both the sprockets in 1:1 ratio. Another method is by doubling

the number of lobes on the cam shaft itself. The lobes are made symmetrical about the cam

shaft axis, thus obtaining a double sided lobe for the inlet as well as the outlet valve. As aresult, although the ratio between the crankshaft and the camshaft remains 2:1, the valves

open and close once for each rotation of the crankshaft.

FIG 7: Modified cam shaft

3.4 TRANSMISSION LOSSES:

Transmission system in a car helps to transmit mechanical power from the car

engine to give kinetic energy to the wheels. It is an interconnected system of gears, shafts,and other electrical gadgets that form a bridge to transfer power and energy from the engineto the wheels. The complete set up of the system helps to maintain the cruising speed of the

car without any disturbance to the cars performance. The oldest variant of the transmissionsystem in India is the manual transmission that has undergone various modifications and

alterations to form the present day automatic transmission.

A transmission or gearbox provides speed and torque conversions from a rotating

power source to another device using gear ratios. The transmission reduces the higher enginespeed to the slower wheel speed, increasing torque in the process. A transmission will have

multiple gear ratios (or simply "gears"), with the ability to switch between them as speedvaries. This switching may be done manually (by the operator), or automatically. Directional

(forward and reverse) control may also be provided.

In motor vehicle applications, the transmission will generally be connected to the crankshaft

of the engine. The output of the transmission is transmitted via driveshaft to one or moredifferentials, which in turn drive the wheels.


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FIG 8:Design of rear shaft

The compressed air car that we have made has a rear wheel drive system that means theengine in connected to the rear wheels through the chain and sprocket mechanism.

The engine is mounted on the chassis as shown in the figure and the rear wheels have an axleon which the sprocket has been fixed. A shaft of 25 mm diameter is initially taken and then it

is machined by a lathe machine to have a diameter of 20mm which can fit into the bearings at

the rear part of engine. The rod used is called as the Brett rod which has very less eccentric sothat higher efficiency can be obtained.


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4. AIR COMPRESSOR

4.1 INTRODUCTION:

An air compressor is a device that converts power (usually from an electric motor, a diesel

engine or a gasoline engine) into kinetic energy by compressing and pressurizing air, which,

on command, can be released in quick bursts. There are numerous methods of air

compression, divided into either positive-displacement or negative-displacement types.

4.2 WORKING:

Air compressors collect and store air in a pressurized tank, and use pistons and valves to

achieve the appropriate pressure levels within an air storage tank that is attached to the

motorized unit. There are a few different types of piston compressors that can deliver even air

pressures to the user.

Automotive compressors are combustion engine compressors that use the up-and-down

stroke of the piston to allow air in and pressurize the air within the storage tank. Other piston

compressors utilize a diaphragm, oil-free piston. These pull air in, and pressurize it by not

allowing air to escape during the collection period.

FIG 9:Air compressor


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These are the most common types of air compressors that are used today by skilled workers

and craftsmen. Before the day of motorized engines, air compressors were not what they are

today. Unable to store pressurized air, a type of antique air compressor may be found in the

blacksmith's foundry bellows. Now the air compressor is capable of building extreme

pressures in storage tanks capable of storing enormous amounts of pressurized gases for

industrial use.

4.3 TYPES:

1. According to the design and principle of operation

Reciprocating compressor

Rotary screw compressor

Turbo Compressor

2. According to the number of stages

Single stage compressor

Multi stage compressor

3. According to the pressure limits

Low pressure compressors

Medium pressure compressors

High pressure compressors

Super high pressure compressors

4. According to the capacity

Low capacity compressors

Medium capacity compressors

High capacity compressors

5. According to the method of cooling

Air cooled compressor

Water cooled compressor


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5. SOLAR PANELS (PHOTO VOLTAIC SYSTEM)

5.1 INTRODUCTION:

Every day, the sun radiates (sends out) an enormous amount of energycalled solarenergy. It radiates more energy in one second than the world has used since time began. This

energy comes from within the sun itself. Like most stars, the sun is a big gas ball made up

mostly of hydrogen and helium gas. The sun makes energy in its inner core in a process

called nuclear fusion. It takes the suns energy just a little over eight minutes to travel the 93

million miles to Earth. Solar energy travels at a speed of 186,000 miles per second, the speed

of light. Only a small part of the radiant energy that the sun emits into space ever reaches the

Earth, but that is more than enough to supply all our energy needs. Every day enough solar

energy reaches the Earth to supply our nations energy needs for a year! Solar energy is

considered a renewable energy source. Today, people use solar energy to heat buildings and

water and to generate electricity.

Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using

photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar

power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight

into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the photoelectric

effect. A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric

current using the photoelectric effect. Solar cells produce direct current (DC) power which

fluctuates with the sunlight's intensity. For practical use this usually requires conversion to

certain desired voltages or alternating current (AC), through the use of inverters.[15] Multiple

solar cells are connected inside modules. Modules are wired together to form arrays, then tied

to an inverter, which produces power at the desired voltage, and for AC, the desiredfrequency/phase.[15]

Different types of solar cells or solar panels are used for varied power outputs.

The efficiency or the output of the panel depends upon the structure and the arrangement of

silicon in the panel. Though different types of geometric shapes result in variation in the

panel efficiency, much concern is not attributed to the shape.

5.2 TYPES OF SOLAR PANELS:

Crystalline

Mono crystalline

Poly crystalline

Thin film solar panels

Building integrated photo voltaics


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Crystalline Silicon (c-Si):

Almost 90% of the Worlds photo-voltaic today are based on some variation of silicon. In

2011, about 95% of all shipments by U.S. manufacturers to the residential sector were

crystalline silicon solar panels. The silicon used in PV takes many forms. The main

difference is the purity of the silicon. But what does silicon purity really mean? The more

perfectly aligned the silicon molecules are, the better the solar cell will be at converting solar

energy (sunlight) into electricity (the photovoltaic effect).The efficiency of solar panels goes

hand in hand with purity, but the processes used to enhance the purity of silicon are

expensive. Efficiency should not be your primary concern. As you will later discover, cost-

and space-efficiency are the determining factors for most people.

Monocrystalline Silicon Solar Cells:

Solar cells made of monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si), also called single-crystalline silicon(single-crystal-Si), and are quite easily recognizable by an external even coloring anduniform look, indicating high-purity silicon. Monocrystalline solar cells are made out of

silicon ingots, which are cylindrical in shape. To optimize performance and lower costs of asingle monocrystalline solar cell, four sides are cut out of the cylindrical ingots to makesilicon wafers, which is what gives monocrystalline solar panels their characteristic look. Agood way to separate mono- and polycrystalline solar panels is that polycrystalline solar cellslook perfectly rectangular with no rounded edges.


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Advantages:

Monocrystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency rates since they are made out

of the highest-grade silicon. The efficiency rates of monocrystalline solar panels are

typically 15-20%. Sun Power produces the highest efficiency solar panels on the U.S.

market today. Their E20 series provide panel conversion efficiencies of up to 20.1%.

Monocrystalline silicon solar panels are space-efficient. Since these solar panels yield

the highest power outputs, they also require the least amount of compared to any other

types. Monocrystalline solar panels produce up to four times the amount of electricity

as thin-film solar panels.

Monocrystalline solar panels live the longest. Most solar panel manufacturers put a

25-year warranty on their monocrystalline solar panels.

Tend to perform better than similarly rated polycrystalline solar panels at low-light

conditions.

Disadvantages:

Monocrystalline solar panels are the most expensive.From a financial standpoint, a

solar panel that is made of polycrystalline silicon (and in some cases thin-film) can be

a better choice for homeowners.

If the solar panel is partially covered with shade, dirt or snow, the entire circuit can

break down. Consider getting micro-inverters instead of central string inverters if you

think coverage will be a problem. Micro-inverters will make sure that not the entire

solar array is affected by shading issues with only one of the solar panels.

Polycrystalline Silicon Solar Cells:

The first solar panels based on polycrystalline silicon, which also is known as polysilicon

(p-Si) and multi-crystalline silicon (mc-Si), were introduced to the market in 1981. Unlike

monocrystalline-based solar panels, polycrystalline solar panels do not require the

Czochralski process. Raw silicon is melted and poured into a square mold, which is cooled

and cut into perfectly square wafers.


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Advantages:

The process used to make polycrystalline silicon is simpler and cost less. This reduces

the amount of waste silicon.

Polycrystalline solar panels tend to have slightly lower heat toleranceand

thereforeperform slightly worse than monocrystalline solar panels in high

temperatures. Heat can affect the performance of solar panels and shorten their

lifespan. However, this effect is minor, and most homeowners do not need to take it

into account.

Disadvantages:

The efficiency of polycrystalline-based solar panels is typically 13-16%. Because of

lower silicon purity, polycrystalline solar panels are not quite as efficient as

monocrystalline solar panels.

You need to cover a larger surface to output the same electrical power as you would

with a solar panel made of monocrystalline silicon.

String Ribbon Solar Cells:

String Ribbon solar panels are also made out of polycrystalline silicon. String Ribbon is the

name of a manufacturing technology that produces a form of polycrystalline silicon.

Temperature-resistant wires are pulled through molten silicon, which results in very thin

silicon ribbon. Solar panels made with this technology looks similar to traditional

polycrystalline solar panels. Evergreen Solar was the main manufacturer of solar panels using

the String Ribbon technology. The company is now bankrupt, rendering the future for String

Ribbon solar panels unclear.


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Advantages:

The manufacturing of String Ribbon solar panels only uses half the amount silicon as

monocrystalline manufacturing. This significantly contributes to lower costs.

Thin-Film Solar Cells (TFSC):

Depositing one or several thin layers of photovoltaic material onto a substrate is what makes

thin-film solar cells (also known as thin-film photovoltaic cells (TFPV). The different types

of thin-film solar cells can be categorized by which photovoltaic material is deposited onto

the substrate:

Amorphous silicon (a-Si)

Cadmium telluride (Cd-Te)

Copper indium gallium selenide (CIS/CIGS)

Organic photovoltaic cells (OPC)

Depending on the technology, thin-film module prototypes have reached efficiencies between

713% and production modules operate at about 9%. Future module efficiencies are expected

to climb close to the about 1016%. The market for thin-film PV grew at a 60% annual rate

from 2002 to 2007. In 2011, close to 5% of U.S. photovoltaic module shipments to the

residential sector were based on thin-film.

Advantages:

Easier to mass-produce and potentially cheaper to manufacture than crystalline-based

solar cells. Their homogenous appearance makes them look more appealing.

Can be made flexible, which opens up many new potential applications.

High temperatures and shading have less of an impact on solar panel performance.

In situations where space is not an issue, thin-film solar panels can make sense.

Disadvantages:

Thin-film solar panels are in general not very useful for in most residential

situations. They are cheap, but they also require a lot of space. Sun power`s

monocrystalline solar panels produce up to four times the amount of electricity asthin-film solar panels for the same amount of space.

Poor space-efficiency also means that costs of support structures, cables and other PV

equipment increase.

Thin-film solar panels tend to degrade faster thanmono- and polycrystalline solar

panels, which is why they usually come with a shorter warranty.


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Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) Solar Cells:

Because the output of electrical power is low, solar cells based on amorphous

silicon have traditionally only been used for small-scale applications such as in pocket

calculators. However, recent innovations have made them more attractive for some large-

scale applications too. With a manufacturing technique called stacking, several layers of

amorphous silicon solar cells can be combined, which results in higher efficiency rates

(typically around 6-8%). Only 1% of the silicon used in crystalline silicon solar cells is

required in amorphous silicon solar cells. On the other side, stacking is expensive.

Cadmium Telluride (Cd-Te) Solar Cells:

Cadmium telluride is the only thin-film solar panel technology that has surpassed thecost-efficiency of crystalline silicon solar panels in a significant portion of the market (multi-

kilowatt systems). The efficiency of solar panels based on cadmium telluride usually operates

in the range 9-11%. First Solar has installed over 5 Gigawatts (GW) of cadmium telluride

thin-film solar panels worldwide. The same company holds the world record for Cd-Te PV

module efficiency of 14.4%.

Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIS/CIGS) Solar Cells:

Compared to the other thin-film technologies above, CIGS solar cells have

showed the most potential in terms of efficiency. These solar cells contain less amounts of the

toxic material cadmium that is found in Cd-Te solar cells. Commercial production of flexibleCIGS solar panels was started in Germany in 2011. The efficiency rates for CIGS solar

panels typically operate in the range 10-12 %. Many thin-film solar cell types are still early in

the research and testing stages. Some of them have enormous potential, and we will likely see

more of them in the future.

Building-Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV):

Lastly, we`ll briefly touch on the subject of building integrated photovoltaics.

Rather than an individual type of solar cell technology, building integrated photovoltaics

have several subtypes, or rather different methods of integration,which can be based on both

crystalline and thin-film solar cells. Building integrated photovoltaics can be used to replacefacades, roofs, windows, walls and many other things with photovoltaic material. If you have

the extra money and want seemingly integrate photovoltaics with the rest of your house, you

should look up building-integrated photovoltaics. For most homeowners it`s simply way too

expensive.


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5.3 PANELS USED FOR PROJECT:

The solar panels used for the purpose of charging the batteries are of poly-silicon type

photo voltaic cells. Poly crystalline panels are more feasible when compared to mono

crystalline solar panels. In order to achieve the required voltage to run the air compressor the

photo voltaic cells are connected in series connection, thereby producing an output of 36V

Technical specifications of the solar panels:

Type: Poly silicon solar panels

Maximum voltage Vmax: 12V

Wattage: 70W

Type of connection: Series

Vamp: 10V

Quantity of solar panels: 3

FIG 10:Solar panels that are mounted on structure with series connection


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Calculating the requirement of solar panels

Battery capacity = capacity * voltage

= 35 * 12

= 420W-hr

Power consumption by air compressor = 36W-hr

Energy generated by solar panel = total wattage of the panels * 1 * 0.85

= (70*3) * 1 * 0.85

= 62.05W-hr

Where 0.85 is the factor for natural system losses

Thus from the above calculations we can say that the solar panels can generate up to 62.05W-

hr of energy for the purpose of recharging.

5.4 BLOCK DIAGRAM & CONNECTIONS:

FIG 11:solar charging system block diagram


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6. CHARGE CONTROLLER, BATTERIES AND INVERTER

6.1 CHARGE CONTROLLER & ITS SPECIFICATIONS:

The charge controller is a necessary part of our power system that charge batteries,

whether the power source is PV, wind, hydro, fuel, or utility grid. Its purpose is to keep your

batteries properly fed and safe for the long term.

A charge controller is an electronic voltage regulator, used in off-grid systems and grid-

tie systems with battery backup, that controls the flow of power from the charging source to

the battery. The charge controller automatically tapers, stops, or diverts the charge whenbatteries become fully charged.

FIG 12: Charge controller


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In off-grid facilities, PV systems are either stand-alone or centralized configurations

that serve multiple units. The systems deliver either direct current (DC) or alternating

current (AC). The main system components are the PV panel, battery, and charge controller;

in addition, an inverter is used in systems that deliver AC electricity.

Solar panels charge the battery, and the charge controller insures proper charging of thebattery. The battery provides DC voltage to the inverter, and the inverter converts the DC

voltage to normal AC voltage.

It may also prevent completely draining ("deep discharging") a battery, or perform

controlled discharges, depending on the battery technology, reverse current flow at night, and

to protect battery life.

For reverse polarity protection there are two commonly-used techniques; shunt andseries

diodes. In the shunt technique the fuse blows if the input is reverse-connected, as the diode is

forward biased. This will prevent damage to the DC/DC converter but means that the fuse

will need to be replaced. In this configuration the diode must be sized so that it will not failbefore the fuse ruptures.

FIG 13: Backside of a charge controller


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Diodes are semiconductor devices that allow current to flow in only one direction. The

two uses of diodes in PV system electrical design are blocking diodes and bypass diodes.

Blocking diodes prevent power from going back into the panel from the battery at night.Blocking diodes are not necessary if a charge controller is being used, and are usually fitted

as standard on smaller flexible modules.

No single component in photovoltaic systems is more affected by the size and usage of

the load than storage batteries. A charge controller ensures that the battery is not overcharged

or deep-discharged, to provide as long a battery lifetime as possible.

Loads directly influence the performance of the entire photovoltaic system. Oversize or

extra loads can cause a system to fail if the loads require more power than the modules can

generate or than the battery can store.

A system for delivering power to a battery and to a load includes a power source that supplies

energy to the battery and the load. The battery can be charged by the power source and used

to supply energy or power to the load when the power source is unable to provide sufficient

energy and power to the load. The system reduces injection of DC current into the load and,

as a result, extends the operation life of the load, particularly if the load is an AC lighting or

lamp system.

The basic functions of a controller are quite simple. Charge Controllers block reverse current

and prevent battery overcharge. Some controllers also prevent battery over-discharge, protect

from electrical overload, and/or display battery status and the flow of power.

Controller Configuration Comparison

Controller

Type

Charging

Method

Advantages Disadvantages

Shunt-

Interrupting

On/Off - lower voltage dropacross controller than

series configuration

- often simple, cheapand reliable

- significant powerdissipation inswitching element inlarge systems- blocking diode

required- can cause hot spotsin high voltage arrays- may have difficultyfully charging batteryat high currents

Shunt-Linear CV - tapered currentcharging

- significant powerdissipation inswitching element


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- lower voltage drop

across controller thanseries configuration

- blocking dioderequired- can cause hot spotsin high voltage arrays

Series-

Interrupting

On/Off - no powerdissipation required

- often simple, cheapand reliable

- may have difficulty

fully charging batteryat high currents

Series-Linear CV - tapered current

charging

- power dissipationrequired- voltage drop acrosscontroller

Pulse Width

Modulated

CV - tapered currentcharging

- lower power

dissipation than other

CV methods

- voltage drop acrosscontroller- generally morecomplex than seriesor shunt on/off

controllers- sometimes causeselectromagnetic

Sub-Array

Switching

stepped - pseudo-tapered

current charging- can control large

arrays

- not cost effective

with small arrays

None self-regulated - low-cost - charge regulation

strongly temperature

dependent

Table 6.1 Controller Configurations Comparision

Battery and Charge Controller Troubleshooting

Symptom: Cause: Result: Action:

Battery voltage below

Voltage Regulation

Reconnect set point

but controller not

charging batteries

Faulty charge

resumption function

in charge controller

Excessive battery

discharge

Repair, readjust, or

replace charge

controller

Battery voltage just

below Voltage

Regulation Reconnect

set point, but

controller not

Faulty or poorly

positioned

temperature probe

Charge controller

thinks batteries are

cooler than their

actual temperature

Repair, replace, or

reposition probe

Operating point of PV Under charging of PV module may have


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charging batteries module is far right of

I-V curve knee due to

high module

operating temperature

(very hot, sunny

summer days)

batteries to be changed so that

the VR is close to the

I-V curve knee under

hot conditions

Battery voltage below

low voltage

disconnect setting

Faulty low voltage

disconnect function in

charge controller

Excessive battery

discharge

Repair or replace

charge controller

One battery cell faulty Battery capacity

limited

Check cells and

replace

Battery voltage loss

overnight even when

no loads are drawing

current

Faulty blocking

diode, no diode, or

faulty charge

controller

Reverse current flow

at night discharging

batteries

Replace or add diode,

or repair or replace

series relay charge

controller

Old or faulty batteries Batteries self-

discharging

Replace batteries

Battery voltage not

increasing even when

no loads are on and

the system is charging

Faulty charge

controller

No power from array

going into batteries

Repair or replace

charge controller

Battery voltage over

Voltage Regulation

set point

Faulty charge

controller

Shortened battery life,

possible damage to

loads

Repair or replace

charge controller and

possibly batteriesController always in

full charge, never infloat charge

Battery experiencing

high water loss

Poorly configured

charge controller


possible damage to

loads and batteries

Adjust set point,

repair or replace


possibly batteries

Controller always in

full charge, never in

float charge


possible damage to

loads

Repair of replace


possibly batteries

Battery voltage just

above VoltageRegulation Reconnect

set point, but

controller still

charging batteries

Faulty or poorly

positionedtemperature probe or

poor connection at

controller "battery

sense" terminals

Charge controller

thinks batteries arewarmer than their

actual temperature

Repair, replace or

reposition temperatureprobe or change

charge controller

Buzzing relays Too few batteries in

series or low battery

Low voltage across

relays

Reconfigure, add or

replace batteries


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voltage

Loose or corroded

battery connections

High voltage drop Repair or replace

cables

Erratic controller

operation and/or loads

being disconnected

improperly

Timer not

synchronized with

actual time of day

Controller turns on

and off at incorrect

times

Either wait until

automatic reset next

day, or disconnect

array, wait 10

seconds, and

reconnect array.

Replace controller if

this does not

resynchronize

controller

Electrical "noise"

(EMI) from inverter

Rapid on and off

cycling

Connect inverter

directly to batteries,

put filters on load

Low battery voltage Batteries may need

repair or replacement

Repair or replace

batteries

Faulty or poorly

positioned

temperature probe or

poor connection at

battery sense

terminals

Charge controller

thinks batteries are

warmer or cooler than

their actual

temperature

Repair, reposition or

replace temperature

probe or change

charge controller

High surge from load Battery voltage drops

during surge

Use larger wire to

load, or add batteries

in parallel

Faulty charge

controller, possibly

from lightning

damage

Loads disconnected

improperly, other

erratic operation

Repair or replace


check system

grounding

Adjustable low

voltage disconnect set

incorrectly

Loads disconnected

improperly

Reset Low Voltage

Disconnect set point

Controller load switchin wrong position

Loads neverdisconnect

Reset switch tocorrect position

Fuse to PV array

blows

Array short circuited

with batteries still

connected (possibly

faulty blocking diode)

Too much current

through charge

controller

Test diode and replace

controller if required

Current output of Too much current Replace charge


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array too high for

charge controller

through charge

controller

controller with one

with higher rating

Fuse to load blows Short circuit in load Unlimited current Repair short circuit or

replace load

Current draw of load

too high for charge

controller

Too much current

through charge

controller

Reduce load size or

increase charge

controller size

Surge current draw of

load too high for

charge controller

"Charging" at night Normal operation for

some charge

controllers for up to

two hours after

nightfall

No appreciable

energy loss

Check system later in

the evening

Timer not

synchronized with

actual time of day

Controller turns on

and off at incorrect

times

Either wait until

automatic reset next

day, or disconnect

array, wait 10

seconds, and

reconnect

Table 6.2: Battery and charge controller troubleshooting

6.1.1 SPECIFICATIONS OF CHARGE CONTROLLER USED:

Voltage: 36volts

Current: 30 amps

6.2 INVERTER:

A power inverter, or inverter, is an electrical power converter that changes direct current

(DC) to alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage andfrequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits.

Solid-state inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, fromsmall switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high voltage direct

current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC

power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.


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The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier. The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC converters

were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC.

SPECIFICATIONS OF INVERTER USED:

We have used a 2.2KV 36 VOLTS inverter to supply power to the air compressor.

FIG- 14:Inverter used

6.3. BATTERIES

A battery is a device consisting of one or more electro chemical cells that convert storedchemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery (or "voltaic

pile") in 1800 by Allesandro Volta and especially since the technically improved Daniell

cell in 1836, batteries have become a common power source for many household and

industrial applications. According to a 2005 estimate, the worldwide battery industry

generates US$48 billion in sales each year, with

6% annual growth.

There are two types of batteries: primarybatteries (disposable batteries), which aredesigned to be used once and discarded, and

secondary battery (rechargeable batteries), whichare designed to be recharged and used multipletimes. Batteries come in many sizes; fromminiature cells used to power hearing aids andwristwatches to battery banks size of rooms thatprovide standby power for telephone exchangesand computer data centers.


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6.4 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:

In this example the two half-cells are linked by a salt bridge separator that permits

the transfer of ions, but not water molecules.

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy. Itconsists of a number of voltaic cells; each voltaic cell consists of two half-cells connected inseries by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includeselectrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e.,the anode or negative electrode; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode towhich cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. Inthe redox reaction that powers the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at thecathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. The electrodes donot touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use twohalf-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half-cells allows ions to flow, butprevents mixing of the electrolytes.

Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to driveelectric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is thedifference between the emfs of its half-cells, as first recognized by Volta. Therefore, if the

electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf isthe difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.

The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known asthe terminal voltage (difference)and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell thatis neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of thecell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smallerin magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is chargingexceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it wouldmaintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such acell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it


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would perform 1.5 joule of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases underdischarge, and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage andresistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of thecurve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.

As stated above, the voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on theenergy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinccarbon cells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts;likewise Ni-Cd and Ni-MH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emfof 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactionsof lithium compounds give lithium cells emf of 3 volts or more

In our project work we have taken 3 batteries each of 35AH, 12 volts connected inseries to supply power to the compressor.

FIG 15:Batteries used


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7. ASSEMBLY:

FIGURE 16: Assembly of hybrid vehicle.


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8. AUXILLARIES AND PARTS

8.1THE PIPING SYSTEM:

The piping system comprises of the compressed air carrier (hose) is used to connect thecomponents involved in the passage of the compressed air. It is used to connect the cylinder

to the valve and the valve to the inlet of the casing& receiving the exhaust which is collected

into another cylinder.

FIG- 17: Pipes used

Here polyurethane pipes are used of diameter of 12mm and length of 1m. They are

made of hard and flexible material so that they are able to pass the compressed air more

efficiently. These pipes are able to withstand high pressure and so are used to transportcompressed air. They are perfectly suited to be inserted to the one touch male connector.

Connectors are used to connect the pipes with the components used in this project.

The type of connector used is one touch male connector which has an internal hexagonal

socket. The specification of the thread is BSPT R1/2 (British standard piping thread). The

outer diameter is 21.5mm and the inner diameter is 12mm. The one which we are using is a

Polyurethanes Fitting Connector, where Polyurethanes are used in the manufacture offlexible, high-resilience foam seating; rigid foam insulation panels; microcellular foam seals

and gaskets; durable elastomeric wheels and tires; automotive suspension bushings; electrical

potting compounds; high performance adhesives; surface coatings and surface sealants;

synthetic fibers (e.g. Spandex); carpet underlay; and hard-plastic parts (i.e., for electronic

instruments). Polyurethane is also used for the manufacture of hoses and skateboard wheels

as it combines the best properties of both rubber and plastic.


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FIG -18: Connectors used

Pipe fitting is the occupation of installing or repairing piping or tubing systems that

convey liquid, gas, and occasionally solid materials. This work involves selecting and

preparing pipe or tubing, joining it together by various means, and the location and repair of

leaks. Pipe fitting work is done in many different settings: HVAC, manufacturing,

hydraulics, refineries, nuclear-powered Super carriers and Fast Attack Submarines computer

chip fab plants, power plant construction and other steam systems. Fitters work with a

variety of pipe and tubing materials including several types of steel, copper, iron, aluminium,

and plastic. Pipefitting is not plumbing; the two are related but separate trades. Pipe fitters

that specialize in fire prevention are called Sprinkler fitters, another related, but separatetrade. Materials, techniques, and usages vary from country to country as different nations

have different standards to install pipe.


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A valve is a device that regulates, directs or controls the flow of a fluid (gases, liquids,

fluidized solids, or slurries) by opening, closing, or partially obstructing various

passageways. Valves are technically pipe fittings, but are usually discussed as a separate

category. In an open valve, fluid flows in a direction from higher pressure to lower pressure.

The simplest, and very ancient, valve is simply a freely hinged flap which drops to obstruct

fluid (gas or liquid) flow in one direction, but is pushed open by flow in the opposite

direction.

Valves are used in a variety of contexts, including industrial, military, commercial,

residential, and transport. The industries in which the majority of valves are used are oil and

gas, power generation, mining, water reticulation, sewage and chemical manufacturing.

FIG-19:valves used


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Valves may be operated manually, either by a handle, lever or pedal. Valves may also

be automatic, driven by changes in pressure, temperature, or flow. These changes may act

upon a diaphragm or a piston, which in turn activates the valve; examples of this type of

valve found commonly are safety valves fitted to hot water systems or boilers.

More complex control systems using valves requiring automatic control based on an

external input (i.e., regulating flow through a pipe to a changing set point) require an

actuator. An actuator will stroke the valve depending on its input and set-up, allowing the

valve to be positioned accurately, and allowing control over a variety of requirements.

Valves vary widely in form and application. Sizes typically range from 0.1 mm to 60

cm. Special valves can have a diameter exceeding 5 meters.

In our project we have used ball valve and non return valve. Ball valve is used to sendthe air from the air tank to engine. Non return valve is used to send the compressed air to the

tank from compressor.


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9. ANALYSIS

9.1 ANALYSIS ON AIR COMPRESSOR:

SERIAL NUMER OPERATING PRESSURE RPM OFCMPRESSOR

1 0 bar 1460

2 3 bar 1440

3 5 bar 1438

4 6 bar 14325 7 bar 1431

Table 9.1: Analysis of air compressor during working condition

P = OPERATING PRESSURE = 6 BAR

N = RPM OF COMPRESSOR = 1432

D = DIAMETER OF CYLINDER = 47MM

L = LENGTH OF THE STROKE = 55MM

d= DIAMETER OF THE INLET = 8 MM

D = DIAMETER OF THE ROTOR = 80 MM

Assuming atmospheric conditions,

Free air delivery =

=...

= 2.27

By continuity equation,

Q = Area*velocity

2.27 =

V = 45 m/s

By impulse momentum equation

Impact force =


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=

.

= 7 Kg

Impact force F =

= 7

= 3.3 N

Torque = force * (D/2)

= 3.3 * 0.050

= 0.165 N-m

Assuming the rotor is rotating with the same velocity, as

U =

45 =..

N = 8598

Brake power =

=.

= 148.487 WATTS

= 0.199 bhp

RESULTS TABLE

SERIAL

NUMBER

OPERATING

PRESSURE

RPM OF

COMPRESSOR

TORQUE BRAKE

HORSE

POWER1 3 1440 0.08 0.0976

2 5 1438 0.172 0.209

3 6 1432 0.165 0.199

4 7 1431 0.158 0.182

Table 9.2: Results obtained during experimentation at various pressures and speeds


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PRESSURE VS RPM:

FIG-20: Graph between pressure and rpm of air compressor during experimentation


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PRESSURE VS TORQUE:

FIG-21: Graph between pressure and torque of air compressor during experimentation


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PRESSURE VS BHP:


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FIG-22: Graph between pressure and brake horse power (bhp) of air compressor during

experimentation

9.2 ANALYSIS ON ENGINE:

TORQUE AND BHP CALCULATIONS:

Diameter of cylinder=50mm

Length of stroke =50mm

Mass of car (approx) = 180Kg

R.P.M = 5000

Frictional coefficient of cement road and rubber tyre () = 0.8

Force required to move the car

(F) = *m*g

= 0.8*180*9.8

= 1411 Kg-f

Area of contact of tyre and road (A) = *d*t

=*0.08*0.05

=0.01256 m2

Therefore pressure required to run the car (P) = F/A

= 1411/0.012

= 117600 Kg/

= 11 bar

Area of the cylinder (A) = *d2/4= *0.052/4=0.0019625 m2


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Force acting on the piston = P*A

= 117600 * 0.0019625

= 230 Kg-f

Brake horse power of engine (B.H.P) =

= .

= 6018.33 Watts

= 6.018 KW

= 8bhp

9.3 MEASUREMENT

OF BRAKE POWER

OF ENGINE:


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FIG-24: Graph between pressure and brake horse power

LOAD VS BHP:

Table 9.4

LOAD ( KG ) BHP

4 3.92

5 4.56

6 5.252


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FIG- 26: Graph between resistance and voltage of solar panels at different tiltangles duringexperimentation at 10 AM

TABLE-(2) 12 PM

ANGLE VOLTAGE RESISTANCE

19 32 4.2

20 33 4.821 36 5.3

61 37 5.6

Series 1

28 29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

5.5

6

6.5

7

7.5

x

y

(32,4.2)

(33,4.8)

(36,5.3)(37,5.6)

Voltage

Resistance


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19 38 6.1

20 34 4.9

21 39 6.661 36 5.1

FIG- 27: Graph between resistance and voltage of solar panels at different tilt angles during

experimentation at 12 PM

TABLE-(3) 2 PM


19 37 5.5

20 34 4.6

Series 1

28 29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

-2.5-2

-1.5-1

-0.5

0.51

1.52

2.53

3.54

4.55

5.56

6.57

7.58

8.59

9.510

10.511

11.512

12.513

13.514

14.5

x

y

(38,6.1)

(34,4.9)

(39,6.6)

(36,5.1)

Voltage

Resistance


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21 39 6.2

61 35 5.3

FIG-28: Graph between voltage and resistance of solar panels at different tilt angles during


TABLE-(4) 4 PM

Series 1

29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48

-2-1.5

-1-0.5

0.51

1.52

2.5

33.5

44.5

55.5

66.5

77.5

88.5

99.5

1010.5

1111.5

1212.5

13

x

y

(37,5.5)

(34,4.6)

(39,6.2)

(35,5.3)

Voltage

Resistance

Series 1

29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

-1.5-1

-0.5

0.51

1.52

2.53

3.54

4.55

5.56

6.57

7.58

8.59

9.510

10.511

11.512

12.513

x

y

(32,4.1)(31,3.9)

(35,4.5)

(36,5.1)

Voltage

Resistance


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FIG-29: Graph between voltage and resistance of solar panels at different tilt angles during


9.5 OVERALL AVERAGE VOLTAGE:


19 32 4.1

20 31 3.9

21 35 4.5

61 36 5.1

Series 1

29 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47

-1.5-1

-0.5

0.51

1.52

2.53

3.54

4.55

5.56

6.57

7.58

8.59

9.510

10.511

11.512

12.513

x

y

(32,4.1)(31,3.9)

(35,4.5)

(36,5.1)

Voltage

Resistance


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Table 5

ANGLE AVERAGE VOLTAGE

19 34.25 V

20 32.75 V

21 37.25 V61 36 V

FIG-30: Graph between angles and average voltage

We got highest voltage at 21 degrees that is 37.25 volts. So optimum tilt angle is 21degrees.

Series 1

17 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

28

29

31

32

33

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

x

y

(19,34.25)

(20,32.75)

(21,37.25)

(23,36)

Angle

Averagevoltag

e


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10.CONCLUSION:

In this project we are able to design and run the Hybrid vehicle (using solar and air

energy). By using solar energy we successfully charged the batteries and results have shown

that there was a substantial increase in the output in voltage and resistance when fixed at an

optimal tilt angles. Though the engine was only running at idle speeds, the concept of using

air as a fuel and achieving movement of the vehicle was the primary objective which was

successful.

Thus we can conclude by saying that air engine is a feasible project in the near future

in mass production. This project is eco-friendly and does not use any type fossil fuels. At

different pressures different bhp values and speeds were obtained.

In this investigation, the aim was to understand the performance level of a hybrid car

compared to a normal motor car. The findings suggest that in general, a hybrid car is not only

fuel efficient but also eco friendly.


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REFERENCES

Text book on RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES by G D RAI.

AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING ( V0l-1 & Vol-2 ) by Dr. Kirpal Singh.

A TEXT BOOK ON INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES by V.Ganeshan.

How stuff works website.

The aircar.com

Paper presentation on Determining optimum tilt anglesand orientations of

photovoltaic panels in Sanliurfa, Turkey

http://www.journals.elsevier.com/renewable-energy

Paper presentation on Optimum fixed orientations and benefits of tracking for

capturing solar radiation in the continental United States.

Wikipedia website.

hybrid vehicle report

Documents