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The Jeffersonian Revolution of 1800

Continuing the Virginia Dynasty

The “Revolution” Defined

The “Revolution of 1800” is basically the results of the Presidential Election that took place in 1800.

It was a contest between several candidates representing the two political parties that had developed in the years since Washington had left office - the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans

Main Candidates

Thomas Jefferson

John Adams

Aaron Burr

The Candidates

John Adams (the sitting President) & a Federalist

Thomas Jefferson (the sitting Vice-President & a Democratic-Republican)

Aaron Burr (a Democratic-Republican)

Charles C. Pinckney (a Federalist)

John Jay (a Federalist)

Key Party Differences

Federalists– strong central gov’t

– loose interpretation of the Constitution

– Pro-British

– large peacetime military

– favored aid to business

– favored tariffs

– supported by northern businessmen & large landowners

Democratic-Republicans– weak central gov’t

– strict interpretation of the Constitution

– Pro-French

– small peacetime military

– favored agriculture

– opposed tariffs

– supported by small farmers, skilled workers & plantation owners

Results (by state)

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Results Overall

Electoral Vote: – Jefferson: 73

– Burr: 73

– Adams: 65

– Pinckney: 64

– Jay: 1

Points to Remember– Remember each Elector casts

two ballots (one for president and one for vice) but there is no distinction between the two.

– The person with the greatest number of electoral votes is president (still needs a majority)

– In a tie (or no majority) the election is decided by the House of Representatives

The Decision

Technically, the House could have put Aaron Burr in the White House instead of Jefferson even though he was the Vice-Presidential candidate

The House was controlled by the Federalists (for a few more months) who preferred Burr

A few Federalists, who were wary of Burr, withheld their votes and the proper person was elected

The “Revolution” of 1800

Jefferson described [the election] as being "as real a revolution in the principles of our government as that of 1776 was in its form; not effected indeed by the sword, as that, but by the rational and peaceable instrument of reform, the suffrage of the people."

It was a revolution in the sense that power changed hands - but peacefully - as the Constitution intended

The Jeffersonian Democracy

Political Battles, Foreign Policy and the Louisiana Purchase

Political Conflict: The Judiciary

The Supreme Court was dominated by Federalists (all had been appointed by George Washington or John Adams)

Many judges had been appointed just prior to John Adams leaving office (so called “midnight judges”)

Chief Justice John Marshall was one of these “midnight judges.”

John Marshall (1755-1835)

“Hero” of the XYZ Affair

From rural VA

Served as Chief Justice 1801-1835

One of the few remaining Federalists

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Marbury v. Madison (1803)

William Marbury was appointed as a justice of the peace as one of the “midnight” appointments by John Adams

However, his commission was not delivered before the presidential transition took place

James Madison, the new president’s Secretary of State, refused to deliver the commission

Marbury v. Madison (cont.)

Marbury sued, asking for a writ of mandamus that would force Madison to deliver the commission (to do his job)

The case was heard by the Supreme Court in 1803 and Chief Justice John Marshall delivered the unanimous opinion

Marbury v. Madison: The Ruling

Marbury’s commission was legal and a writ of mandamus could be issued (Madison would have to deliver the commission)

However, the Constitution had not authorized the Court to issue writs.

Moreover, the Judiciary Act of 1789 (which had given the Court this power) was unconstitutional

Marbury v. Madison: Results

Since the act under which Marbury was to receive his commission was unconstitutional, he wouldn’t receive it (a victory for the Democratic-Republicans)

BUT, this ruling affirmed the Court’s authority to review the constitutionality of acts of Congress (a Federalist victory)

Basically, it authorized “judicial review”

More battles with the Judiciary

Jefferson did not trust the (now powerful) unelected judiciary which was dominated by the Federalists

He encouraged a campaign to rid the Court of Federalist judges, especially Supreme Court justice Samuel Chase

In 1804, impeachment charges were brought against Chase (and others) which were approved by the House

Impeachment?Once the House impeaches, the Senate holds a

trial to determine guilt or innocence

Evidence proved that Chase was guilty only of partisanship and using his freedom of speech -not the “high crimes and misdemeanors” he was indicted for

Senate didn’t convict & Chase stayed a justice

Jefferson grudgingly accepted an independent judiciary that was controlled by the Federalists

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Foreign Policy - Battles Abroad

Jefferson did not believe in a large military and reduced the army to just 2500 and the navy to just a handful of ships

However, raids on merchant shipping by Pirates of the North African states (Barbary Pirates - named for the Barbary Coast)

Previous presidents had purchased protection from these raids (paid tributes)

Barbary Pirates

Jefferson remembers the American position of “millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute” in the French crisis over the XYZ affair but pays anyway (but less)

In 1801, the Pasha of Tripoli demanded an increase in the amount of protection money or he would attack American shipping

Jefferson refused and American ships were attacked

Building a Navy

Jefferson reluctantly sent the tiny navy to “the shores of Tripoli” to protect American interests

A peace treaty was finally reached in 1805, ending the conflict

Most importantly, the Navy was gaining valuable experience & would continue to battle various groups of “Barbary Pirates” until after the War of 1812

Foreign Policy: Louisiana

When Jefferson came to office, Louisiana was owned by Spain

In 1802, it came to light that Napoleon and the King of Spain had negotiated to transfer the Louisiana territory to France - including New Orleans

The right of deposit (granted by the Pinckney Treaty of 1795) was revoked

Purchasing LouisianaAmericans had come to depend heavily on New

Orleans’ port and the access it granted to the Atlantic Ocean for western farmers

Early in 1803, Jefferson sent James Monroe to Paris to negotiate to purchase the city of New Orleans (and some surrounding land) for a maximum of $10 million

If he failed, he was to go to Britain and negotiate an alliance that could resist French occupation of New Orleans (using the British navy & army)

Napoleon’s Surprise

As Napoleon’s dreams of the conquest of the European continent were proving to be more difficult than originally imagined, he surprised Robert Livingston (the regular minister to France - until Monroe arrived) with the offer to sell all of Louisiana

Livingston acted before Monroe even arrived and agreed to buy all of the Louisiana territory for $15 million

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The Territory Implications

The Louisiana Purchase more than doubled the size of the United States

The over 600 million acres were purchased for a little less than 3 cents an acre

However, Jefferson - a strict constructionist - had a problem: the Constitution did not authorize the president to purchase land for the country. Could he do this?

Implications

He justified that it was necessary to protect and defend the US (from the possibility of war with France) and benefited the US by opening so much more land to settlement. He changed his own personal beliefs for the good of the country

But, the US needed to see exactly what they had purchased and began preparing for an expedition to explore their new lands

Creating an Expedition

Jefferson appointed Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to head an expedition to explore (and map) this vast new territory

Meriwether Lewis

William Clark

Goals of the Expedition

To map the new territory

To see what resources were present -including new flora and fauna

To see if the Missouri River connected to other rivers (or itself connected to) the Pacific Ocean

Negotiate peaceful relations with Indian tribes in the area

Negotiating with Indians

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Transversing the Rivers

Lewis and Clark often used Native technology to continue on the expedition - such as these bear-skin boats

Sacajawea (1787?-1812?)

•A Shoshone Indian who was married to Toussaint (hired to be the expedition guide)•She was very useful as a translator since she was from the region near the headwaters of the Missouri River•Gave birth just before the trip (and brought her son along)•Also useful in negotiations since her brother was chief of a tribe near the Snake River (ID)

Results

Set out from St. Louis in 1804 following the Missouri River

Crossed the Rocky Mountains and eventually came to the Pacific Ocean in present day Oregon

Returned to St. Louis (dividing the party) in 1806

Results - the data

Lewis and Clark brought back detailed drawings and information about their journey including these drawings and descriptions.

Map of Expedition United States in 1810

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Impact of Lewis & Clark - Trails

THE COMING OF THE WAR OF 1812

Jefferson Reelected

• Election of 1804 was overwhelmingly for Jefferson• He defeated Charles Pinckney 162 to 14 (the popular

vote was 72% to 27% in favor of Jefferson)

• The 12th Amendment had been enacted earlier in the year so electors voted separated for President and Vice-President.• Aaron Burr was not chosen as a candidate by the

Democratic-Republican Party• He then ran for Governor of New York

• George Clinton of New York defeated Rufus King of New York for the Vice-Presidency.

Jefferson (top) & Pinckney

A Federalist Conspiracy• Aaron Burr formed a secret agreement with some New

England Federalists• He hoped to win the Governorship of New York and then

unite with New England and secede from the Union

• Most Federalists disagreed with the plan and voted for the candidate that Alexander Hamilton supported as Governor of New York

• Burr, angry with Hamilton, challenged him to a duel• Burr’s shot fatally wounded Hamilton• Burr was tried for treason but acquitted because of a lack

of witnesses to any “overt act” by Burr

Challenges to US Neutrality

• Napoleonic Wars meant Britain and France were regularly attacking shipping meant for the other

• Britain also infuriated America by impressing sailors (and they were the more powerful nation at sea)

• Chesapeake-Leopard Affair• In 1807, just off the Virginia coast, the British warship Leopard fired

on the US warship Chesapeake

• Several Americans were killed; several more were impressed

• Many demanded war but Jefferson focused on diplomacy

Embargo Act 1807

• To avoid war, Jefferson persuaded Congress to pass the Embargo Act• All American ships would be prohibited from sailing to any foreign

port

• The hope was Britain, America’s largest trading partner, would be financially hurt and stop violating America’s rights at sea

• Plan backfired as Britain had little trouble finding new sources of trade and the US economy entered into a severe depression• New England merchants and shipbuilders were hurt the worst

• The act was repealed in 1809 in the final days of Jefferson’s presidency

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Election of 1808

• James Madison defeated Charles Pinckney for the Presidency (122-47)• George Clinton was reelected as Vice-President

• Federalists did, however gain some ground including in the House and Senate due to unhappiness over the Embargo

• As President, Madison tried to continue diplomacy and economic pressure to deal with the Napoleonic Wars

Madison (top)& Pinckney

Final Attempts at Diplomacy

• Nonintercourse Act of 1809• America could trade with all nations except Britain and France

• Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810)• Restored US trade with both Britain and France but if either

formally agreed to respect US neutral rights at sea, then an embargo would be reinstituted against that nation’s foe

• Napoleon announced his intention to do so therefore, Madison carried out the terms of the bill and embargoed Britain• Napoleon never had any actual intention of fulfilling his promise

THE WAR OF 1812The Second War for American Independence

Causes of the War

• Freedom of the Seas/Respect of American neutrality/Impressment

• Frontier Pressures – influence of the British on the American frontier

• Influence of the “War Hawks” in Congress

The War Hawks

• Young Congressmen, mostly in the House of Representatives (some in Senate)

• Mostly from the frontier states (Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio) and the south• Definitely NOT New England

• Main leaders were Henry Clay (KY) and John C. Calhoun (SC)

• They wanted expansion of US territory (land from Britain and/or her allies) – Canada and Florida AND destruction of Native American resistance

Frontier Pressures• Americans believed the British

were arming the Native Americans and encouraging them to attack US frontier settlements to prevent Americans from moving westward

• The attempted establishment of an Indian Confederacy by Shawnee brothers Tecumseh (war leader) andThe Prophet (religious leader)• Tried to unite tribes east of the Mississippi River• Gen. William Henry Harrison attempted to destroy this growing

confederacy at the Battle of Tippecanoe in 1811• Tecumseh not present, The Prophet was defeated

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Battle of Tippecanoe

• Harrison Tecumseh Tenskwatawa(aka The Prophet)

Impressment

• British Navy needed more sailors to fight its war against France/Napoleon

• Sought “British citizens” on trade ships owned by neutral nations – particularly American ships• Some may have been British citizens claiming US citizenship to

avoid naval service

• Harsh conditions in BritishNavy

• Would stop American shipson the high seas and “kidnap” sailors

The American Military

• The American army is relatively small and inexperienced. The main fighting units would be comprised mainly of militia (non-professional soldiers AKA farmers with guns)

• The American navy is bigger – now up to 16 warships –but has a fair amount of experience based on their actions fighting the Barbary Pirates off the coast of North Africa

“Mr. Madison’s War”

• New England opposed the war because it would interrupt trade – their livelihood• They saw impressment and raids on shipping as the

cost of doing business

• The West and South supported the war• They felt that war against Britain would give them the

opportunity to expand US territory (Canada and perhaps land belonging to any of Britain’s allies)

• Would remove an Indian threat by removing the Indian’s source of arms if the British were defeated

Plan of Action

• Success depended on two things• A land based invasion of Canada

• The American Navy had only 16 ships so a war at sea was not really possible

• The British strength was in Canada (the only British land in continental North America)

• Napoleon continuing his war in Europe• His success would keep the British military busy and split by forcing

them to fight on two continents

The Land Based War

• The US would launch a 3 point invasion of Canada at• Detroit

• Niagara

• Lake Champlain

• Shown at right is Detroit• Major General William Hull

failed miserably and was forced to surrender his 2000 troops to a smaller British and Indian force

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Invasion of Canada

• Fort Niagara• The Americans invaded

Canada in October 1812

• The invasion failed when the NY militia refused to cross the border to come to the aid of the army

Invasion of Canada

• Lake Champlain• Located in Northern New York

• This was the final attack of a three-part invasion

• As with the first two, it failed miserably

• Fort Dearborn• Not a part of this invasion of Canada but this was one of

the many frontier outposts that the Americans were also forced to surrender

• This gave Britain control of the entire Great Lakes region

Weapons

• Weapons were similar to those from the American Revolution

• Smooth bore muskets, swordsand small arms (pictured)

Other Canadian Invasions• In 1813, the Americans attacked and burned the

Canadian capital of York (Toronto)• In 1814, the Americans under Winfield Scott attacked

Fort Erie, defeated the British at Chippewa River and battled at Lundy’s Lane. They retreated back into the US, giving up the conquest of Canada

The War on Water• The Americans were supposedly the weakest

(militarily) with their navy• They had only 16 warships and the British had

hundreds• But the tiny American Navy was successful

• The warship Constitution destroyed a British frigate in a fierce battle off Nova Scotia

• The warship Constitution later destroyed another British ship off the coast of Brazil

• The warship United States captured the British Macedonian

• The warship Wasp defeated the British Frolic

USS Constitution

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More War on Water• In 1813, in a fierce duel between the Chesapeake (Am) and

the Shannon (Br) the dying American captain told his crew “don’t give up the ship” which became the rallying cry of the US Navy

• Overall, the 16 US Naval Warships never lost a fight to a British warship during the entire war

• some of the privateer vessels did lose battles

• USS Constitution would be nicknamed “Old Ironsides” because cannonballs “bounced” off her thick oak sides in a battle and the British thought she was actually made of iron and not wood

America Battles Back

• American Naval Commander Oliver Hazard Perry was the commander of a tiny fleet that was thrown together on Lake Erie (to battle the British fleet stationed there)

• This fleet surprised and soundly defeated the British at Put-In Bay in September 1813 effectively regaining control of the Great Lakes

Perry reported his victory by saying “We have met the enemy and they are ours.”

British Defeat at Lake Erie America Battles Back• By the end of the war, American privateers (privately owned ships

given permission by the government to act as “legal pirates” on behalf of the country) destroyed or captured over 1500 British ships

• But a military blockade of the American coast was inevitable and it brought all foreign commerce to a standstill

Battle of the Thames River

• William Henry Harrison led a force of militia into Canada pursing the retreating British, overtaking them at the Thames River in October 1813, defeating them decisively. At this battle, Tecumseh was killed, causing most of the Indians to desert the British and collapsing the Indian confederation.

The British Offensive• By 1814, the British could focus entirely on the war

with America since Napoleon had been defeated in Europe.

• Remember, the US saw Napoleon’s continued success as instrumental to American hopes for victory

• They began sending massive numbers of troops to America

• Over 15,000 troops were sent to Canada in 1814, ending America’s hopes for conquest

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Lake Champlain

• About 11,000 troops invaded New York along Lake Champlain (but they needed to control the water too).

• Both had fleets in the lake but the British ships were better armored and more powerful

• But the Americans were able to outmaneuver the British and defeat them completely in 1814, forcing the army to retreat back to Canada

Attack on Washington

• In August 1814, the British arrived up the Chesapeake Bay and landed in Maryland. The capital was poorly defended, allowing the British to easily attack. On August 24, in retaliation for the burning of York, the British set fire to numerous buildings including the Executive Mansion. But they were driven out of the city by a large storm that hit the city.

Attack on Washington

• Dolly Madison, the president’s wife was hurriedly loading valuables, furniture, paintings (including the portrait of George Washington), and documents into wagons to flee the area as the British were entering and setting fire to the building itself.

Attack on Washington

• The Mansion would later be painted white to hide the scorch marks (hence the name White House).

Baltimore

• The British left Washington and sailed toward Baltimore –the biggest port on the bay – but found it well defended. The fleet (on September 12, 1814) tried to destroy the fort protecting the harbor all through the night but was unable to do so, so they gave up (and the American flag still flew over Fort McHenry by the dawn’s early light).

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British Cannonball shot at Fort McHenry in 1814

The Star Spangled Banner The Star Spangled Banner• The Star Spangled Banner, a poem written by Francis

Scott Key (who was an observer on a British ship in the harbor during the attack) commemorated the event

• The poem would later be set to the tune of Anacreaon in Heaven (a popular British drinking ballad)

• It would become the national anthem in 1931

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Star Spangled Banner

Francis Scott Key and his original manuscript

Attention Shifts to the South

• The British sent over 7500 troops to invade the US via the Gulf of Mexico and landed them near New Orleans.

• A major naval battle occurred prior to the land battle but although the British won, they were delayed from helping at New Orleans

• This naval battle involved privateers who fought for the US, not regular naval vessels

• General Andrew Jackson, who had been repelling Indian attacks in the Southeastern US was able to beat the British to the city and build fortifications

New Orleans• Using the contents of warehouses (including cotton

bales) Jackson and his men built significant fortifications around the city

• Jackson also used the help of pirates who agreed to fight on the side of the Americans in exchange for a pardon on existing charges of piracy (illegal and generally punishable by death)

• On January 8, 1815 the English began their attack but the Americans were able to inflict tremendous casualties (more than 2000) with just 71 of their own

• This tremendous victory restored the nation’s pride and made a national hero of Jackson

Andrew Jackson

Major General Andrew Jackson wore this uniform and sabre at the Battle of New Orleans in 1815. The British brought almost 10,000 troops to the battle (versus 4000 soldiers, militia, Choctaw Indians, former slaves and even pirates for Jackson). He forced the British to attack a heavily fortified position, resulting in a lopsided victory.

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Jackson at the Battle of New Orleans, artist unknownBallou's Pictorial Drawing-Room Companion depicts the Battle of New Orleans, the last campaign of the War of 1812. Andrew Jackson's troops--army regulars, Tennessee and Kentucky volunteers, and two companies of African American volunteers from New Orleans--held off the better-trained British troops in January of 1815. The battle made Andrew Jackson a national hero. (Historic New Orleans Collection)

Possible Secession?• Hartford Convention

• In 1814 politicians from New England met in Hartford, Connecticut• The passed resolutions condemning the war and recommended

constitutional amendments that would protect New England interests

• Some extremists even talked of secession from the Union and negotiating a separate peace with Britain but the war ended before any action could be taken

The Treaty of Ghent• By the end of 1814, both sides had had

enough and wanted peace

• They met in Ghent, Belgium and concluded a treaty of peace

• It ended hostilities

• All captured land would be returned to the pre-war owner

• No mention was made of impressment but it was generally believed that the practice would stop

• The treaty was signed and announced (locally) on December 24, 1814

Results of the War

• A new sense of nationalism

• Respect from other nations – especially in Europe

• American industry began to grow because of the blockade of shipping by the British

• Expansion westward was more feasible since the Indian threat had been removed (they were no longer being armed by the British and many had been killed or dispersed with Tecumseh)

The Second War for American Independence

• In a diplomatic sense, if not in a military sense, the conflict could be called the Second War for American Independence:• Sectionalism was dealt a black eye

• The most conspicuous casualty of the war was the Federalist party

• War heroes emerged—Andrew Jackson and William Henry Harrison—both to later become president

• The Indians were forced to make terms as they could

The Second War for American Independence (cont.)

• In both an economic and a diplomatic sense, the War of 1812 bred greater American independence.

• Canadian patriotism and nationalism received a powerful stimulus from the war:• Many Canadians felt betrayed by the Treaty of Ghent

• They were aggrieved by the failure to secure an Indian buffer state or even mastery of the Great Lakes

• In 1817 the Rush-Bagot agreement between Britain and the United States severely limited naval armament on the lakes.

• Border fortifications came down and the United States and Canada came to share the world’s longest unfortified boundary—5527 miles long.

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PostWarNationalism

TheBeginningofNationalism

• The most impressive by‐product of the War of 1812 was a heightened nationalism—the spirit of nation‐consciousness or national oneness:• American may not have fought the war as one nation, but it emerged as one nation

• Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper  attained international fame as the nation’s first writers

• A revised Bank of the United States was voted by Congress in 1816

• A new national capital began to rise in Washington

Nationalist Pride, ca. 1820 

“TheAmericanSystem”

• Nationalism manifested itself in manufacturing:

• Patriotic Americans took pride in their factories

• The British were seeking to crush Yankee factories in the marketplace• Tariff of 1816—Congress passed the first tariff

• It was primarily for protection, not revenue

• Its rates were roughly 20 to 25% of the value of dutiable imports

• A high protective trend was started.

“TheAmericanSystem”(cont.)

• Nationalism was further highlighted by a plan  of Henry Clay for developing a profitable home market:

• The American System:• A strong banking system—provide easy and abundant credit

• Revenue from the tariff of eastern manufacturing

• A network of roads and canals, especially in Ohio, that would met the outcry for better transportation.

• Federal funding was major issue for Republican constitutional scruples.

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“TheAmericanSystem”(cont.)

• Congress voted in 1817 to distribute $1.5 million to the states for internal improvements:

• President Madison sternly vetoed this handout measure as unconstitutional

• Individual states had to venture on their own for construction programs, including the Erie Canal, which was  triumphantly completed in 1825

• Jeffersonian‐Republicans choked on the idea of direct federal support for intrastate internal improvements

• New England particularly strongly opposed it because it would further drain away population and create competing states beyond the mountains

Henry Clay (1777–1852), by John Neagle, 1843 Thispainting hangs in the corridors of the House of Representatives, where Clay worked as a glamorous, eloquent, and ambitious congressman for many years. Best known for promoting his nationalistic “American System” of protective tariffs for eastern manufactures and federally financed canals and highways to benefit the West, Clay is surrounded here by symbols of flourishing agriculture and burgeoning industries in the new nation.

TheSo‐CalledEraofGoodFeelings

• James Monroe was nominated for the presidency in 1816:

• Last time a Federalist would run (Rufus King)

• Monroe wins 183‐34

• He announced that an “Era of Good Feelings” had been ushered in.

TheSo‐CalledEraofGoodFeelings(cont.)• Era of Good Feelings:

• Considerable tranquility and prosperity did exist in the early years of Monroe

• But it was a troubled one:• Acute issues of the tariff, the bank, internal improvements, and the sale of public lands were being hotly contested

• Sectionalism was crystallizing

• Slavery was beginning to raise its hideous head

ThePanicof1819andtheCurseofHardTimes• 1819 a paralyzing economic panic descended:

• It brought deflation, depression bankruptcies, bank failures, unemployment, soup kitchens, and overcrowded pesthouses—debtor’s prisons

• Factors contributing to the catastrophe:• Large issue was the overspeculation of frontier land

• West especially hard hit by the Bank of the United States, forced the speculative (“wildcat”) western banks to the wall and foreclosed mortgages on farms

GrowingPainsoftheWest

• The West:

• Nine frontier states joined the 13 original between 1791 and 1819

• VT (‘91), KY (‘92), TN (‘96), OH (‘03), LA (‘12), IN (‘16), MS (‘17), IL (‘18), and AL (‘19)

• Goal was to keep the balance between North and South:• They were admitted alternately, free and slave 

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GrowingPainsoftheWest(cont.)• Other causes of the growing West:

• Land was cheap and readily available

• Eager newcomers from abroad

• Acute economic distress during the embargo years

• The crushing of the Indians in the Northwest and South by Generals Harrison and Jackson

• The building of highways improved the land routes to the Ohio Valley‐the Cumberland Road in 1811

• The use of the first steamboat on western waters

• 1811 heralded a new era of upstream navigationFairview Inn or Three Mile House on Old Frederick Road, by Thomas Coke Ruckle, ca. 1829 This busy scene on the Frederick Road, leading westward from Baltimore, was typical as pioneers flooded into the newly secured West in the early 1800s.

SlaveryandtheSectionalBalance

• Sectional tensions were revealed in 1819:

• Missouri was asking Congress for statehood:

• Tallmadge amendment—• No more slaves could be brought to Missouri:

• Provided for the gradual emancipation of children born to  slave parents already there

• A roar of anger burst from slaveholding Southerners:

• Southern saw the Tallmadge amendment as a threat to sectional balance.

• The future of the slave system caused profound concern. Some state believed that if Congress could abolish the peculiar institution in Missouri, it might attempt it in the older states of the South

TheUneasyMissouriCompromise

• Deadlock in Washington was broken by three compromises:

• Henry Clay played a leading role:• First, Congress decided to admit Missouri as a slave state and at the same time admit Maine as free state

• All future bondage was prohibited north of the line of 36 30’—the southern boundary of Missouri (see Map 12.3). 

• The balance between the North and South remained for fifteen years

JohnMarshallandJudicialNationalism• The Supreme Court continued nationalism:

• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) bolstered the power of the federal government at the expense of the states

• The suit involved an attempt by the State of Maryland to destroy a branch of the Bank of the United States by imposing a tax on its notes.

• John Marshall declared the bank constitutional by invoking the Hamiltonian doctrine of implied power (see p. 185).

• He strengthened federal authority when he denied the right of Maryland to tax the bank.

• Gave the doctrine of loose construction its most famous formulation.

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JohnMarshallandJudicialNationalism(cont.)• The Cohens v. Virginia (1821):

• This gave Marshall the greatest opportunities to defend the federal power• Cohen brothers found guilty by the Virginia courts of illegally selling lottery tickets, they appealed to the highest tribunal

• Virginia won since the conviction was upheld

• In fact Virginia and all others states lose, since Marshall asserted the right of the Supreme Court to review all decisions of state courts in all questions involving powers of the federal government.

JohnMarshallandJudicialNationalism(cont.)• The Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

• Grew out of an attempt by the State of New York to grant to a private concern a monopoly of waterborne commerce between New York and New Jersey• Marshall sternly reminded the upstart state that the Constitution conferred on Congress alone the control of interstate commerce (see Art. I, Sec. VIII, Para. 3).

• He struck a blow at states’ rights while upholding the sovereign powers of the federal government.

JudicialRestraintAgainstDemocraticExcesses• Marshall’s decisions bolstered judicial barriers against democratic or demagogic attacks on property rights: 

• The 1810 notorious case of Fletcher v. Peck:• A Georgia legislature granted 35 million acres in the Yazoo River country (Mississippi) to private speculators:

• The next legislature canceled the transaction.

• The Supreme Court decreed that the legislative grant was a contract (even though fraudulently secured).

• And that the Constitution forbid state law “impairing” contracts (Art. I. Sec. X, para. 1)

• It further protected property rights against popular pressures

• It asserted the right of the Supreme Court to invalidate state laws conflicting with the federal Constitution.

JudicialRestraintAgainstDemocraticExcesses(cont.)• Dartmouth College v. Woodward:

• Best remembered of Marshall’s decisions

• Dartmouth appealed the case, employing Daniel Webster (‘01 alumnus)

• Marshall ruled that the original charter must stand

• It was a contract—and the Constitution protected contracts against state encroachments

• The Dartmouth decision safeguarded business enterprise from domination by the state governments

• It created a problem that in the future chartered corporations to escape needed public control

AcquiringFlorida

• Semitropical Spanish Florida:

• Americans already claimed West Florida, ratified by Congress in 1812:• The bulk of Florida remained under Spanish rule

• Uprising in South America forced Spain to remove her troops from Florida to assist the rebels

• Jackson secured a commission to enter Spanish territory

• Jackson swept across Florida taking revenge against the Indians and those who assisted them

AcquiringFlorida(cont.)

• Florida Purchase Treaty (1819):

• Also known as the Adams‐Onis Treaty:

• Spain ceded Florida  and shadowy Spanish claims to Oregon, in exchange for abandonment of Texas.

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Andrew Jackson (1767–1845), by Jean François de Vallée, 1815 This portrait of Jackson as a major generalin the U.S. Army was painted by a French artist living inNew Orleans. It is one of the earliest surviving portraits ofJackson and depicts him at a time when he was known forhis stern discipline, iron will (“Old Hickory”), and good luck.

TheMenaceofMonarchyinAmerica• Autocrats of Europe:

• Stated that the world must be made safe fromdemocracy 

• They smothered the embers of rebellions in Italy (1821) and in Spain (1823)

• Americans were alarmed• If Europeans interfered  in the New World, the cause of Republicanism would suffer irreparable harm 

• The physical security of the United States, the mother of democracy, would be endangered

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MonroeandHisDoctrine

• England, under foreign minister George Canning (August 1823), wanted the United States to join in a joint territorial integrity of the New World

• A self‐denying alliance with Britain would hamper American expansion, concluded Adams, and it was unnecessary• He suspected correctly

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MonroeandHisDoctrine(cont.)• The Monroe Doctrine 1823:

• In his annual message to Congress Dec. 12, Monroe incorporated a stern warning to the European powers:• It had two basic features: (1) colonization and (2) nonintervention:

• Aimed at Russia’s advancement in the Northwest, he proclaimed that the era of colonization had ended

• He warned against foreign intervention, especially in the South

• The European powers were deeply offended but wouldn’t get involved either because of fears of war against Great Britain, the true power behind the Monroe Doctrine.

Monroe’sDoctrineAppraised• Russo‐American Treaty (1824):

• Russia had already retreated

• The treaty fixed Russia’s southern line at 54 40’—the present southern tip of Alaska panhandle (see Map 12.6)

• The Monroe Doctrine might more accurately be called the Self‐Defense Doctrine:

• Monroe was basically concerned about the security of his own country, not Latin America

Monroe’sDoctrineAppraised(cont.)

• The United States never permitted a powerful foreign nation to secure a foothold in her territory:

• The Monroe Doctrine has never been greater than America’s power to eject the trespasser

• It was never law—domestic or international

• It was merely a simple, personalized statement of the policy of President Monroe

• But it was largely an expression of the post‐1812 nationalism energizing the United States

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