1

PERMACULTURE DESIGN COURSE

Teacher: GEOFF LAWTON

Design Exercise Submission

by Heloisa Dinsmore

2

Property in its current state:

Proposed design:

3

Property Name: XXXXX Property Address: XXXXXXXX – Minas Gerais, Brazil Owner: XXXXXXXXX Property location

Distance from Atlantic Ocean: 130 km

4

Purpose of design: a sustainable lifestyle in a permaculture demonstration site; a sanctuary for animals, plants, and people. The owners would like to contribute to the creation of a sustainable culture in the community by living and sharing permaculture.

5

Overview

Latitude: 22°13'22.65"S Longitude: 45°06'57.30"W Area: 9.1 hectares (22.5 acres) Orientation: NE position Min Ele.: 895m Max Ele.: 950m Avg Altitude: 914m Elevation gain: 55m Slopes: 0.2°-19° Sun Angles:

Summer Solstice: 88.5° Winter Solstice: 44.5° Equinoxes: 68°

6

Site climate: Humid subtropical – Dry Winter, Wet Summer (Köppen climate classification: Cwa) Moist Mid-latitude Climate with Mild Winters. Warm and humid summers with mild winters. Heavy precipitation occurs during the summer because of the seasonal presence of unstable humid air masses that encourage the development of thunderstorms. Controlling Weather Factors: Climate is influenced by hot and unstable humid air masses (mT) that dominate generally in late spring, summer, and early fall. Relatively dry winter season is often due to the presence of dry continental polar air masses (cP). Climate Characteristics: High humidity occurs in summer months. Summer climate can be very similar to the humid tropics. Winters tend to be dry and cool. Summer temperatures are warm to hot and winters are mild. July is the coldest month with an average temperature between 10° and 20° C. Average Annual Precipitation: 1576mm Average Monthly Precipitation: 131mm Min: 28mm (Jul) Max: 288mm (Jan) Below are the climate averages (max/min temperatures and precipitation) for a period of 30 years of observational climate data.

7

Month Min Temperature (ºC) Max Temperature (ºC) Precipitation (mm) Jan 17 23 288 Feb 17 23 204 Mar 16 23 178 Apr 15 22 83 May 11 20 66 Jun 10 20 33 Jul 10 20 28 Aug 12 22 30 Sep 13 23 86 Oct 15 24 127 Nov 16 23 178 Dec 17 23 275 Climate Analogues Brisbane, Queensland Hong Kong, China Macau, China Bengbu, Anhui, China Pretoria, South Africa

8

Site landscape profile: The landscape is marked by rounded hills and mountains, valleys, and a large area of fertile land at the bottom of the hills. The land has been mostly used as pasture and agriculture for many years so the soil is compacted, degraded, and eroded. On the hillside there is a regrowth forest. The former marsh on the lowest part of the land (east) has been drained for agriculture.

Average Slopes and Contour Lines

9

Sun Angles

Sectors

10

Zones

11

Zone 0 Original house: The main entrance has a NW aspect with a secondary entrance (facing NE) under a covered porch, where there’s a conventional outdoor woodstove. The afternoon sun doesn’t hit the bedroom window (SW corner) because it’s blocked by the adjacent hill and bamboos. The kitchen is on the shade side and the bathroom has a window that opens to the porch. There is a flush toilet in the bathroom but no blackwater treatment. The only source of water to the house is the spring: water is collected in three connected tanks (1000 litres each) and fed to the house through plastic pipes.

(current)

12

(proposed design) Suggested retrofits: - living area (active/daytime rooms) on the light and warm side (sun

side) and bedrooms and bathroom on the shade side; - easy access and open view of kitchen garden: large windows and glass

door with insulated curtains on sun side; - bamboo trellis with deciduous vines (grape and kiwifruit) shades the

front of the house during the summer and allows sunlight in the winter; - solar chimney to exhaust heat that collects on sun side in summer; - roof gutters and tank for rain water collection. Alternative sources of

water include water spring, well, and dams; - workshop, tool shed and seed storage in a separate building with a

bathroom features a dry-compost toilet (“Farallones plan”) and a shower connected to a rocket stove;

- graywater from sinks and shower fed to banana circles; - blackwater fed to an Evapotranspiration (ET) septic system;

13

- living room connected to the kitchen creates an open living area that

connects to the outdoor kitchen/dining (porch) with a super-efficient stick-fuel stove (rocket stove);

- another rocket stove (in the living room) connects to a hot water tank

for the shower; - both thermal mass heaters are connected to a cob bench (example

pictures below), and heat bedroom walls; cob thermal mass heaters

(Source: Rocket Mass Heaters by Ianto Evans)

14

Zone 1 Currently there are a few guava trees (one white and others of the red variety), and one lemon (lemandarin) tree. Brachiaria grass covers most of the area around the house. The house sits on a cut excavation bench, and rain water runs downhill making the house damp during the rainy season. The existing well is 6 meters deep and hasn’t been used in a long time; water used in the house comes from the spring and there’s no wastewater treatment system.

(current) Proposed changes:

- no-dig sheet-mulched intensive diverse herb, flower, fruit &

vegetable garden near the kitchen (N and E sides); a few examples of plants for this area: roselle, sunflower, marigolds, garden nasturiums, purslane, tomatoes, eggplant, pepper, cucumber, zucchini, asparagus, artichoke, chives, okra, scarlet eggplant, onion, garlic, carrots, parsnips, beetroot, radish, turnips, peas, beans, ora-pro-nobis, lemongrass, comfrey for mulch, companion plants & pest predator attractors; long-term crops such as potatoes, cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower planted on broad beds;

15

- herb spiral in front of the kitchen door with the following herbs from top (dry) to bottom (wet): aloe vera, thyme, sage, rosemary, oregano, mint, parsley, basil, chives, cilantro, and an optional watercress pond on the shade side (slightly below ground level);

- mandala (1) and keyhole (2) garden beds (on flat area near the

house): curved paths create more edge and allow more efficient access and space for growing; long-term and taller crops planted in the middle of the beds; clipping plants planted by the paths within easy reach;

- contour double-reach raised garden beds (4 and 8) on slopes receive

surface rainwater runoff collected on contour paths that slope slightly toward the beds;

- garden beds on the flat area (1, 2, 3) and on slope above the house (8)

irrigated by water from small dam (11) which is level with the spring-fed dam;

- drip irrigation to contour beds (4) below the house using water from

rain tank; - contour beds above the house (8) receive nutrients from poultry and

cow manure (uphill), as well as excess rain water from v-drain located behind the earthbank;

- shade tolerant vegetables grow on the eastside contour beds (4):

lettuce, spinach, swiss chard, arugula, endive, kale, radicchio, cabbage, turnip (for greens), mustard greens, chervil, parsley, tarragon, basil, sage, chive, leeks, mint, lemon balm, sorrel, asparagus, ginger, spinach, beets, scallions, viola;

- poultry fence around garden beds provide support for climbing plants

such as pole beans, garden peas, sugar snaps, snow peas, chayote, squash, zucchini, vining varieties of cucumbers, indeterminate varieties of tomatoes, eggplant, peppers;

- trellis around rain tanks with shade-tolerant vines e.g. red banana

passionfruit or Malabar spinach (perennial twining, sprawling vine that does well in full sun, but will produce larger juicier leaves if grown in partial shade);

- outdoor utility area: covered patio on the shade side of the main house

with clothesline, sink and worktop where produce/meat is processed before being taken to the kitchen. This dedicated outdoor area is a functional workspace for dealing with bulky and messy stuff.

16

- African-style keyhole raised bed (3) near the NE entrance incorporates a central chicken-wire 'basket' where compostable waste is placed and water is poured. Suggested plants: perpetual spinach, red amaranth, carrots, kale, tomatoes.

- Banana circles (6) underplanted with sweet potatoes and coarse mulch

pit in the center receive greywater. Other additions: pawpaw in the circle; beans (or other climbers) on the banana stalks; comfrey interplanted as a green manure crop; pumpkins, tomatoes, and other possible volunteer plants from the compost heap; cassava, Jerusalem artichokes, and other root crops; taro and ginger (or other shade and moisture-loving plants) on the inside of the rim; sugarcane on the edges.

17

- Evapotranspiration (ET) septic system (5) an impermeable tank with aligned tires at the bottom (sludge chamber where anaerobic fermentation takes place). Tank dimensions: 2m (width) x 1m (depth); length proportional to the average number of people using the system (1m per person). Surrounding the tire chamber is rubble, topped with layers of gravel, sand, and finally topsoil, where bananas* are planted; processed effluent rises through capillary action and is safely dispersed since nutrients feed soil organisms and plants while water is released through evaporation (soil) and transpiration (plants). (*)This system can be an ornamental garden with plants like calla lily, impatiens, white ginger lily, and arrowleaf elephant ear. In this particular case the ornamental garden is preferred since there are other areas already designated for two banana circles. Also, if planted with bananas, this garden would shade the greenhouse and banana circle serving the workshop bathroom.

an evapotranspiration bed - compost heap (7) in shaded area (under a trellis connected to the

water tank) to prevent the compost from drying out. The Berkeley method - a fast, efficient, high-temperature, composting technique - produces high quality compost in 18 days and has the benefits of killing weed seeds and pathogens, and breaking down the material into very fine compost.

- worm farm in cool shady spot away from sunlight under the main

house: an old bath tub placed on two concrete blocks make it easier to inspect at waist level. A bucket under the tub collects the “worm juice”. Conveniently placed near the outdoor sink/worktop, the worm farm converts kitchen scraps into worm castings for the gardens, greenhouse (polytunnel) and nursery nearby. Excess worms feed fish and chickens. Comfrey leaves are added as excellent worm food, stimulating breeding and at the same time increasing the nutrient value of the worm castings due to high levels of Nitrogen and Potash.

18

- easy access to chickens and dairy cow through path uphill alongside the garden;

- free-range chickens and guinea fowl have access to insects, wild seeds,

grass, and forage as well as a coop for egg laying and roosting at night. Ticks are usually a problem in the dry season. Guinea fowls provide home pest control (they can eat rodents and small snakes). Mugwort (forage and chicken lice repelling ability), tansy (repels flies, gnats, ants), and comfrey planted near the chicken coop;

- earthbank above the house (W) with diversion drain just above (V-

drain runs off a 2% fall toward both edges of the earthbank) directing water away from the buildings;

- comfrey: - in a few sections of the contour beds (8) and along the bottom part of

the garden fence (downhill from poultry and cattle to trap nutrients that would otherwise be washed away in heavy rain);

- in a strip several plants wide as a weed barrier; - as a soil conditioner: the roots penetrate deep into the subsoil and

access nutrients beyond the reach of more shallow-rooted plants; nutrients leached from the topsoil are cycled back to the surface by using comfrey leaves as mulch. This deep nutrient mining is particularly useful for the health of soils in heavy rainfall areas. The large, deep roots of comfrey act to break up compacted soils.

- as animal forage; the flowers are an excellent bee forage, the leaves are high in protein, vitamins and minerals and are readily eaten by poultry. Comfrey has been used as animal forage for centuries and can be fed to cattle, rabbits, sheep, pigs and horses;

- leaves are a useful addition to compost or used as mulch, as they contain silica, nitrogen, magnesium, calcium, potassium and iron; leaves with high protein content, readily decompose when soaked in water to make a liquid manure.

- guilds are used throughout the gardens and food forest. For example,

roses next to a grape vine to repel white fly; chilli and beans by bananas to, respectively, fix nitrogen and prevent beetles from attacking the banana root; main tree with Malabar spinach and winged beans (climbing vines), pigeon pea and winged beans (nitrogen fixers), comfrey, ginger, and turmeric in the understory, buckwheat as groundcover.

19

Zone 2

A spring-fed dam (13) connects (under the road) to a small dam (11) which has a lower freeboard than dam 13 and higher spillway as a backup safety measure in case of extreme flooding. It’s just an extension of and always at the same level of dam 13. Running water coming from the spring to the dam flows on the level sill spillway (N) and runs on a drain along the car park / road (17) and at the end of the drain flows (at right angle to contour) over the hard surface of the road and onto the swale (17) in which fruit trees (Brazilian cherry, jaboticaba, orange, mango) are planted. This continuous flow feeds another dam (14) - next to which there’s an acai tree - before running over another section of road and flowing into another swale (16) with fruit trees (orange, Barbados cherry, lychee, carambola, persimmon, loquat, fig, citrus, grumichama). in In close proximity to the zone 1 garden (N side), deciduous trees moderate the sun in summer and, reversely, allow sun in winter. Dam 15 has running water and an island with a duck shelter/nestbox on it. Swales and trees (18, 19, 20) in food forest sections with different layers from canopy to grouncover. Besides legume trees as support/functional species in the proportion of 10:1 at the establishment of the food forest, a few productive species include araucaria, custard apple, pomegranate,

20

jackfruit, cashew, macadamia, Brazil nut, Portuguese chestnut, cinnamon. Coffee as an understory plant can be grown in partial shade. As part of the forest garden development, comfrey is planted under fruit trees: while it does not compete with tree roots, it slows down other plants that may offer competition. It can be used as garden path edges, forest garden path edges, or in places where trees are subsequently planted. Given the right conditions, it is lush and fast-growing, providing abundant supplies of mulch (chop-and-drop). On a steeper slope (21), trees are planted in a net-and-pan pioneer tree planting system which consists of small catch pan basins for trees connected by diversion drains as net to trap nutrients and infiltrate water to each tree planted for slope recovery and stability. Trees in this area are part of the food forest and easily accessible by a trail through the bamboo thicket. Pioneer plant and tree growth successional planting: leguminous trees (support) are planted in a proportion of 10:1 everywhere productive trees are planted; they’re slowly replaced with productive trees until there’s 1 legume for each 10 productive trees. Chop-and-drop of legume trees is a food forest management technique used at the start of the rainy season. An example of a food forest guild is a large mango tree surrounded by understory species e.g. Brazil cherry, carambola, jaboticaba, grumichama, and surrounded by sacrificial legume trees and a few fast growing hardy legumes such as ice-cream bean, Casuarina, and Tipuana tipu. Another option is one Brazil nut tree in the center of a 400m2 square, surrounded by one of each mango, jackfruit, tropical custard apple, Brazil cherry, citrus, banana, papaya, and finally corn, beans, and mellons interspersed. This guild starts producing from the first year (fast producing plants e.g. corn, beans, mellon), then banana and papaya on the second year, and so on.

Contour beds (12) with main crop, e.g. cassava, potatoes, watermelon, three-sisters. The three-sisters garden is an ancient Native American technique of growing corn, beans, and squash together. Corn acts as a support for climbing bean vines, beans fix nitrogen in the soil for the high feeding requirements of corn and squash, and squash provides mulch and root protection for corn and beans. A 4th sister (sunflower) can be added: it attract birds, thus tempting them away from corn plants. They shade the vining bean plants while also adding support.

21

Zone 3

22

In order to moderate energy flows and to share the runoff of water and nutrients, access whenever possible follows contour just above swales in a harmonic pattern. Hard surface runoff enters the swales during rain events. Compacted swale trenches can double as paths when not full of water. Swales slow the speed of water to allow infiltration and harvest rainwater. They capture surface runoff and send it deep into the aquifer, both nourishing trees and reducing erosion. The berms beneath them make great fertile planting beds so they are in essence tree growing systems. Water (from the smaller stream) presently runs in a straight man-made path and in the design it is diverted to slow the flow and move on contour as much as possible. This water comes from a spring a few km away. Two ponds with filtration plants preceded by a banana circle and separated by a gravel filled contour footpath act as silt traps (23) in the entrypoints to all water infrastructure systems to prevent problems such as pollution, erosion, silt, sediment. Clumping species such as vetiver grass, common water hyacinth, and reeds can assist in the process. The smaller section (30) of the biggest lake (separated by a bridge) also features phytoremediation plants. The soil in the property has a high percentage of clay (around 80%) so it is ideal for dams. For planting, soil conditioning is recommended by deep ripping under swale mounds and even trenches, to increase absorption initially, and the use of hardy pioneers that will break the clay. The catchment area for the top dam (22) is 23,000m2. For an estimated 100mm maximum 24-hour rainfall, a maximum of 27 liters/second is expected to flow on the top dam spillway. These figures determine a spillway (24) of 3m in length. As a backup, another spillway (25) is placed on the swale connected to the dam at a higher level than the dam spillway but still lower than the dam freeboard. On the low-lying gentle slope areas, shallow dams (average 2m deep) with irregular shapes, and islands, maximize the edge effect, providing lots of niches for flora and fauna. Different plants can be placed at varying depths: edge, emerging (0.6m), water, and floating plants. Ponds stocked with fish, mussels, prawns, crayfish, shellfish, shrimp, ducks, as well as plants that harbor large insect infestations that can serve as fish food, such as white mulberry tree, crotalaria grahamiana (shrub). Other recommended plants for inside dams or their surroundings: bamboo, willow, watercress, wild rice, wandering jew, arrowhead, Chinese water chestnut, chufa sedge, trapa, lotus, kangkong, cattail, duckweed, azolla, and taro.

23

Chinampa beds (29) allow the growing of crops above the waterline in a wet environment. Nutrient-rich muck is periodically scooped onto these artificial peninsulas to increase fertility. Within this simple design, several unique functions are accomplished at once: a micro-climate that prevents early frost damage; an extremely productive soil that is mostly self-sustaining; a self-watering system created by water wicking in from the sides as moisture evaporates from the surface of the beds; and the growing of plants and fish within the same area. In some areas, arching trellises with vining plants such as squash, cucumber, beans, and grapes are extended over the narrow channels so that their yielding crop can be harvested directly into a canoe. Main crop are grown in an alley cropping system (27) with legume trees on contour alternating with short grazing cycles in small fields with tight herds. The grazing cells or paddocks (27) are enclosed in permanent fencing with electric divider fences. This system emphasizes organic matter and nutrient cycles. Cattle forage is composed of pasture and legume trees (overhanging from fence), bushes, mulch, tubers and clumpers. Hardy forage trees are planted on both sides of the swale outside the fence (on contour). Hardy food forest or farm forestry trees (non-allelopathic) are planted on swale mounds. In accordance with the Permanent Preservation Areas (PPA) legislation in Brazil (box below), instead of grazing cells, the areas around the spring, waterways, and water reservoirs feature a perennial polyculture with native tree guilds. The PPAs environmental legislation was established by Law no 4.771 published in September 15, 1965, and regulated by the resolution no 303 of March 20, 2002. The Brazilian National Council on the Environment (CONAMA) established the parameters, definitions and limits regarding the PPA areas. According to CONAMA’s resolution of March 2002, PPAs consist of areas: a) Along rivers or any waterway from its highest level on marginal buffers whose minimum width is:

30 meters for waterways less than 10 meters wide; 50 meters for waterways 10 to 50 meters wide; 100 meters for waterways 50 to 200 meters wide; 200 meters for waterways 200 to 500 meters wide; 500 meters for waterways wider than 600 meters;

b) Around natural or artificial lakes, lagoons or water reservoirs; c) In the springs, intermittent or not, whatever its topographic situation within a minimum range of 50 meters; d) On hilltops, hills, mountains, and mountain ranges; e) On slopes or part of them with declivity greater than 45, equivalent to 100% at their highest points; f) On coastal pioneer vegetation such as dune or mangrove stabilizers; g) On mesa or plateau edges from the rupture line, in horizontal projections never inferior to 100 meter bands; h) At altitudes over 1800 meters irrespectively of the vegetation type present.

24

Zone 4

On steep slopes, trees are planted in a net-and-pan pioneer tree planting system which consists of small catch pan basins for trees connected by diversion drains as net to trap nutrients and infiltrate water to each tree planted for slope recovery and stability. Trees planted in this zone are farm forestry species for timber, poles, craft, animal forage, conservation. The pattern is a large valuable tree in the center of pioneer support species along with understory species and groundcovers (e.g. cow pea, pigeon pea, clover, lablab). This is also an ideal place for bees and mushrooms.

25

Zone 5 “We characterise this zone as the natural, unmanaged environment used for occasional foraging, recreation, or just let be. This is where we learn the rules that we try to apply elsewhere”. -Bill Mollison The Brazilian Forest Code establishes the Legal Reserve, which currently requires that 20% of the area in a property (80% in the Amazon) be left in forest or its native vegetation. According to the aforementioned Legal Reserve legislation, from the total area of the property (90,000m2), the minimum area required to be registered as Legal Reserve should be 18,000m2. Currently, the forest/native vegetation covers more than 30,000m2, extending beyond the legal requirement of 20%. The situation is improved even more in the proposed design.

26

APPENDIX I:

Existing vegetation cover (a non-exaustive list)

Brachiaria sp. (signalgrass) single most important genus of forage grass for pastures in Brazil. Grows in low-fertility and acidic soils. Spreads well and covers soil rapidly. Has become an environmental weed by vigorously colonising disturbed environments. Andropogon bicornis (West Indian foxtail, capim-rabo-de-burro) Echinochloa crus-galli (cockspur grass, barnyard millet, Japanese millet, capituva, capim capivara) Pennisetum purpureum (napier grass, elephant grass, Ugandan grass, capim guacu) It has low water and nutrient requirements. It has been incorporated into the Push Pull Pest Management Strategy. It improves soil fertility, and protects arid land from soil erosion. It is also utilized for forage, firebreaks, windbreaks, in paper pulp production and most recently to produce bio-oil, biogas and charcoal. Cyperus rotundus (coco-grass, Java grass, nut grass, purple nut sedge, red nut sedge, tiririca) one of the most invasive weeds known. It’s a tough competitor for ground resources, and is allelopathic, the roots releasing substances harmful to other plants. Used in folk medicine. Cymbopogon citratus / Andropogon citratus (lemongrass) a tall perennial grass; medicinal, a natural and soft tea anxiolytic from leaves Cenchrus echinatus (burr grass, southern sandbur, capim carrapixo) Vernonia polyanthes/Vernonia ferruginea (assa-peixe) native tree Aspidosperma parvifolium (guatambu) timber tree native to Brazil; useful for beekeeping. Verbascum thapsus (great or common mullein, cowboy toilet paper) dynamic nutrient accumulator; deep tap root good at loosening soil. It grows in a wide variety of habitats, but prefers well-lit disturbed soils, where it can appear soon after the ground receives light, from long-lived seeds that persist in the soil seed bank. Cecropia peltata (trumpet tree, snakewood, yagrumo hembra, embaúba) fast-growing native pioneer tree. Used in clear-cut and soil erosion prone areas because it retains the soil, creates new biomass, reestablishes shade conditions to the forest floor, and allows other types of plants to settle in the area. As a dominant secondary species, it’s invaluable in regeneration of the forest following disturbance. As it rapidly forms a dense stand, nutrients may be conserved and the environment beneath ameliorated sufficiently to allow species characteristic of a later stage of succession to

27

germinate and grow. In this manner the soil may be stabilized following a disturbance such as a landslide. Its broad canopy protects the soil from excessive erosion and reestablishes shade conditions to the forest floor. Jacaranda macrantha (caroba, perobinha) Acacia angico / Piptadenia rigida (angico-verdadeiro, angico-vermelho) native legume shrub or tree Araucaria angustifolia (Paraná pine, Brazilian pine, candelabra tree) critically endangered native conifer tree; edible seed called pinhão (‘pine nut’) Copaifera langsdorffii (diesel tree, kerosene tree, Pau-D’óleo) late secondary tropical rainforest legume tree. Important for production of essential oils (for medicinal uses), biodiesel, and wood. Bees utilize the tree for pollen collection. Platycyamus regnellii (pau-pereira, angelim-rosa) legume tree Mimosa pudica (sensitive plant, sleepy plant, touch-me-not, dormideira) creeping herb native to South America; grows mostly in shady areas, under trees or shrubs. Mimosa pudica can form root nodules that are habitable by nitrogen fixing bacteria. The bacteria are able to convert atmospheric nitrogen, which plants cannot use, into a form that plants can use. This trait is common among plants in the Fabaceae family. Ricinus comunis (castor oil plant) Zanthoxylum rhoifolium (mamica-de-cadela, mamica-de-porca, tambataru, prickly ash) deciduous tree reaching up to 12 meters in height, with medicinal properties. Not shade tolerant, so it can be found in open areas in and around forests. Brugmansia suaveolens (Brazil's white angel trumpet, saia-branca) Solanum aculeatissimum (Indian nightshade, Dutch eggplant, joá-bravo, joá-de-espinho, joá-melancia, mata-cavalo) native weedy flowering shrub Solanum lycocarpum (wolf apple, lobeira) pioneer flowering shrub; ripe fruits edible to humans, and are consumed by local populations as jams and preserves, but the unripe fruits are quite rich in tannin, and most other parts of the plant are poisonous — as is typical with members of the family Solanaceae, such as tomatoes, potatoes, and eggplants. The fruits are also a fallback source of food for cattle in the dry season, and favored fruit of the maned wolf. Leonurus sibiricus (honeyweed, Siberian motherwort, mato-chimango, erva-de-mamangava, rubim, marijuanilla) Baccharis leucocephala (vassoura-branca) native shrub endemic to Brazil Baccharis trimera (carqueja) native plant from Brazil, used in folk medicine preparations such as infusions and/or decoctions.

28

Tripogandra diuretica / Tradescantia commelina (Trapoeraba-rosa, trapoeraba-verdadeira, olho-de-santa-luzia) Guettarda viburnoides - Rubiaceae familiy (araca branco, veludo branco, pau jangada) native tree; edible fruit Alternanthera philoxeroides (alligator weed, erva-de-jacaré, tripa-de-sapo) emergent aquatic plant Galinsoga parviflora / Tridax parviflora (gallant soldier, quickweed, fazendeiro, picão branco) herbaceous plant which is considered a weed in much of the world. Used as an ingredient in leaf salads and in ajiaco stew as well as a folk remedy. Bidens Pilosa (beggar-ticks, cobbler's pegs, Spanish needle, picão preto) Dorstenia cayapia and Dorstenia arifolia – Moraceae family (carapiá) Brazilian native medicinal herb Plantago major (broadleaf plantain, greater plantain) one of the most abundant and widely distributed medicinal crops in the world. It’s also a highly nutritious wild edible. Plantain does particularly well in compacted or disturbed soils. The ability of plantain to survive frequent trampling and colonize compacted soils makes it important for soil rehabilitation. Its roots break up hardpan surfaces, while simultaneously holding together the soil to prevent erosion. Pteridium aquilinum (bracken, common bracken, eagle fern) Polypodium sp. (ferns) Struthanthus flexicaulis (erva-de-passarinho) common Brazilian hemiparasitic plant Bromelia balansae / Bromelia antiacantha (heart of flame, gravatá, caraguatá, bananinha-do-mato) native perennial herb. The most commonly cultivated bromelia and may be used as fencing due to its large and rapid growth. It thrives in full sun. Handroanthus impetiginosus (pink ipê, pink lapacho, piúna, ipê-una) large native deciduous tree Pyrostegia venusta (orange trumpet, flame vine, flaming trumpet, golden shower, cipó-de-são-joão) native fast-growing, evergreen woody vine Lantana camara (Spanish Flag, West Indian Lantana) considered an invasive species. It spreads quickly and coppices so well, that efforts to eradicate it have completely failed. It is resistant to fire, and quickly grows in and colonizes burnt areas. Especially loved by butterflies. Eremanthus incanus (candeinha) native timber tree Nectandra lanceolata (canela) native timber

29

Myracrodruon urundeuva (aroeira-do-sertão, urundeúva, aroeira preta,) native timber tree, often used for beekeeping. Echinodorus sp. (creeping burhead, chapéu-de-couro) Heliconia sp. (lobster-claws, wild plantains or false bird-of-paradise) flowers produce ample nectar that attracts pollinators, most prevalent of which are hummingbirds. Heliconias provide shelter for a diverse range of insects within their young rolled leaves and water-filled floral bracts. Typha domingensis (southern cattail, corn dog grass, cumbungi, bulrush, taboa) perennial herbaceous plant found in a variety of wetland habitats. Used for phytoremediation of heavy metals from water. Asclepias curassavica (Mexican butterfly weed, blood-flower, scarlet milkweed, tropical milkweed) Schizolobium parahyba (Brazilian firetree, guapuruvu) legume tree species from tropical America, notable for its fast growth (up to 3 meters per year). Eucalyptus sp. Tibouchina granulosa (quaresmeira) native pioneer tree Croton urucurana (sangra-dagua) hardy pioneer tree, timber, medicinal Morus rubra (red mulberry) shade tolerant deciduous tree; Mulberry leaves, particularly those of the white mulberry, are ecologically important as the sole food source of the silkworm. Psidium guajava (guava) Citrus × limonia (rangpur, lemandarin) hybrid between the mandarin orange and the lemon. Musa spp. (banana) Colocasia sp. (taro) Orchidaceae family (orchids) Arecaceae family (palms) Bamboos: king of the permaculture multifunctional plants

30

APPENDIX II

General species list options:

Leucaena spp. (leadtrees) one of the many beneficial Legume trees that can be used in a Permaculture food forest (also forest gardening) system as a source of living 'chop and drop' mulch; about 24 species of fast-growing flowering trees and shrubs, grown for their variety of uses, including as green manure, a charcoal source, firewood, livestock fodder, and for soil conservation. Seeds (jumbie beans) can be used as beads.

Leucaena leucocephala (wild tamarind) edible seeds and unripe fruits Leucaena esculenta (guaje) seeds can be eaten with salt in Mexico

Gliricidia sepium leguminous; fast growing ruderal species; the second most important multi-purpose legume tree, surpassed only by Leucaena leucocephala. Used in many tropical and sub-tropical countries for various purposes such as live fencing, fodder, coffee shade, firewood, and green manure. Live fences can be grown from 1.5 m to 2.0 m stakes of Gliricidia sepium in just a month. Also used for its medicinal and insect repellent properties. Livestock can be washed with a paste made of crushed G. sepium leaves to ward off torsalos. The extract obtained from its leaves can be used to remove external parasites. Because it is easily propagated and grows quickly, it has also been suggested that this species may be planted to reduce topsoil erosion in the initial stages of reforesting denuded areas, an intermediate step to be taken before introducing species that take longer to grow. Hymenaea courbaril (Brazilian cherry, South American cherry, Brazilian copal, South American locust, West Indian locust, jatobá, guapinol, algarrobo) leguminous; very hard wood Mimosa scabrella / Mimosa bracaatinga (bracatinga) leguminous; very fast growing multipurpose native tree (it can reach a height of 15 m tall in only 3 years). Used in recuperation of degraded lands; wood; honey production due to abundant flowering. Ceratonia siliqua (carob tree, St John's-bread, alfarrobeira) leguminous; flowering evergreen shrub or tree. A xerophytic (drought-resistant) species widely cultivated for its edible legumes, and as an ornamental tree in gardens. The seed pod may be crushed and used as a substitute for chocolate. It grows well in warm temperate and subtropical areas, and tolerates hot and humid coastal areas. Trees prefer well drained loam and are intolerant of waterlogging, but the deep root systems can adapt to a wide variety of soil conditions and are fairly salt-tolerant. While previously not believed to form nitrogen fixation nodules typical of the legume family, trees have been identified more recently with nodules containing bacteria believed to be from the Rhizobium genus. Edible, can be used as chocolate substitute; Carob syrup is also used in Crete, Greece as a natural sweetener

31

and considered a natural source of calcium. It contains three times more calcium than milk. It is also rich in iron, phosphorus and natural fibers; animal feed. Albizia spp. (albizzias, silk plants, silk trees, sirises) leguminous; fast-growing small pioneer trees or shrubs with a short lifespan. Important forage, timber, and medicinal plants, and many are cultivated as ornamentals for their attractive flowers. Unlike those of Mimosa, Albizia flowers have many more than 10 stamens. Albizia can also be told apart from another large related genus, Acacia, by its stamens, which are joined at the bases instead of separate. Erythrina verna / Erythrina flammea / Corallodendron mulungu (mulungu) leguminous; native pioneer tree Erythrina speciosa (mulungu-do-litoral, eritrina-candelabro) leguminous; native tree; pollinated by hummingbirds Acacia podalyriifolia (Queensland silver wattle, pearl acacia, acácia-mimosa) leguminous; perennial tree which is fast-growing and widely cultivated. It is native to Australia but is also naturalised in Malaysia, Africa, India and South America. Cassia fistula (golden shower tree) leguminous; fast growing Cassia ferruginea (acácia imperial, canafístula, chuva-de-ouro) leguminous; early secondary native tree Senna occidentalis / Cassia occidentalis (coffee senna, coffeeweed, stinkingweed, fedegoso) leguminous; medicinal legume shrub Inga edulis (ice-cream-bean) leguminous; fast growing; used in alley cropping; edible pulp Calliandra spp. (powder-puff, powder puff plant, fairy duster) leguminous; about 200 species of fast growing perennial flowering plants, shrubs and rarely small trees. These plants flower all year round, but the best blooming is in spring and summer. They can be easily pruned.

Calliandra tweedii (Brazilian Flame Bush) Caesalpina echinata (Brazilwood, pau-Brasil) leguminous; Caesalpinia pluviosa (false Brazilwood, sibipiruna) leguminous; native Piptadenia gonoacantha (pau-jacaré) leguminous; pioneer, timber Platypodium elegans (jacarandazinho, Jacarandá Branco) leguminous; Platycyamus regnellii (pereira) leguminous; Bowdichia virgilioides (sucupira) leguminous; native Bauhinia holophylla (unha-de-boi; unha-de-vaca) leguminous; Bauhinia forficata (Brazilian orchid tree, pata de vaca) leguminous; native

32

Machaerium villosum (jacarandá-do-Cerrado, jacarandá-pardo, jacarandá-paulista, jacarandá-pedra) leguminous; found only in Brazil; threatened by habitat loss. Sesbania virgata (wand riverhemp) leguminous; hardy fast-growing perennial pioneer shrub; about 2–4m high, well adapted to flooded conditions, that produces a lot of seeds with long-term viability. Because of these characteristics, it’s indicated for revegetation of riparian forests, soil erosion control, rehabilitation of degraded areas, firewood and charcoal production. A beverage similar to coffee can be prepared from the seeds. Sesbania punicea (scarlet wisteria, Spanish gold, rattlebox) leguminous; native deciduous shrub; ornamental (produces reddish orange flowers). This plant has a high demand for water, and thrives in swamps or high-moisture areas and mildly acidic soil. Tipuana tipu / Tipuana speciosa (Tipu tree, pride of Bolivia, Brazilian rosewood, amendoim-acácia) leguminous; Cajanus cajan (pigeon pea, guandu, gandule bean, tropical green pea) leguminous; drought-resistant perennial shrub; food crop (dried peas, flour, or green vegetable peas) and a forage/cover crop. The dried peas may be sprouted briefly, then cooked, to enhance their digestibility. Tephrosia spp. leguminous; perennial; many species in the genus are poisonous, particularly to fish, for their high concentration of rotenone. In the last century, several Tephrosia species have been studied in connection with the use of rotenone as an insecticide and pesticide. Trifolium spp. (clover, trefoil) leguminous; about 300 species of small annual, biennial, or short-lived perennial herbaceous plants. Several species are extensively cultivated as fodder plants. The most widely cultivated clovers are white clover Trifolium repens and red clover Trifolium pratense. Clover, either sown alone or in mixture with ryegrass, has for a long time formed a staple crop for soiling, for several reasons: it grows freely, shooting up again after repeated mowings; it produces an abundant crop; it is palatable to and nutritious for livestock; it fixes nitrogen, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers; it grows in a great range of soils and climates; and it is appropriate for either pasturage or green composting. Crotalaria juncea (sunn or sunn hemp) leguminous; Lablab purpureus (hyacinth bean) leguminous groundcover that contributes to weed control by rampant growth. Often grown as forage for livestock. Fruit and beans are edible if boiled well with several changes of the water. Mucuna pruriens (velvet bean) leguminous; a universal green manure in the Tropics, which can adapt easily to many different conditions.

33

Arachis pintoi (pinto peanut; amendoim-forrageiro) leguminous; wild perennial shade tolerant groundcover native to Cerrado vegetation in Brazil. Edible yellow flowers; high forage quality, and acceptability to grazing cattle. Vigna unguiculata (cowpea, black-eyed peas, field peas, feijão-fradinho, feijão-de-corda) leguminous; vigorous climbing annual vine; edible; animal feed; drought-tolerant and warm-weather crop, shade tolerant, compatible as an intercrop with maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane, and cotton. This makes cowpeas an important component of traditional intercropping systems. Medicago sativa (lucerne, alfafa) leguminous; perennial flowering plant; forage; its deep root system, sometimes stretching more than 15 m, makes it very resilient, especially to droughts. Good feed for high-producing dairy cows, because of its high protein content and highly digestible fiber, and secondarily for beef cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. Humans also eat it (sprouts). An insectary, a place where insects are reared, and has been proposed as helpful to other crops, such as cotton, if the two are interplanted, because the alfalfa harbours predatory and parasitic insects that would protect the other crop. Pachyrhizus erosus (jícama, yam bean, Mexican yam, Mexican turnip) leguminous; climbing vine with edible succulent tuberous root. These edible tubers contain fructooligosaccharides, which taste sweet, but pass the human digestive tract unmetabolised and hence have very low caloric value. Moreover, fructooligosaccharides have prebiotic effect, meaning that they are used by "friendly" bacteria that favor colon health and digestion. Jicama is a vigorous, subtropical and tropical, climbing legume vine from South America. It has very pretty, big, blue pea flowers, which sadly should usually be removed as the bean pods and seeds are toxic, they also take a lot of vigour from the plant and reduce the harvest of tubers considerably. Let one plant go to seed for next year's crop. Lens culinaris (lentil) leguminous; Cicer arietinum (garbanzo bean, chickpea) leguminous; Arachis hypogaea (peanut) leguminous; Psophocarpus tetragonolobus (winged bean, goa bean, asparagus pea, four-angled bean) leguminous; herbaceous perennial vine with climbing stems and leaves. It does well in humid tropics with high rainfall. The plant is one of the best nitrogen fixers with nodulation accomplished by the soil bacterium Rhizobium. The plant grows very quickly, reaching a length of four meters in a few weeks. This bean has been called the "one species supermarket" because practically all of the plant is edible. The beans are used as a vegetable, but the other parts (leaves, flowers, and tuberous roots) are also edible. The tender pods, which are the most widely eaten part of the plant (and best eaten when under 1" in length), can be

34

harvested within two to three months of planting. The flowers are often used to color rice and pastries. The flavor of the beans has a similarity to asparagus. The young leaves can be picked and prepared as a leaf vegetable, similar to spinach. The roots can be used as a root vegetable, similar to the potato, and have a nutty flavor; they are also much richer in protein than potatoes. The dried seeds can be useful as a flour and also to make a coffee-like drink. Each of these parts of the winged bean provide a source of vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium, iron, and other vitamins. Ananas comosus (pineapple) Punica granatum (pomegranate) drought-tolerant fruit-bearing deciduous shrub or small tree growing between 5–8 meters. Tolerant of moderate frost. Eugenia uniflora (Brazilian cherry, surinam cherry, pitanga) Eugenia brasiliensis (grumichama) medium sized tree endemic to Brazil; fruit, wood. Its slow growth and low rate of dispersal make it rare, and it's generally considered as an endangered species. Myrcia multiflora / Eugenia multiflora (cambuí) Eugenia uvalha (uvaia) a native species of and found primarily in Brazil. It reaches 6 to 13 meters in height. Euterpe oleracea (acai) Malphigia glabra (acerola cherry, Barbados cherry, manzanita, wild crapemyrtle) Fragaria vesca / Fragaria alpina (alpine strawberry, wild strawberry, woodland strawberry) perennial herbaceous groundcover. Typical habitat is along trails and roadsides, embankments, hillsides, stone- and gravel-laid paths and roads, meadows, young woodlands, sparse forest, woodland edges, and clearings. It grows in shady areas but needs sufficient light to form fruit. In It is tolerant of a variety of moisture levels (except very wet or dry conditions). It can survive mild fires and/or establish itself after fires. Mangifera indica (mango) Carica papaya (papaya, pawpaw) Passiflora incarnata (passion fruit) Annona reticulata (custard apple) Annona muricata (graviola) Annona cherimola (cherimoya) Vitis vinifera (grape) Eriobotrya japonica (loquat, nespera) large evergreen shrub or small tree

35

Citrus japonica (kumquats or cumquats) Diospyros kaki (kaki persimmon, Asian persimmon) Litchi chinensis (lychee) Averrhoa carambola (carambola, starfruit) Coffea arabica (coffee) Vitis labrusca (concord grape) deciduous woody climbing vine Passiflora tarminiana (banana passionfruit) fast growing evergreen climber Passiflora antioquiensis (red banana passionfruit) related to the banana passionfruit (P. mollissima), however it is a smaller vine and not invasive like the other species. Actinidia deliciosa (fuzzy kiwifruit) vigorous, woody, deciduous perennial twining vine or climbing shrub Actinidia arguta (hardy kiwi) hardy fast-growing perennial climbing vine Bertholletia excelsa (Brazil nut) Macadamia integrifolia / Macadamia tetraphylla (macadamia) evergreen trees 2–12 m tall; nuts can be eaten raw Castanea sativa (chestnut, sweet chestnut, Portuguese chestnut, castanheira-portuguesa) substantial, long-lived deciduous flowering tree; attains a height of 20–35 m; edible seeds (also called nuts) and wood. The tree requires a mild climate and adequate. Intolerant of lime; under forest conditions, it will tolerate moderate shade well. Responds very well to coppicing. The wood is hard and strong, durable and resistant to outdoor use thus suitable for posts, fencing or stakes. Helianthus annuus (sunflower) Salvia hispanica (chia) Araucaria angustifolia (Brazilian pine), which is also a timber tree and produces edible seeds/nuts Coffea spp. flowering shrubs or small trees from the Rubiaceae family; coffee beans Ipomoea batatas (sweet potato) hardy perennial fast-growing vine; edible roots, leaves, and shoots, but primarily grown for tubers and as ornamental vine Manihot esculenta (cassava, manioc, yuca, balinghoy, mogo, mandioca) a woody shrub; is the third-largest source of food carbohydrates in the tropics, after rice and maize. One of the most drought-tolerant crops, capable of growing on marginal soils.

36

Zizania spp. (wild rice) are four species of grasses forming the genus, and the grain which can be harvested from them. Wild rice is not directly related to Asian rice (Oryza sativa). The plants grow in shallow water in small lakes and slow-flowing streams; often, only the flowering head of wild rice rises above the water. The grain is eaten by dabbling ducks and other aquatic wildlife, as well as humans. Wild rice seeds can be infected by the highly toxic fungus ergot, which is dangerous if eaten. Infected grains have pink or purplish blotches or growths of the fungus, from the size of a seed to several times larger. Wild rice is also grown as an ornamental plant in garden ponds. Chenopodium quinoa (quinoa) grain-like crop grown primarily for its edible seeds. It is a pseudocereal rather than a true cereal, or grain, as it is not a member of the true grass family. Fagopyrum esculentum (buckwheat) herbaceous flowering plant cultivated for its grain-like seeds, and also used as a fast growing cover crop, weed suppressor, attracts pollinators and beneficial insects, topsoil loosener, rejuvenator for low-fertility soils. Despite the name, buckwheat is not related to wheat, as it is not a grass. Buckwheat prefers well-drained soils. It performs poorly on heavy, wet soils or soils with high levels of limestone. Buckwheat thrives in cool, moist conditions, but is not frost-tolerant; not particularly drought tolerant. Its short growing season may allow it to avoid droughts, however. Buckwheat takes up phosphorus and some minor nutrients that are otherwise unavailable to crops, then releasing these nutrients to later crops as the residue breaks down. Thrives in poor soils (low-fertility, over-farmed). However, buckwheat does not do well in compacted, droughty or excessively wet soils. Buckwheat will regrow after mowing if cut before it reaches 25 percent bloom. As a soil conditioner, its abundant, fine roots leave topsoil loose and friable. Its shallow white blossoms attract beneficial insects that attack or parasitize aphids, mites and other pests. These beneficials include hover flies (Syrphidae), predatory wasps, minute pirate bugs, insidious flower bugs, tachinid flies and lady beetles. Flowering may start within three weeks of planting and continue for up to 10 weeks. Amaranthus sp. (amaranth) annual or short-lived perennial plants. Although several species are often considered weeds, people around the world value amaranths as leaf vegetables, cereals, and ornamental plants. Cymbopogon nardus / Cymbopogon winterianus (citronella grass) grows to about 2 m (about 6.5 ft) and has red base stems. These species are used for the production of citronella oil, which is used in soaps, as an insect repellent especially mosquitoes; used in household disinfectants and soaps. Usually planted in home gardens to ward off insects such as whitefly adults. Its cultivation enables growing some vegetables (e.g. tomatoes and broccoli), without applying pesticides. Intercropping should include physical barriers, for citronella roots can take over the field. Citronella oil is popular as a 'natural' insect repellent. Its mosquito repellent qualities

37

have been verified by research, including effectiveness in repelling Aedes aegypti (dengue fever mosquito). To be continually effective most citronella repellent formulas need to be reapplied to the skin every 30–60 minutes. Research also indicates that citronella oil is an effective repellent for body louse, head louse and stable flies. Vetiveria zizanioides (vetiver grass, miracle grass) used for soil conservation, slope stabilization, erosion and sediment control, pollution control, water quality improvement and many other environmental applications. highly tolerant to extreme soil conditions including heavy metal toxicities, is highly suitable for phytoremedial application due to some of its extraordinary features. These include a massive and deep root system, tolerance to extreme climatic variations such as prolonged drought, flood, submergence, fire, frost and heat waves. It is also tolerant to a wide range of soil acidity, alkalinity, salinity, sodicity, and elevated levels of Aluminium, Manganese, and heavy metals such as Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Nickel, Lead, Zinc, Mercury, Selenium and Copper in the soil. Powerful phytoremedial tool by trapping and containing both the air and water born insoluble mercury at sources. It has stiff and erect stems, which can stand up to relatively deep water flow. A dense hedge is formed acting as sediment filter and water spreader. New shoots emerge from the base helping it to withstanding heavy traffic and heavy grazing pressure. Vetiver grass has no stolons and a massive finely structured root system that can grow very fast. This deep root system makes vetiver plant extremely drought tolerant and difficult to dislodge by strong current. Vetiver is sterile and non-invasive. Highly resistance to pests, diseases and fire. New shoots develop from the underground crown therefore protecting them from fire and frost. New roots are developed from nodes when buried by trapped sediment. Symphytum officinale (comfrey, slippery-root) shade tolerant fast-growing, herbaceous, perennial plant. Comfrey probably has the widest range of uses in a permaculture system of any plant. It is a dynamic nutrient accumulator, mostly due to the tap roots that will pull nutrients up from down deep in the soil and into the roots and leaves; a compost accelerator; a fine ingredient in liquid manure (comfrey tea); beneficial insect attractor; green manure and living mulch; weed suppressant (can be used as a border around garden plot to stop the paths getting overrun with weeds); biomass accumulator; livestock forage; it’s a blood coagulant and it proliferates cell division (poultice), healing wounds and fractures. Aloe vera (aloe) well-known medicinal herb. The gel can be used for scratches, burns and many other applications. Cannabis sp. annual herbaceous plant; source of industrial fibre, seed, oil, food, freedom of the mind, and medicine. Presently, there’s legislation prohibiting it in Brazil, but it can be integrated in the design as soon as the situation is reversed.

38

Mikania cordifolia (guaco) Peumus boldus (boldo) Zingiber officinale (ginger) It is a hardy perennial reed-like plant with annual leafy stems. Habitat: Humid, partly-shaded habitats in the tropics and subtropics. Curcuma longa (turmeric) hardy rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant Murraya koenigii (curry) a small hardy tropical to sub-tropical tree, growing 4–6 m (13–20 feet) tall; tolerates shade Artemisia dracunculus (tarragon, estragão) perennial herb; shade. One sub-species, Artemisia dracunculus var. sativa, is cultivated for use of the leaves as an aromatic culinary herb Armoracia rusticana (horseradish) Allium schoenoprasum (chives) Lavandula angustifolia (lavender) Melissa officinalis (lemon balm) Mentha × piperita (peppermint) Mentha pulegium (penny royal) Salvia officinalis (sage) Foeniculum vulgare (fennel) Thymus vulgaris (thyme) Tanacetum vulgare (tansy, mugwort, cow bitter, bitter buttons, or golden buttons.) flowering herbaceous plant; used in companion planting, and for biological pest control in organic gardens and sustainable agriculture. It is planted alongside potatoes to repel the Colorado potato beetle, with one study finding tansy reduced the beetle population by 60 to 100%. Used as ant, fly, mosquito, and tick repellent; leaves and flowers are toxic if consumed in large quantities. Cinnamom verum (Ceylon cinnamon, true cinnamon) Cinnamon is harvested by growing the tree for two years, then coppicing it. The next year, about a dozen shoots will form from the roots. Canella winterana (wild cinnamon, white cinnamon) Its bark is used as a spice similar to cinnamon. The wood is very heavy and exceedingly hard, strong, and close-grained. Vanilla planifolia (flat-leaved vanilla) and Vanilla pompona (pompona vanilla) vanilla orchids are evergreen vine-like flowering plants with a monopodial climbing habitus; shade tolerant Laurus nobilis (bay tree)

39

Azadirachta indica (neem, nimtree) fast-growing hardy pioneer evergreen tree; thrives best on well drained deep and sandy soils; coppice timber and firewood; pest repellent. Moringa oleifera (moringa, drumstick tree) fast-growing, drought-resistant perennial tree; grows to approximately 10m in height. In cultivation, it is often cut back annually to 1–2 meters and allowed to regrow so the pods and leaves remain within arm's reach. Sun and heat-loving. In developing countries, moringa has potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable landcare. It may be used as forage for livestock. Many parts of the moringa are edible: immature seed pods, called "drumsticks"; leaves, cooked and used like spinach; flowers, cooked, taste like mushrooms; mature seeds; oil pressed from the mature seeds; roots. The bark, sap, roots, leaves, seeds, oil, and flowers are used in traditional medicine in several countries. Pereskia aculeata (Barbados gooseberry, leaf cactus, ora-pro-nobis) scrambling thorny shrub, edible leaves, can be used as living fence Rumex acetosa (sorrel, spinach dock, azedinha) perennial leaf vegetable Alternanthera sissoo (sissoo spinach, Brazil spinach, samba lettuce, curly leaf spinach) hardy, vigorous and spreading tropical vegetable. A shrub that can be cut back hard for harvesting of the leaves and is ready to cut again in a few weeks. Thrives in 50% or more shade and benefits from nitrogen. The leaves are crunchy, slightly more so than the temperate climate spinach, and not slimy. They require steaming or boiling when served because of the presence of oxalates. Portulaca oleracea (common purslane, pigweed, pursley, moss rose) an annual succulent - widely considered an edible plant, and in some areas an invasive type of weed. Amaranthus palmeri (palmer’s amaranth, palmer's pigweed) edible flowering plant Asparagus officinalis (asparagus) perennial Solanum aethiopicum (scarlet eggplant, mock tomato, garden eggs and Ethiopian nightshade, jilo) fruit eaten both raw and cooked; leaves eaten as leaf vegetable and are actually more nutritious than the fruit. Solanum betaceum (tamarillo, tree tomato) small tree or shrub Sechium edule (chayote, choko, christophene, cho-cho, chuchu) tuberous deciduous perennial climbing vine; edible fruit, root, stem, seeds and leaves. The tuberous part of the root is starchy and eaten like a yam. It can be used as pig or cattle fodder, as well. Basella alba (Malabar spinach, Phooi leaf, red vine spinach, creeping spinach, climbing spinach, bertalha) a perennial vine found in the tropics where it is widely used as a leaf vegetable.

40

Luffa aegyptiaca / Luffa acutangula (loofah, Vietnamese luffa, Vietnamese gourd, or Chinese okra) The fruit must be harvested at a young stage of development to be edible. The fully developed fruit is the source of the loofah scrubbing sponge which is used in bathrooms and kitchens as a sponge tool. Luffa are not frost-hardy. Tropaeolum majus (garden nasturtium, Indian cress, monks cress, capuchinha) edible flowers, nasturtiums are also considered widely useful companion plants. They attract beneficial predatory insects. They repel cucurbit pests like squash bugs, cucumber beetles, and several caterpillars, and have a similar range of benefits for brassica plants, especially broccoli and cauliflower. Trap crop against black fly aphids. Viola sp. (violets) evergreen perennial; dappled shade; Young leaves and flower buds are edible. When added to soup they thicken it in much the same way as okra. Flowers can be eaten raw or frozen into ice cubes! Attract beneficial insects whose larvae devour aphids. Self-seeding. Calendula officinalis (pot marigold) attracts beneficial insects; edible flowers Rosa spp. (roses) woody perennial; edible petals Eichhornia crassipes (common water hyacinth) an aquatic plant native to the Amazon basin. Used in phytoremediation. Eleocharis dulcis (Chinese water chestnut) Cyperus esculentus (chufa sedge, nut grass, yellow nutsedge, tigernut sedge, earth almond) Trapa sp. (water caltrop, water chestnut, buffalo nut, bat nut, devil pod) floating annual aquatic plants Nelumbo nucifera (lotus, Indian lotus, sacred lotus, bean of India) Ipomoea aquatica (kangkong, water spinach, swamp morning glory, water morning glory) Typha sp. (bulrush, reedmace, cattail, corn dog grass, cumbungi) found in a variety of wetland habitats Alternanthera sessilis (mukunu-wenna, sessile joyweed, dwarf copperleaf) a perennial aquatic herb from the Amaranthaceae family; often used in combination with other herbs in therapeutic oils. The vitamin and mineral-rich leaves have been an essential ingredient in kola kanda - a dish made with boiled rice, coconut and several kinds of green leaves. Mukunu-wenna is highly valued for strengthening the eyes, for eye ailments, and the nervous system. Alternanthera versicolor (purple leafed mukunu-wenna, pink cress) with purple/plum red leaves is a colourful species for adding to salads and as a garnish on meals. In the Chinese system of health and healing, purple foods benefit the circulation and strengthen the kidneys and bladder

41

Colocasia esculenta (taro) Tradescantia fluminensis (wandering jew, river spiderwort) a species of spiderwort native to South America; one of several plants known by the common name Wandering Jew; another marvelous plant for ducks and fish, to put on the edges of the ponds. Zantedeschia aethiopica (calla lily, copo-de-leite) Impatiens walleriana (busy Lizzie, balsam, impatiens, maria-sem-vergonha) Sagittaria sagittifolia (arrowhead, duck potato, katniss, swan potato, tule potato) herbaceous perennial flowering plant, growing in water from 10–50 cm deep. The round tuber is edible. Xanthosoma sagittifolium (arrowleaf elephant ear, taioba) shade tolerant tropical flowering plant. Edible parts: leaves and starchy tuber. The plant is often interplanted within reforestation areas to control weeds and provide shade during the early stages of growth. Hedychium coronarium (lirio-do-brejo, white ginger lily) herbaceous, root-hardy, vigourous, tall-growing perennial with white sweetly-fragrant flowers. Very common in Brazil, where it’s considered an invasive weed. It can be contained inside the borders of the evapotranspiration blackwater garden. Heliconia velloziana caeté banana Heliconia spp. (lobster-claws, wild plantains or false bird-of-paradise) flowering plants Zizanopsis bonariensis (junco) Canna sp. (beri) Hibiscus sabdariffa var. sabdariffa race ruber (roselle, sorrel, red sorrel, Queensland jelly plant, jelly okra, lemon bush, Florida cranberry, vinagreira) bushy herbaceous subshrub; edible, medicinal. Very sensitive to frost. Prefers full sun. Appreciates frequent watering and is even tolerant of floods and stagnant water. Ceiba speciosa (silk floss tree, paineira) deciduous tree native and endemic to the tropical and subtropical forests of South America. Their nectar is known to attract insects such as monarch butterflies, which perform pollination. Ocotea odorifera (Brazilian sassafras or American cinnamon) an evergreen tree threatened by habitat loss Cariniana spp. (jequitibá) vulnerable: high risk of endangerment in the wild. Cedrella fissilis (cedro rosa) vulnerable

42

Tabebuia ochracea (ipê-do-cerrado, ipê-amarelo) flowers, timber Jacaranda mimosifolia (blue jacaranda) a pioneer sub-tropical tree native to South America that has been widely planted elsewhere because of its beautiful and long-lasting blue flowers. Vulnerable Croton floribundus (capixingui) Cabralea canjerana (canjerana) timber