Marilyn Schell

Margaret Hogan

HSC CHEMISTRY

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of Science Press. ABN 98 000 073 861

© Science Press 2007First published 2007Reprinted 2007 (twice), 2008, 2009

Science PressPrivate Bag 7023 Marrickville NSW 1475 AustraliaTel: (02) 9516 1122 Fax: (02) 9550 1915sales@sciencepress.com.au www.sciencepress.com.au

Dot Point HSC Chemistry iii Contents

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Contents

Introduction vVerbs to Watch vi

Dot Points

Production of Materials viiThe Acidic Environment ixChemical Monitoring and Management xiIndustrial Chemistry xiiiShipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation xv

Questions

Production of Materials 1The Acidic Environment 45Chemical Monitoring and Management 101Industrial Chemistry 157Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation 207

Answers

Production of Materials 251The Acidic Environment 273Chemical Monitoring and Management 299Industrial Chemistry 325Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation 345

Appendix

Data Sheet 361Periodic Table 362

Contents iv Dot Point HSC Chemistry

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Introduction

What the book includes

syllabus for the following topics in the Year 12 Chemistry course:

Also included are typical experimental results for students to analyse if the third column of the syllabus indicates

Format of the book

The book has been formatted in the following way:

1. Main topic statement (column 1 of syllabus)

1.1etc Syllabus requirement from columns 2 and 3.

1.1.1

1.1.2

worth in an examination. As a rough rule, every two lines of answer might be worth one mark. Note that in

chemistry involved is worth only one mark.

How to use the book

You may have done work in addition to this with your teacher as extension work. Obviously this is not covered, but you may need to know this additional work for your school exams.

spend more time revising later, and allow you to spend your study time more productively.

Dot Point HSC Chemistry v Introduction

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account/account for State reasons for, report on, give an account of, narrate a series of events or transactions.

analyse Identify components and the relationships among them, draw out and relate implications.

apply Use, utilise, employ in a particular situation.

appreciate Make a judgement about the value of something.

assess

results or size.

calculate

clarify Make clear or plain.

classify Arrange into classes, groups or categories.

compare Show how things are similar and different.

construct Make, build, put together items or arguments.

contrast Show how things are different or opposite.

critically (analyse/evaluate) Add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge

deduce Draw conclusions.

demonstrate Show by example.

describe Provide characteristics and features.

discuss Identify issues and provide points for and against.

distinguish Recognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from, note difference between things.

evaluate Make a judgement based on criteria.

examine

explain Relate cause and effect, make the relationship between things evident, provide why and/or how.

extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details.

extrapolate Infer from what is known.

identify Recognise and name.

interpret Draw meaning from.

investigate

justify Support an argument or conclusion.

outline Sketch in general terms; indicate the main features.

predict Suggest what may happen based on available data.

propose Put forward (a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion etc) for consideration or action.

recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences.

recommend Provide reasons in favour.

recount Retell a series of events.

summarise Express concisely the relevant details.

synthesise Put together various elements to make a whole.

Verbs to Watch

Verbs to Watch vi Dot Point HSC Chemistry

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Dot Point Page

1. Energy and raw materials 2 from fossil fuels

1.1 Ethylene (ethene) from petroleum 2

Alkanes and alkenes with bromine water

1.4 Ethylene as a monomer 51.5 Polymers, e.g. polyethylene 61.6 Industrial production of polyethylene 61.7 Modelling polymerisation 81.8 Vinyl chloride and styrene as monomers 81.9 Properties and uses of 9

polystyrene and PVC2. Materials from biomass 112.1 Products of the petrochemical industry 112.2 Development and use of a biopolymer 112.3 Condensation polymers 132.4 Formation of condensation polymers 132.5 Cellulose – 14

a condensation polymer in biomass2.6 Cellulose – a source 15

of commercial polymers

3. Ethanol – use and manufacture 173.1 Dehydration of ethanol 173.2 Hydrolysis of ethylene 183.3 Modelling the dehydration 18

and hydrolysis of ethylene3.4 Industrial production 19

of ethanol from sugar cane3.5 Ethanol as a solvent 203.6 Ethanol as a fuel – 20

a renewable resource3.7 Naming alkanols 21

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Molar heats of combustion of alkanols

3.9 Calculating molar heat of combustion 233.10 Ethanol as a car fuel 243.11 Ethanol as an alternative fuel 25

Fermentation of glucose

3.13 Conditions for fermentation 263.14 Chemistry of fermentation 26

4. Energy from redox reactions 27

difference of metals in an electrolyte

4.3 Displacement of metals from solution 284.4 Activity of metals and displacement 284.5 Oxidation states 294.6 Redox reactions in galvanic cells 304.7 Construction of galvanic cells 314.8 Components of galvanic cells 324.9 Calculations using the redox table 334.10 Chemistry and uses of batteries compared 35

5. Nuclear chemistry 395.1 Stable and radioactive isotopes 395.2 Recent discoveries of elements 405.3 Production of transuranic elements 415.4 Production of commercial radioisotopes 415.5 Detection of radiation 425.6 Radioisotopes in industry and medicine 425.7 Radioisotopes – uses and properties 42

Answers to Production of Materials 251

Production of Materials

Dot Point HSC Chemistry vii Production of Materials

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Production of Materials viii Dot Point HSC Chemistry

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The Acidic Environment

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1. Indicators 46

Natural indicators1.2 Indicators – colour changes 471.3 Prepared indicators 471.4 Acidic, basic or neutral 491.5 Acidity/basicity of household substances 501.6 Uses of indicators 512. Acidic oxides and the atmosphere 53

2.2 Periodic Table and acidity of oxides 53

2.5 Solubility of carbon dioxide 552.6 Calculating gas volumes 56

Decarbonation of a soft drink

2.8 Natural and industrial sources of sulfur 59 dioxide and nitrogen oxides

2.9 Chemical reactions that release 60 SO2 and NOX

2.10 Formation and effects of acid rain 602.11 Evidence for changes in atmospheric 61

oxides of sulfur and nitrogen2.12 Industrial origins of oxides 62

of sulfur and nitrogen3. Acids and pH 63

Using pH meters or probes

3.2 Acids as proton donors 633.3 Common acids 643.4 Naturally occurring acids and bases 643.5 The pH scale 653.6 Concentrated and dilute acids 663.7 Strong and weak acids 67

3.9 Modelling acids – 68 molecular nature and ionisation

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3.10 Calculation of pH 683.11 Strong and weak acids – ionisation 70

3.13 Strong and weak acids – calculating pH 713.14 Acids as food additives 724. Acid/base theories 734.1 Using secondary sources 734.2 Development of ideas about acids and 73

bases – Lavoisier, Davy and Arrhenius

4.4 Conjugate acids and bases 764.5 Conjugate acid/base pairs 76

pH of salt solutions

4.7 Explaining pH of salts 784.8 Amphiprotic substances 794.9 Neutralisation as a proton 79

transfer reaction

of a domestic substance using

4.13 Neutralisation in accidents 894.14 Buffers 905. 935.1 Alkanols and alkanoic acids 935.2 Melting and boiling points of 95

alkanols and alkanoic acids

5.4 Naming esters 96

5.8 Esters – occurrence, production and uses 995.9 Esters – uses in foods and cosmetics 99Answers to The Acidic Environment 273

Dot Point HSC Chemistry ix The Acidic Environment

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The Acidic Environment x Dot Point HSC Chemistry

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Chemical Monitoring and Management

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1. The work of chemists 1021.1 The work of chemists 1021.2 Chemists – roles and 103

chemical principles used1.3 Collaboration between chemists 1041.4 Monitoring a chemical reaction 1042. Monitoring in industry – 107

the Haber process2.1 Industrial uses of ammonia 1072.2 Synthesis of ammonia 1072.3 Synthesis of ammonia – 107

2.4 Synthesis of ammonia – 108 an exothermic reaction

2.5 Reaction rate and temperature 109

principle 2.7 The Haber process and pressure 1102.8 The Haber process – a balancing act 1102.9 Development of the Haber process 111

2.10 The Haber process and catalysts 1122.11 Monitoring the Haber process 113

3. Chemical analysis 115

3.2 Monitoring ions in substances we use 1183.3 Deducing ions present from test results 119

content of lawn fertiliser

3.5 Analysing reliability of results 1223.6 Atomic absorption spectroscopy 1243.7 Interpreting data from AAS analysis 126

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4. Atmospheric chemistry and ozone 1294.1 Composition and layered 129

structure of the atmosphere4.2 Atmospheric pollutants 1294.3 Ozone in the atmosphere 1304.4 Formation of coordinate covalent bonds 1314.5 Coordinate covalent bonds 132

and Lewis structures4.6 Allotropes of oxygen 1324.7 Oxygen allotropes – properties 1344.8 Isomers of haloalkanes 1344.9 Modelling haloalkanes 1364.10 CFCs and halons in the atmosphere 1374.11 Changes in atmospheric 139

ozone concentrations4.12 Destruction of atmospheric ozone 1414.13 Problems associated with use of CFCs 1424.14 Replacements for CFCs 143

5. Monitoring the water supply 1455.1 Ions in water 145

5.4 Monitoring water for heavy metals 150 and eutrophication

5.5 The local water supply 1525.6 Effectiveness of water management 154

Answers to Chemical Monitoring and 299 Management

Dot Point HSC Chemistry xi Chemical Monitoring and Management

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Chemical Monitoring and Management xii Dot Point HSC Chemistry

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Industrial Chemistry

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1. Resources and replacements 1581.1 A natural resource (not a fossil fuel) 1581.2 Shrinking world resources 159

2. Equilibrium and the 161 equilibrium constant

2.3 Effects of changes on 163

3. Sulfuric acid 1713.1 Industrial uses of sulfuric acid 1713.2 Sulfuric acid ionisation 1713.3 Safety using sulfuric acid 1713.4 Transport and storage of sulfuric acid 1723.5 Extraction of sulfur 1723.6 Indusrial production of sulfuric acid 1743.7 Reaction conditions – 174

production of SO2 and SO3

production of SO2 and SO3

3.9 Industrial production of H2SO4 – 176 chemistry and output

Reactions of H2SO4

3.11 Reactions of H2SO4 – 178 an oxidising and dehydrating agent

4. Sodium hydroxide 179

Electrolysis of sodium chloride

Dot Point Page

sodium chloride

4.4 Industrial production of sodium 183 hydroxide by electrolysis

4.5 The mercury, diaphragm and 184 membrane processes

5. 189

5.3 Fats and oils to make soap 190

An emulsion, properties and uses

Soap as an emulsion

5.7 Soap – structure and cleaning action 1935.8 Soap as an emulsion 1945.9 Anionic, cationic and 194

5.10 Soaps and synthetic detergents 1955.11 Environmental impacts of 196

soaps and detergents6. The Solvay process 1996.1 The Solvay process – raw materials 1996.2 Uses of sodium carbonate 1996.3 The Solvay process – 199

steps and chemistry6.4 The Solvay process – 201

environmental issues

The Solvay process 6.6 Calculations involving 202

the Solvay process6.7 Location of a chemical plant using 204

the Solvay process

Answers to Industrial Chemistry 325

Dot Point HSC Chemistry xiii Industrial Chemistry

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Industrial Chemistry xiv Dot Point HSC Chemistry

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Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation

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1. The ocean as an electrolyte 2081.1 Minerals in oceans 2081.2 Electron transfer in redox reactions 2081.3 Redox reactions occur when ions 209

are free to move

and electron transfer reactions

2. Ships of metal 2132.1 Rusting of iron 2132.2 Conditions for rusting 214

Corrosion of iron and steel

2.4 Composition and properties of steel 2182.5 Composition, properties and uses 219

of a range of steels2.6 Iron and steel in ships 2192.7 Corrosion of active and 220

passivating metals3. Electrolytic cells 2213.1 Electrolysis – anode and 221

cathode reactions3.2 Factors affecting electrolysis 224

Rate of electcrolysis

4. Corrosion in a marine environment 2274.1 History of ship construction – 227

materials used

Corrosion rate of metals and alloys4.3 Protection of metal hulls 228

Prevention of corrosion

4.5 Using the redox table 231 to predict corrosion

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4.6 Cathodic protection 2324.7 Cathodic protection – 233

chemistry and uses4.8 Applications of cathodic protection 2345. Corrosion in a sunken ship 2355.1 Solubility of gases 235

5.3 Solubility of gases and depth of oceans 2375.4 Temperature and corrosion rates 237

Rate of corrosion

5.6 Predicting corrosion rates at depth 239

6. Corrosion at depth 241

corrosion and acidity6.2 Acidity and corrosion rates 2426.3 Corrosion at depth 243

7. Salvage, conservation and 245 restoration of artefacts

7.1 Artefacts from shipwrecks are saturated 2457.2 Evaporation of a saturated 245

solution from artefacts7.3 Electrolysis to remove salts 246

from artefacts7.4 Electrolysis to clean and stabilise 247

metal artefacts7.5 Chemical procedures to clean, 247

preserve and stabilise artefacts 7.6 R

in Australian projectsAnswers to Shipwrecks, Corrosion and 345 Conservation

Dot Point HSC Chemistry xv Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation

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Shipwrecks, Corrosion and Conservation xvi Dot Point HSC Chemistry

Dot Point HSC Chemistry 1 Production of Materials

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DOT POINTProduction of Materials

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Production of Materials 2 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

1. Fossil fuels provide both energy and raw materials such as ethylene, for the production of other substances.

1.1 Identify the industrial source of ethylene from the cracking of some of the fractions from the

1.1.1 Describe the composition of petroleum.

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1.1.2 When petroleum undergoes distillation, fractions are produced. Identify some of these.

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1.1.3

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(b) Use a diagram to show the industrial process of fractional distillation of petroleum.

(c) Use a diagram to show the process of fractional distillation in the school laboratory.

Dot Point HSC Chemistry 3 Production of Materials

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1.1.4

(a) Identify the IUPAC name for ethylene.

(b) Construct the structural formula for ethylene.

(c) Outline the main source of ethylene.

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1.1.5 Ethene is produced by the cracking of petroleum fractions. Describe the process of cracking.

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1.2 Identify that ethylene, because of the high reactivity of its double bond, is readily transformed into many useful products.

1.2.1 Complete the following:

Ethylene (ethene) belongs to a homologous group of hydrocarbons called ........................................ . All alkenes have a ........................................ bond as their functional group. This is called a covalent bond because the carbon atoms ........................................ electrons. It is called a double bond because the ........................................ atoms share ........................................ pairs of ........................................ .

1.2.2

(a) Complete the following table to summarise the differences between the three series of hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes and alkynes.

Homologous series General formula Functional group

Alkane

CnH2n

–C C–

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Production of Materials 4 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

(b) Write molecular formulas for:

(i) ethane .......................................................................................

(ii) ethene .......................................................................................

(iii) ethyne .......................................................................................

1.2.3 Ethane and ethene (ethylene) are both hydrocarbons, and they share a number of properties.

molecules, they are both relatively insoluble in water, have low melting and boiling points and they both burn readily in air or oxygen. Despite these similarities, ethene is used much more extensively in industry than ethane. Account for this difference in use.

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1.2.4 Alkanes such as ethane undergo substitution reactions.

(a) What is meant by a substitution reaction?

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1.2.5 Alkenes such as ethene (ethylene) undergo addition reactions.

(a) What is meant by an addition reaction?

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 5 Production of Materials

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appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water.

1.3.1 Describe the test you would use to distinguish an alkane such as ethane from an alkene such

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1.3.2reactivities of appropriate alkenes with the corresponding alkanes in bromine water.

(a) Identify the chemicals you used and justify their choice.

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(b) Explain one safety precaution necessary when carrying out this experiment.

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1.4 Identify that ethylene serves as a monomer from which polymers are made.

1.4.1

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(c) Identify the term used to describe the process by which monomers are converted to a polymer.

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Production of Materials 6 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

1.4.2

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1.4.3 Classify each of the following as either a monomer or a polymer.

(a) starch .............................................................................

(b) glucose .........................................................................

(c) ethylene (ethene) ....................................................

(d) polyethylene .............................................................

1.5 Identify polyethylene as an addition polymer and explain the meaning of this term.

1.5.1

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1.5.2

(a) Identify the monomer used to manufacture the polymer called polyethylene.

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(c) Draw the structural formula for a part of a polyethylene molecule showing three monomer units joined together.

1.6 Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene as an example of a commercially and industrially important polymer.

1.6.1 Justify the statement that polyethylene is a commercially important polymer.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 7 Production of Materials

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1.6.2 Outline the steps in the production of polyethylene.

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1.6.3

(a) Explain what is meant by a free radical.

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(b) Explain how the formation of an ethene free radical assists in the formation of a polymer.

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1.6.4

(a) Identify the type of catalyst used in the industrial production of polyethylene.

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(b) Describe the effect of this catalyst on the polymerisation process.

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1.6.5

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Production of Materials 8 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

1.6.6factors that would need to be continually monitored and explain why this process is important in the production of polyethylene.

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1.6.7 During the production of polyethylene it is important to monitor temperature of the reaction vessel. Explain.

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1.7 Analyse information from secondary sources such as computer simulations, molecular model kits or multimedia resources to model the polymerisation process.

1.7.1 Describe how you modelled the polymerisation process in class.

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by both their systematic and common names.

1.8.1 Complete the following table to summarise information about the monomers vinyl chloride and styrene.

Common name of monomer

Systematic name of monomer

Formula of monomer

Name of polymer

Vinyl chloride

Styrene (Vinyl benzene)

Dot Point HSC Chemistry 9 Production of Materials

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1.9 Describe the uses of the polymers made from the above monomers in terms of their properties.

1.9.1 Use the following table to summarise some uses of the polymers made from the monomers vinyl chloride and styrene.

Name of polymer Structure of polymer Uses

Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Polystyrene

1.9.2 Complete the following table to link the uses of the different forms of the polymers shown to properties that allow them to be used in these ways.

Name of polymer

Use Property that determines this use

PVC Flooring and carpet backing

PVC Sheets for roofs and skylights

Polyethylene Natural gas pipes Coating steel pipes

Polyethylene Plastic bags and Food containers

Polyethylene Sheathing for wire cables used for phone and TV

Polystyrene Disposable foam cups

Polystyrene Surfboards

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Production of Materials 10 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

1.9.3 Assess the impact of the development of the production of polymers on society and on the environment.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 11 Production of Materials

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2. Some scientists research the extraction of materials from biomass to reduce our dependence on fossil fuels.

2.1 Discuss the need for alternative sources of the compounds presently obtained from the petrochemical industry.

2.1.1 What is meant by the petrochemical industry?

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2.1.2 Identify 10 chemicals presently produced by the petrochemical industry.

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2.1.3 Discuss the need for alternative sources of compounds presently manufactured by the petrochemical industry.

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2.2 Use available evidence to gather and present data from secondary sources and analyse progress in the recent development and use of a named biopolymer. This analysis should name the

or potential use of the polymer produced related to its properties.

2.2.1

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2.2.2

(a) Identify a biopolymer which is produced commercially.

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(b) Describe the structure of this polymer.

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Production of Materials 12 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

(c) Identify and give the formula of the monomer(s) used to manufacture this named biopolymer.

(d) Identify the source of the monomer(s).

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2.2.3

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(b) Analyse progress in the development of this biopolymer.

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(c) Identify uses of this biopolymer.

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(d) Identify properties of this biopolymer.

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(e) Choose one use of this biopolymer and relate this use to its properties.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 13 Production of Materials

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(f) Analyse progress in the uses of this biopolymer.

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2.3 Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer.

2.3.1 Explain what is meant by a condensation polymer and identify three examples.

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2.4 Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed.

2.4.1

2.4.2 Describe the reaction involved when a condensation polymer is formed.

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2.4.3 Compare condensation and addition reactions.

Condensation reactions Addition reactions

Both involve .................................................... joining to form a long chain molecule.

No double bonds necessary

No small molecule produced

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Production of Materials 14 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

2.5 Describe the structure of cellulose and identify it as an example of a condensation polymer found as a major component of biomass.

2.5.1

(a) Describe the structure of glucose. Include a diagram in your answer.

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(b) Describe the structure of cellulose. Include a diagram in your answer.

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(c) Explain why cellulose is a condensation polymer.

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2.5.2 Cellulose is a condensation polymer found in biomass. Outline the importance of this compound.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 15 Production of Materials

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and discuss its potential as a raw material.

2.6.1 Explain why cellulose is a suitable raw material for the production of petrochemicals.

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2.6.2 Discuss the potential of cellulose as a raw material in the manufacture of petrochemicals.

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Production of Materials 16 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

2.7 Applied question.

2.7.1 Ethene is a starting point for the petrochemical industry. At the present time, ethene is produced from petroleum, however in the future it may be produced from cellulose in biomass. Compare and evaluate these two methods of ethene production.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 17 Production of Materials

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3. Other resources, such as ethanol, are readily available from renewable resources such as plants.

3.1 Describe the dehydration of ethanol to ethylene and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used.

3.1.1

(a) Write the structural formula of ethanol.

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3.1.2

(a) What is meant by a dehydration reaction?

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(c) Describe the dehydration of ethanol.

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3.1.3 Outline a reason for the use of a catalyst in the dehydration of ethanol.

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Production of Materials 18 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

3.2 Describe the addition of water to ethylene resulting in the production of ethanol and identify the need for a catalyst in this process and the catalyst used.

3.2.1

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3.2.2 Describe the addition of water to ethylene to produce ethanol.

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3.3 Process information from secondary sources such as molecular model kits, digital technologies

3.3.1 Use structural formulas to model the following reactions:

(a) dehydration of ethanol

(b) addition of water to ethylene

3.3.2 Describe how you modelled one of the following reactions:

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 19 Production of Materials

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3.4 Process information from secondary sources to summarise the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane.

3.4.1 Outline the processes involved in the industrial production of ethanol from sugar cane.

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3.4.2

organic biomass

crush and grind

hydrolyse

dilute acid,e.g. HCl

Process A

solid residue filtratemore acid

hydrolyse

Process A

sugars inacid solution

Ca(OH)2 toneutralise acid

solid residue, e.g. (CaSO4)

sugar solution

Process B yeast orbacteria

ethanol mixture carbon dioxide

Process C

ethanol by-productsand wastes

Identify the processes that occur at:

A ......................................................................................

B ......................................................................................

C ......................................................................................

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Production of Materials 20 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

substances.

3.5.1

(a) Identify the type of bonding within a molecule of ethanol.

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(b) Explain why ethanol is a polar molecule.

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(c) Identify the intermolecular forces between molecules of ethanol.

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(d) Use a diagram to show a hydrogen bond between atoms in adjacent ethanol molecules.

3.5.2 Describe and account for the many uses of ethanol as a solvent for polar and

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3.6 Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel and explain why it can be called a renewable resource.

3.6.1 Outline the use of ethanol as a fuel.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 21 Production of Materials

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3.6.2

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3.6.3 Distinguish between the terms renew, reuse and recycle.

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3.7.1

alkanols.

Name of alkanol Molecular formula Structural formula

Methanol

HO C C

H H

HHH

Propanol

C4H9OH

Pentanol

Hexanol

C7H15OH

Octanol

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Production of Materials 22 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

(b) Show the structural formulas of:

compare heats of combustion of at least three liquid alkanols per gram and per mole.

3.8.1

determine and compare heats of combustion of alkanols.

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(b) Use a labelled diagram to show the method you used.

(c) Comment on the accuracy of your results.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 23 Production of Materials

Science Press

(d) Suggest ways you could improve the accuracy of your results.

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(e) Explain one safety precaution you applied when carrying out this experiment.

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3.9.1

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3.9.2 The following table shows the heats of combustion for a number of fuels.

(a) Complete the following table by calculating the heat of combustion in kJ g–1 for each of the fuels shown.

Fuel Formula Heat of combustion (kJ/mole)

Heat of combustion (kJ/gram)

Hydrogen H2 285

Coke (carbon) C 393

Methane CH4 890

Ethane C2H6 1560

Propane C3H8 2220

Methanol CH3OH 727

Ethanol C2H5OH 1367

(b) Identify the fuel that would produce the most heat by the combustion of 1 g of fuel.

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(c) Consider which has the lower heat of combustion, ethanol or methanol. Using this information, which would be more expensive to use as a fuel?

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Production of Materials 24 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

3.9.3ethanol. They burned ethanol in a spirit burner, and used it to heat 100 mL of water, as shown in the diagram below.

container

thermometer

water

wick

fuel, e.g. ethanolin spirit burner

lid

The results they obtained were: Initial temperature of 100 mL water = 22.6°C Final temperature of 100 mL water = 35.9°C Initial mass of spirit burner + ethanol = 235.56 g Final mass of spirit burner + ethanol = 234.23 g

3 J kg–1 –1

Use these results to calculate the experimental molar heat of combustion of ethanol.

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3.10 Process information from secondary sources to summarise the use of ethanol as an alternative car fuel, evaluating the success of current usage.

3.10.1 Describe and evaluate the use of ethanol as a fuel in cars.

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3.10.2 Identify one secondary source you used to obtain this information and evaluate the validity of the information obtained from this source.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 25 Production of Materials

Science Press

3.11 Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use.

3.11.1 Assess the potential of ethanol as an alternative fuel and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of its use.

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glucose and monitor mass changes.

3.12.1 mass changes.

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Production of Materials 26 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

3.12.2

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(b) Identify a potential problem in the fermentation of glucose and outline the method you used to overcome this problem.

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(c) Explain any mass changes that occur during fermentation.

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3.13 Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted.

3.13.1 Describe conditions under which fermentation of sugars is promoted.

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3.14 Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process.

3.14.1 Summarise the chemistry of the fermentation process.

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3.15 Present information from secondary sources by writing a balanced equation for the fermentation of glucose to ethanol.

3.15.1

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 27 Production of Materials

Science Press

4. Oxidation-reduction reactions are increasingly important as a source of energy.

is produced.

4.1.1 Identify the conditions under which a galvanic cell is produced.

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4.1.2

(a) Describe a galvanic cell that you set up.

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(b) Identify any observations you made.

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in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution.

4.2.1difference in potential of different combinations of metals in an electrolyte solution.

(a) Identify two combinations of metals that you used in this investigation.

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(b) Identify the electrolytes you used.

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Production of Materials 28 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

(c) For one of the pairs of metals used, draw a labelled diagram to show how you performed the experiment.

(d) Outline one possible source of error in this investigation and describe how you could overcome this.

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(e) Outline one safety issue involved in the carrying out of this experiment and describe how you would handle this issue.

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salt bridge.

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4.3 Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons.

4.3.1 Explain the displacement of metals from solution in terms of transfer of electrons.

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4.4 Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals.

4.4.1 Identify the relationship between displacement of metal ions in solution by other metals to the relative activity of metals.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 29 Production of Materials

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4.4.2 List the following metals in order of activity from most active to least active: iron, magnesium, sodium, silver, zinc, lead, aluminium, calcium, copper.

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4.4.3

(a) A series of solutions is set up and pieces of metal are placed in each solution as shown in the table below. Complete the table to show where displacement reactions will occur.

Solution Metal added Any displacement reaction

Calcium chloride Zinc

Zinc chloride Calcium

Lead chloride Magnesium

Lead chloride Silver

(b) Which would cause the more vigorous displacement reaction, placing magnesium metal in zinc nitrate or in silver nitrate solution? Explain.

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(c) A piece of zinc is placed into a copper sulfate solution. The copper sulfate loses its blue colour, copper is deposited on the bottom of the beaker and the zinc disappears. What can you deduce about the relative reactivity of copper and zinc?

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4.5 Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons.

4.5.1 Account for changes in the oxidation state of species in terms of their loss or gain of electrons. (Hint: Show the connection between an increase or decrease in oxidation state and the processes of oxidation and reduction.)

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Production of Materials 30 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

4.5.2 State the rules for working out oxidation states/numbers.

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4.5.3 Identify the oxidation states of the following:

(a) Iron in FeSO4 ..................................................................

(b) Iron in FeCl3 ....................................................................

(c) Iron metal ..........................................................................

(d) Oxygen in CO2 ...............................................................

(e) The nitrate ion NO3– .......................................................

4 ...............................................

4.6 Describe and explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions.

4.6.1 What is meant by a galvanic cell?

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4.6.2

(a) oxidation

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(b) reduction

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(c) redox reaction

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(d) oxidant

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(e) reductant

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 31 Production of Materials

Science Press

4.6.3 Explain galvanic cells in terms of oxidation/reduction reactions.

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4.7.1 Outline the construction of galvanic cells.

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4.7.2

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(b) Add arrows to show:

(ii) the movement of ions in the salt bridge

V

salt bridge

zincanode

Cu2+(aq)

coppercathode

electrolyte,e.g. CuSO4

electrolyte,e.g. ZnSO4

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Production of Materials 32 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

4.8.1

(a) electrode

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(b) electrolyte

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(c) anode

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(d) cathode

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4.8.2

(a) Identify the purpose of galvanic cells in society today.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 33 Production of Materials

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4.9 Solve problems and analyse information to calculate the potential E requirement of named electrochemical processes using tables of standard potentials and half equations.

4.9.1

(a) What is meant by a standard reduction potential?

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4.9.2

(a) What is meant by the redox table?

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(b) Complete the following prose passage to describe the redox table.

In the redox table, forward reactions are written as ................................................................. reactions. The higher the reduction potential the more easily the species is .............................................................. .

Oxidations are shown by .................................................................. the reactions and changing the sign.

Oxidising agents are on the .................................................................. side of the table, and they increase in strength as you move .................................................................. the table.

The strongest oxidising agent is .................................................................. . Fluorine is most likely to accept .................................................................. from another species, thus causing the oxidation of that species.

Reducing agents are found on the right side of the table, the strongest reducing agent is at the .................................................................. of the table.

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Production of Materials 34 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

Potassium and barium are the strongest reducing agents, so they are the metals most likely to .................................................................. electrons to another species, thus causing that species to be .................................................................. .

A metal higher in the redox series will displace a metal .................................................................. from a solution of its ions.

All metals above hydrogen will displace ............................................................. from a solution of its ions.

A reducing agent will react with an .................................................................. agent lower in the table.

4.9.3

(a) What is the reduction potential for Fe2+ + 2e– Fe(s)? ..................................................................................

(b) Convert the following reduction reactions to oxidation reactions:

(i) Al3+ + 3e– Al(s) –1.68 V

(ii) Cu2+ + 2e– Cu(s) +0.34 V

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(c) An iron electrode is placed in a beaker of aluminium sulfate solution. Another iron electrode

is occurring.

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(d) A galvanic cell is set up containing a copper electrode in copper sulfate solution connected to a zinc electrode in zinc sulfate solution.

Calculate the E potential for this cell if standard conditions apply.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 35 Production of Materials

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4.10.1

(a) Draw a diagram of either a dry cell OR a lead acid cell and describe its chemistry.

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(b) Draw a diagram of either a button cell, fuel cell, vanadium redox cell, lithium cell OR a

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Production of Materials 36 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

4.10.2

Dry cell or lead acid cell Button cell, fuel cell, vanadium redox cell, lithium cell, OR Gratzel cell

Cost and practicality

Impact on society

Environmental impact

Dot Point HSC Chemistry 37 Production of Materials

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4.10.3

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Production of Materials 38 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

4.11 Applied question.

4.11.1 During the 19th and 20th centuries, fossil fuels were our main source of energy. However, there are problems with the use of these fuels today. It seems likely that renewable resources

century as sources of energy.

Discuss this statement.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 39 Production of Materials

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5. Nuclear chemistry provides a range of materials.

5.1 Distinguish between stable and radioactive isotopes and describe the conditions under which a nucleus is unstable.

5.1.1

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(b) Distinguish between a stable and a radioactive isotope.

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(c) Describe the conditions under which the nucleus of atoms is unstable.

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5.1.2 Complete the following table to compare alpha, beta and gamma radiation.

Alpha radiation Beta radiation Gamma radiation

Structure Particles

Consist of Electron from the nucleus

Charge +2

Ionising ability Fair

Penetration Poor (2-10 cm in air)

Deflection in electric field

Towards positive plate

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Production of Materials 40 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

5.1.3 Label the three types of radiation shown in the following diagram as alpha, beta or gamma radiation.

radioactivesource

negatively charged field

positively charged field

5.1.4

(a) Describe radioactive decay.

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5.2 Process information from secondary sources to describe recent discoveries of elements.

5.2.1 Describe recent discoveries of elements.

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5.2.2 Identify two recently discovered elements and outline their method of production.

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 41 Production of Materials

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5.3 Describe how transuranic elements are produced.

5.3.1

(a) What is meant by a transuranic element?

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5.4 Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced.

5.4.1

(a) Identify some commercial radioisotopes.

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(b) Describe how commercial radioisotopes are produced.

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Production of Materials 42 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

5.5 Identify instruments and processes that can be used to detect radiation.

5.5.1 Identify instruments that can be used to detect radiation.

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5.5.2 For two of the instruments named above, outline the processes involved.

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5.6.1

(a) Identify one use of a named radioisotope in industry.

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(b) Identify one use of a named radioisotope in medicine.

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5.7 Describe the way in which the above named industrial and medical radioisotopes are used and explain their use in terms of their chemical properties.

5.7.1

(a) industrial radioisotope

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(b) medical radioisotope

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 43 Production of Materials

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5.7.2 its properties.

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5.8.1 and medicine.

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5.8.2 and medicine.

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Production of Materials 44 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

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Dot Point HSC Chemistry 249 Answers

DOT POINTAnswers

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Answers 250 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

Dot Point HSC Chemistry 251 Production of Materials

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Production of Materials

1.1.1 Petroleum consists of crude oil and natural gas. Petroleum contains a mixture of up to 300 hydrocarbons, as well as sulfur and nitrogen compounds.

1.1.2 Various, e.g. gases; petroleum ether; gasoline (petrol); kerosene; diesel; gas oil; lubrication oil and wax; bitumen

1.1.3 (a) Process used to separate a mixture such as petroleum into its components, depending on the components having different boiling points.

(b)

fractionatingcolumn

hot crude oil

light gases

gasoline

naptha

kerosene

gas oil

lubricating oils

residue

(c)

water bath

mixture with porous pot

hotplate

fractionaldistillationcolumn

condenser

water out

water in

thermometer

1.1.4 (a) Ethene

(b)

C = C

H

H

H

H

(c) Petroleum and natural gas. In Europe and Japan, ethylene (ethene) is obtained from petroleum by fractional distillation to produce fractions, followed by the cracking of some of the fractions.

In Australia and the USA, where natural gas is more readily available, we mostly pipe natural gas directly from its source and crack the ethane, propane and butane to obtain ethylene (ethene).

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Production of Materials 252 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

1.1.5 Cracking is a process in which molecules of carbon compounds are broken down into smaller molecules with the help of heat and/or catalysts.

Examples of cracking are:

C2H6 2H4(g) + H2(g)

C8H18 2H4(g) + C2H6(g)

1.2.1 alkenes, –C=C– , share, carbon, two, electrons

1.2.2 (a) Homologous series General formula Functional group

Alkane CnH2n+2 –C–C–

Alkene CnH2n –C=C–

Alkyne CnH2n–2 –C C–

(b) (i) C2H6

(ii) C2H4

(iii) C2H2

1.2.3

1.2.4 (a) A reaction in which an atom is substituted for another already in the molecule, e.g. a hydrogen atom may be replaced

(b) Various, e.g.

-

H

H C C H + Cl2light

HCl

-

H

-- -

-

H

-

H

-

H

H C C H +

-

Cl

-- -

-

H-

H

1.2.5 (a) A double bond is broken, and other atoms, or group of atoms, are added into the molecule.

(b)

-

H

H C C H + H2

-

H

-- --

-

H

H C C H

-

H

-- -

-

H

-

H

(c)

-

H

H C C H + Cl2

-

H

-- --

-

H

H C C H

-

H

-- -

-

Cl

-

Cl

1.3.1

An alkene, such as ethene, will undergo an addition reaction, even in the dark, and the bromine water will change from Note: You must always state colour changes – from… to ...; it is not enough to say the

bromine water decolourises.)

An alkane, such as ethane, will undergo a substitution reaction with bromine water, but this reaction is very slow and only occurs in the presence of light. This reaction may take several hours, or even days, to complete.

Br2(g) + H2O(l) + –

Alkene

Alkane

-

H

H C C H + HOBr + H2O

-

H

-- -

-

H

H C C H

-

H

Br H

-- -

- -

H H

- -

light

+ Br2

-

-

-

-

-

H

H C C H

-

H

Br Br

-- -

- -

-

H

H C C H + HOBr

-

H

-- --

-

H

H C C H

-

H

Br OH

-- -

- -

ORH

H

H

HC C--

Dot Point HSC Chemistry 253 Production of Materials

Science Press

1.3.2temperature. This allows you to readily see colour changes.

wearing protective clothing including gloves and safety glasses.

These precautions are to avoid bromine water, cyclohexane and cyclohexene from coming into contact with the skin and eyes or being inhaled.

Such precautions are essential as bromine water is toxic by all routes of exposure. It is a skin irritant, vapour irritant and it is corrosive.

1.4.1 (a) A monomer is a small molecule, such as ethylene (ethene). Many monomer molecules can be joined together to form a long chain molecule called a polymer.

(b) A polymer is a large molecule consisting of a large number of identical small molecules (monomers) joined together, for example plastics, rubber, synthetic textiles, starch, cellulose, protein and DNA in our genes.

(c) Polymerisation.

1.4.2 Ethene is a small molecule. Many ethene molecules can be joined together to form a polymer such as polyethylene.

1.4.3 Monomers – b, c Polymers – a, d

1.5.1 A long chain molecule that can be formed from an addition reaction involving many molecules of one or more monomers with double bonds.

1.5.2 (a) Ethylene (ethene)

(b) ethylene polyethylene

(ethene) (polyethene)

nCH2=CH2 catalyst⎯ →⎯⎯ (–CH2–CH2–)n

(where n is a large number)

(c)

-

C

H H H H H H

H H H H H H

C

-

-- -

- -

-

C C

-

--

- -

-

C C

-

--

- -

1.6.1 Various – in your answer you should include the following points:

bottles, detergent containers, food containers and garbage bins. It can be used for these purposes as it is insoluble in water, inert, lightweight (low density), tough and strong.

their contents; and light for ease of transport.

wide range of commercial uses.

1.6.2 Initiation – A chemical called an initiator starts (initiates) the reaction by opening the double bond of an ethylene (ethene) monomer. This forms an ethylene (ethene) free radical.

Propagation – The monomers join, to form a chain.

Termination – When free radical ethylene (ethene) chains combine, a complete polyethylene (polyethene) molecule is formed and the process stops (it is terminated).

1.6.3 (a) A species with an unpaired outer shell electron.

(b) A free radical is very reactive because of the presence of an unpaired outer shell electron. Free radical ethene molecules readily join together.

1.6.4

(b) Affects the rate of reaction and allows the process to be carried out at a lower temperature and pressure.

physical properties such as density and stability to heat.

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Production of Materials 254 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

1.6.5

initiationbreaksdoublebonds

monomers ethene free radicalspropagation– monomers

join

long chain molecules termination complete polymer

1.6.6 Factors – Various, e.g. molecular weight, density, type and amount of additives and purity of the product.

properties and so they will continue to purchase the product.

1.6.7 The reaction is exothermic, so heat is constantly being released. This heat may make the polymer decompose as it is formed, decreasing the yield.

1.7.1 Various, e.g. you might have made models of ethene molecules, then broken the double bonds and joined them together.

1.8.1 Common name of monomer Systematic name of monomer Formula of monomer Name of polymer

Vinyl chloride Chloroethene

C = CH

H

H

Cl

Polyvinylchloride (PVC)

Styrene(Vinyl benzene)

EthenylbenzeneC = C

H

H

H

C6H5

Polystyrene

1.9.1Name of polymer Structure of polymer Uses – Various, e.g.

Polyvinylchloride (PVC)

C C

H

H

H

Cl n

Containers, blister packaging, vegetable oil bottles, electrical insulation, pipes and hoses, vinyl flooring, records, outdoor furniture, videos and credit cards

Polystyrene

C C

H

H

H

C6H5 n

Fruit boxes, clothes hangers, packing foam, foam egg cartons, meat trays, compact disc and audiocassette cases, plastic cutlery, toys, surfboards and hot drink cups

1.9.2 Name of polymer

Use Property that determines this use

PVC Flooring and carpet backing Soft and pliable Low static electricity Fire and water resistant

PVC Sheets for roofs and skylights

Rigid and strong Will not dissolve in water or let water through

Polyethylene Natural gas pipes Coating steel pipes

Strong, insoluble in water High resistance to chemical corrosion

Polyethylene Plastic bags and food containers

High tensile strength Transparent or translucent Soft and flexible Insoluble in water Low reactivity with food Low density

Polyethylene Sheathing for wire cables used for phone and TV

Electrical insulator Flexible Insoluble in water

Polystyrene Disposable foam cups Relatively cheap Low density and keep their shape Heat insulator Not chemically active

Polystyrene Surfboards Cheap Low density Rigid Not chemically active

Dot Point HSC Chemistry 255 Production of Materials

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1.9.3 Various. In your answer you should include the following:

and polyvinyl chloride.

production process – initiation, polymerisation and termination.

people, e.g.

Plastic cups are cheaper, less dense and safer than those made of glass. If they break, they are less likely to cause damage especially to children. The use of plastic containers also helps to conserve beach sand as this is used in glass production. If they are made from a polymer which can be recycled, then they are also environmentally friendly. Early plastics could not be recycled which caused problems with their disposal and led to accumulation of wastes.

The development of polymers has also led to the production of cheap, disposable articles suitable for medical uses, e.g. tubing and syringes. The use of these can greatly decrease the spread of infection among society, but has increased the problems of waste disposal. Recently, the development of biodegradable polymers has helped to decrease the problem of waste disposal.

producing these chemicals, e.g.

Vinyl chloride is the monomer used to manufacture PVC. This chemical irritates the eyes, skin and respiratory tract, causes liver damage and may be carcinogenic. It is highly toxic to marine life. Workers in industries using vinyl

for leaks so as to avoid contamination of air or water. Some workers were affected adversely before the dangers of using these chemicals were realised.

impact, e.g. has it had a slight impact or a huge impact on society and has it had a slight impact or a huge impact on the environment.

2.1.1 Industries that produce or use compounds which come from petroleum, e.g. production and use of fossil fuels, production of polymers, lubricating oils.

2.1.2 Various, e.g. petrol, aviation fuel, diesel, candle wax, road tar, ethene, polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, kerosene, lubricating oils, synthetic fabrics.

2.1.3 Various, e.g. in your answer you should include the following:

run out within the next 100 years, some much sooner.

fuels and petroleum.

2.2.1

gluten.

Science Press

Production of Materials 256 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

2.2.2 (a) Various, e.g. Biopol®

(b) Biopol®

CH

HO OH

CH3

C

=O

CH2

CH

HO OH

C

CH2

CH2

CH3

=O

(d) They occur naturally in bacteria such as Azobacter and Pseudomonas.

2.2.3 (a) Bacteria, e.g. Alcaligenes eutrophus.

(b) The polymer is presently produced industrially by bacteria (especially Alcaligenes eutrophus) growing in tanks with a

E. coli, can be used to produce PHA. The advantages are faster growth, better yields, easier recovery and the production of less extra waste biomass. Also cheaper substrates can be used to grow the bacteria, e.g. whey, molasses and agricultural wastes.

than storing starch.

Although these biopolymers are at present more expensive to produce than conventional plastics, they have the advantage of being biodegradable, thus allowing better waste management, and of being made from renewable crops rather than fossil fuels. The use of transgenic plants is expected to lower costs so this polymer becomes price

(c) Various, e.g. a carrier for slow release of insecticides, herbicides or fertilisers; disposable containers for shampoo and cosmetics, and disposable items such as razors, rubbish bags, disposable nappies, fast food utensils and plastic plates.

(d) Similar to those of polypropylene, e.g. insoluble in water, permeable to oxygen, resistant to UV light, acids and bases, soluble in chlorinated hydrocarbons, high melting point, high tensile strength and more dense than water. It is also

(e) Various, e.g. medical applications such as the production of surgical pins and sutures.

and no surgery is needed to remove them) and it is biocompatible (the body does not react to this polymer or reject it as a foreign object).

(f) Uses of Biopol® are varied, and more are continually being found. As it is biodegradable and biocompatible, it is increasingly used for medical applications and the production of items which previously presented a disposal problem. For medical applications, where biodegradability and biocompatability are important properties, there is often no

2.3.1 A long chain compound formed when monomer molecules join together, forming a polymer, and releasing a small molecule such as water. Examples are cellulose, nylon, polyester, cotton, cellophane, dacron.

2.4.1 Various, e.g. CH2OH

HO

O

OH

OH

CH2OH O

OH

OH

CH2OH

O

OH

OH

CH2OH O

OH

OH OH HO

+ OH HO

+ OH HO

+ OH

+ etc

CH2OH

O

O

OH

OH O

CH2OH O

OH

OH O

CH2OH

O

OH

OH O

CH2OH O

OH

OH

O

+ 3H2O

section of a cellulose molecule

2.4.2 Small monomer molecules each release one or more atoms and the molecules join at that point. The released atoms combine to form a new compound. For example, in the formation of cellulose, an H and an OH, released from adjoining monomers, combine to form a molecule of water.

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2.4.3 Condensation reactions Addition reactions

Both involve monomers joining to form a long chain molecule.

No double bonds necessary. Monomer has double bond which breaks during polymerisation.

Polymer forms and also another small molecule. No small molecule produced.

2.5.1 6H12O6) is a ring structure. Five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom form the ring and OH and H groups protrude above and below the ring. It also has a CH2 group out of the ring. In solution the ring can open, forming a straight chain structure.

6 CH2OH

HO

OHO

HH

OH

OH

H

H4

5

1

glucose ring

1 CHO2 CHOH3 CHOH4 CHOH5 CHOH6 CH2OH

Open chain structure

6 CH2OH

HO

HO

OHH

OH

OH

H

H4

5

1

glucose ring

H H

(b) Cellulose is a very long polymer containing about 2000 to 8000 glucose molecules in long chains. These glucose molecules are strongly linked together by covalent bonds. Hydrogen bonding between the chains makes cellulose chains linear, rigid, strong and resistant to chemical attack.

CH2OH

O

O

OH

OH

CH2OHO

OH

OH

CH2OHO

OH

OHO

CH2OHO

OH

OH

O

Section of a cellulose molecule

OO

2.5.2 Cellulose is a polymer of the sugar glucose. It makes up the cell walls of plants and is the most abundant carbohydrate on Earth. Cellulose is the main component of biomass and thus is a potentially important raw material for the production of synthetic polymers.

2.6.1Also, being a major component of biomass, cellulose is a readily available renewable raw material for the production of petrochemicals.

2.6.2 Your answer should include the following points:

of the world.

of, so using them to make substances such as polymers is desirable.

amounts and can be converted to petrochemicals thus reducing our reliance on petroleum. This is important as petroleum supplies are running out.

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2.7.1 Various. Your answer should include the following:

Describe the production of ethene by the fractional distillation of petroleum and then the cracking of fractions.

Include equations for cracking, e.g. C H (l)16 34 catalyst

heaat

heat

⎯ →⎯⎯

⎯ →⎯⎯

C H (l) + C H (l)

and C H (l) C

8 16 8 18

8 16 catalyst

22 4 6 12H (g) + C H (l)

Describe the composition of cellulose as consisting of chains of glucose monomers. Include formulas.

Describe the manufacture of ethene by:

Include equations, e.g. C H O (aq) 2C H OH6 12 6 2 5yeast

enzymes⎯ →⎯⎯ ((aq) + 2CO (g)

C H OH(aq) C H (g) + H O(g)

2

2 5 2 4 2conc.

H SO2 4⎯ →⎯⎯

Explain that cellulose is a renewable resource which is obtained from plant cell walls. If crops are used to manufacture ethanol then it could be argued that these would be better used to feed people. However, it is also abundant in waste biomass, the plant

its supplies will eventually run out.

Explain that at the present time it is more cost effective to produce ethene from petroleum, however, as petroleum supplies are reduced this will become more expensive. The cost of producing ethanol is relatively high at the present time as the

will become less expensive.

Make a value judgement, e.g.

At present, the preferred method of manufacturing ethene is from petroleum. However, as the cost of its manufacture from cellulose decreases this will become a viable alternative.

3.1.1 (a)

-

H

H C C OH

-

H

-- -

-

H

-

H

2H5

formula CnH2n+1.

3.1.2 (a) A reaction in which a molecule of water is released as one product.

(b)

H C C OH

-

H

- - -

-

H

- - C = CHH

HH

H2SO4

180oC

conc.

+ H2O

(c) A molecule of water is removed (dehydration). A hydrogen atom and an OH group are removed from adjacent carbon atoms to form a water molecule. To do this the ethanol is heated to between 100 and 200°C with concentrated sulfuric acid used as a catalyst.

3.1.3 The catalyst, concentrated sulfuric acid, speeds up the reaction.

3.2.1 C2H4(g) + H2O(l) C2H5OH(l)

3.2.2 Water is added to ethylene (ethene), using dilute sulfuric acid as a catalyst.

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3.3.1 (a) dehydration of ethanol

-

H

H C C OHH2SO4

180°C

conc.

-

H

-- -

-

H

-

H

+C = CH

H

H

HO

H H

(b) addition of water to ethylene (ethene)

-

Hdiluteacid

H C C OH

-

H

-- -

-

H

-

H

+C = CH

H

H

HO

H H

3.3.2 Various, e.g. computer simulations or using a molecular model kit. Describe how you did this.

3.4.1 Ethanol can be produced by fermenting sugar in soluble forms such as sucrose and molasses from sugar cane, and fructose

The sugars are fermented by enzymes produced by fungi such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

xylose, a sugar that cannot be fermented by fungi. To overcome this problem, genetically engineered E. coli bacteria are now being used instead of fungi as they can ferment both glucose and xylose.

After fermentation the ethanol must be separated from the reaction mixture by distillation.

3.4.2 A – Filtering, B – Fermentation, C – Distillation.

3.5.1 (a) Covalent bonds.

(b) Covalent bonds within the molecule are polar and do not balance each other out. Oxygen is more electronegative than carbon or hydrogen atoms, so a dipole forms.

(d)

- - -

H C C OH

-

H

- - -

-

H

-

H-

H

HO C C H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

= hydrogen bond

3.5.2many industrial processes, e.g. the production of perfumes, varnishes, adhesives and plastics. Ethanol is polar, so it is able to

Ethanol is very useful in dissolving substances that are not soluble in water and hence allowing these substances to become

3.6.1 Ethanol readily undergoes relatively complete combustion, in air or oxygen, releasing 1367 kJ of energy per mole of ethanol burned.

C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

to avoid engine damage.

3.6.2 Ethanol is a renewable resource because it is mainly produced by the fermentation of plant matter, such as the residues from the production of corn and sugar cane. More crops can be grown to make more ethanol and replace that which is used.

3.6.3 Renew – able to grow more and replace that which was used.

Reuse and recycle – use a substance again, e.g. melt down aluminium cans and recast them to use again. Note that you cannot reuse or recycle a fuel.

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3.7.1 (a)

Name Molecular formula Structural formula

Methanol CH3OH

H C OH

-

H- -

-

H

Ethanol C2H5OH

H C C OH

-

H- - -

-

H

-

H

-

H

Propanol C3H7OH

H C C C OH

-

H- - - -

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

Butanol C4H9OH

H C C C C OH -

H- - - -

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

-

H

-

H

Pentanol C5H11OH

H C C C C C OH

-

H- - - -

-

H-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H- -

-

H

-

H

Hexanol C6H13OH

H C C C C C C OH - - - - - -

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H-

H

-

H

-

-

H

-

H

Heptanol C7H15OH

H C C C C C C C OH - - - - - - - -

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

Octanol C8H17OH

H C C C C C C C C OH - - - - - - - - -

-

H

-

H-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

-

H

H C C

-

H

-- -

-

H

-

H

-

OH

C C

-

H

--

-

H

-

H

-

H

C C H

-

H

--

-

H

-

H

-

H

H C--

-

H

-

OH

C--

H

C H

-

H

-

-

H

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3.8.1

(b) Various, e.g.

container

thermometer

water

wick

fuel, e.g. ethanolin spirit burner

(c) This experimental design provides extremely inaccurate results due to the large loss of heat to the environment hence it is not suitable for measuring the actual heat of combustion. However, it can be used to compare heats of combustion of different alkanols as they will all have the same order of inaccuracy as long as they are measured in exactly the same way.

accident occurs. Check the school safety package for instructions regarding each of the alkanols you used and describe

3.9.1 Molar heat of combustion is the heat energy, in joules or kilojoules, released by the combustion of 1 mole of a fuel.

3.9.2 (a) Fuel Formula Heat of combustion

(kJ/mole)Heat of combustion

(kJ/gram)

Hydrogen H2 285 142.5

Coke (carbon) C 393 32.8

Methane CH4 890 55.6

Ethane C2H6 1560 51.9

Propane C3H8 2220 50.5

Methanol CH3OH 727 22.7

Ethanol C2H5OH 1367 29.7

(b) Hydrogen

(c) Methanol has the lower heat of combustion. Therefore methanol releases less energy per gram burnt than ethanol. Thus methanol would be more expensive to use as a fuel.

3.9.3 193 kJ mol–1

3.10.1 Various, e.g.

Ethanol is mainly used, mixed with petrol, as a fuel to supplement petrol supplies.

Brazil and the United States use ethanol as a supplement to reduce the purchase of foreign oil supplies and to reduce pollution levels.

Sugar cane and wheat have been fermented in Australia to produce ethanol. However, in Australia there is increasing acceptance of ethanol/petrol blends, e.g. E10.

The large scale production of ethanol is generally considered an uneconomic proposition, mainly because of the huge cost

the use of ethanol as a supplement to petrol more attractive. It would be expected that, in the future, as the price of petrol increases, ethanol/petrol blends will be more widely valued and used in Australia.

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3.10.2 Various, e.g. you may have used information from websites set up by the government, a petrol company, an ethanol manufacturer or an organisation such as the NRMA.

To assess the validity of this source of information, you would need to consider how reputable it is, e.g. is it a government source or an established university. If the source is an environmental organisation or a petrol company or a company manufacturing ethanol, then the information needs to be viewed as possibly biased. A range of different sources is essential to compare the information obtained. The internet site should provide evidence for the reader to evaluate.

3.11.1

you say ethanol has huge potential as a fuel, you must have described more advantages than disadvantages. Consider: Does ethanol have huge potential or little potential? Can it be used alone or only as an extender?

Advantages of using ethanol:

Statement Description Explanation

Ethanol is produced from a renewable source (unlike fossil fuels).

Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of biomass whereas other fuels are produced from petroleum.

Ethanol is produced by fermenting biomass – this comes from plants which are renewable as they can be grown to replace the ones used.

Fermentation is by fungi such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and genetically engineered E. coli bacteria.

Ethanol burns more completely/cleanly than fossil fuels.

C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g) 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g)

Toxic carbon monoxide is reduced by 25-30%.

Little or no carbon is produced so less is deposited in the car and spark plugs last longer.

The oxygen in the ethanol molecule ensures that less oxygen is needed to allow complete combustion of the fuel.

Ethanol is an excellent solvent, dissolving deposits built up in the engine.

Carbon dioxide neutral Net CO2 stays constant. The amount of CO2 used to produce crops for ethanol production = CO2 produced when ethanol burns.

Carbon dioxide is produced when ethanol burns.

CO2 used in photosynthesis to make crops that will later be converted to ethanol.

2CO2(g) + 3H2O(g) C2H5OH(l) + 3O2(g)

10% ethanol can be safely added to petrol.

Ethanol acts as a petrol extender without damage to engines.

No engine modification needed if only 10% added. Makes petrol supplies last longer.

Disadvantages of using ethanol:

Statement Description Explanation

Ethanol has a lower heat of combustion (29.7 kJ g–1) than petrol (47.9 kJ g–1).

Combustion of ethanol produces less energy than combustion of same amount of octane.

Car can travel further with the same amount of octane than ethanol thus ethanol is more expensive.

Existing car engines need to be modified if > 10% ethanol used in fuel.

It is difficult to remove all water during distillation of fermented biomass.

Water causes corrosion of engines and fuel lines.

Large areas of land needed. Land is needed to grow crops to make ethanol. This is a problem because land is also needed to grow food crops and removal of forests is not acceptable on ecological grounds.

(Note: Ethanol can now be produced from waste left over from food crops which removes this objection and means that it could be listed as an advantage – it gets rid of wastes from crops such as sugar cane without having to burn off.)

Lots of energy is used in production of ethanol.

Ethanol has to be distilled from the fermentation mix.

This is a problem because distillation is energy intensive – energy is obtained by burning fossil fuels and also costs are high, making ethanol expensive.

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3.12.1 Various. Your answer should include a description of:

3.12.2 (a) C6H12O6fermentation by yeast⎯ →⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

2C2H5 2(g)

(b) Various, e.g.

so alcohol must be removed as it forms.

(c) Mass of reacting vessel and contents decreases as carbon dioxide gas is produced and this escapes from the container.

3.13.1 Maintain at a temperature of 37°before starting. Also to produce ethanol, respiration needs to be anaerobic so oxygen needs to be excluded as far as possible, e.g. you may have boiled the water before starting to reduce the dissolved oxygen content.

3.14.1 Yeast cells (a fungus) grow in the sugar solution and produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as products under anaerobic °C.

C6H12O6fermentation by yeast⎯ →⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

2C2H5 2(g)

3.15.1 C6H12O6fermentation by yeast⎯ →⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯

2C2H5 2(g)

4.1.1

the other but does not react with any ions in the solutions.

4.1.2 (a) Various, e.g.

We took two beakers.

In one we put a solution of zinc sulfate with a strip of zinc (zinc electrode) in it.

In the other we put a copper sulfate solution and a strip of copper (copper electrode).

We connected the two electrodes to a wire and voltmeter.

(b) Various, e.g. A voltage was observed on the voltmeter.

If the salt bridge was not used, or if it was not in both solutions, there was no voltage (as the circuit is not complete).

Mention if gas is produced, an electrode wore away or a substance was deposited on an electrode.

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4.2.1 (a) Various, e.g. magnesium and copper or copper and iron.

(b) Various, e.g. for Mg and Cu you might have used magnesium sulfate for the Mg electrode and CuSO4 for the Cu electrode.

(c) Various, e.g.

V

copperelectrode

salt bridge

magnesiumelectrode

MgSO4 solution CuSO4 solution

e– e–

(d) Various, e.g. salt bridge could dry out – keep it moist.

Make sure salt bridge is immersed in both solutions.

(e) Various, e.g. spilling or splashing of chemicals – describe their toxicity if relevant.

Wear safety goggles and protective clothing to protect the eyes and skin from splashes of chemicals. Wash hands thoroughly after using chemicals.

nitrate, with one end dipping into each electrolyte. Positive ions (cations) move to the cathode and negative ions (anions) move to the anode.

4.3.1 Active metals will displace less active metal ions from solution; for example, zinc metal will displace copper ions from solution of copper sulfate.

Zinc releases electrons from its outer shell, forming zinc ions and going into solution.

The electrons are accepted by the copper ions (in solution) so they become solid copper atoms.

Zn (s) Zn2+ + 2e–

Cu2+ + 2e– Cu(s)

Cu2+ Zn2+

4.4.1 Active metals displace less active metals from solution. The greater the difference in activity between the two metals, the more vigorous the displacement reaction.

4.4.2 Most active Least active

Na Ca Mg Al Zn Fe Pb Cu Ag

4.4.3 (a)Solution Metal added Any displacement reaction

Calcium chloride Zinc No reaction

Zinc chloride Calcium Calcium goes into solution, zinc is deposited

Lead chloride Magnesium Magnesium goes into solution, lead is deposited

Lead chloride Silver No reaction

(b) Magnesium in silver nitrate. There is a greater difference in activity between magnesium and silver than between magnesium and zinc.

(c) Zinc must be more active than copper because the zinc has displaced the copper from solution.

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4.5.1 An increase in oxidation state occurs during oxidation.

Oxidation is the loss of electrons. For example:

Zn(s) Zn2+ – Oxidation state of zinc changes from 0 to 2; it increases.

2I– I2– Oxidation state of iodine changes from –1 to 0; it increases.

A decrease in oxidation state occcurs during reduction.

Reduction is the gain of electrons. For example:

Ag+ – Ag(s) Oxidation state of silver changes from +1 to 0; it decreases.

Cl2(g) + 2e– 2Cl–

4.5.2 2 = 0).+ = +1, S2– = –2).

2S) and –1 when combined with metals (e.g. in NaH).

compound the sum is 0.

4.5.3 (a) +2

(b) +3

(c) 0

(d) –2

(e) –1

(f) +7

4.6.1

4.6.2 (a) reaction that involves the loss of electrons

(b) reaction that involves the gain of electrons

(c) electron transfer reaction involving oxidation and reduction

(d) a substance that causes oxidation and is itself reduced

(e) a substance that causes reduction and is itself oxidised

4.6.3reduction reaction occurs. Oxidation occurs at the anode, releasing electrons. Reduction occurs at the cathode which gains electrons. A wire connects the two electrodes so that electrons can transfer from the anode to the cathode.

4.7.1

A salt bridge, saturated with potassium nitrate, is set up so that it dips into both electrolytes.

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4.7.2

(b)

V

salt bridge

zincanode

negative ions

positiveions

coppercathodeelectrons

electrolyte,e.g. CuSO4

electrolyte,e.g. ZnSO4

Oxidation

Zn Zn2+ +2e–

Zn is a reductant

ReductionCu2+ +2e– CuCu2+ is an oxidant

4.8.1 (a) A device which carries electric current into and out of a cell.

(b) An electrolyte is a chemical that conducts electric current.

(c) The electrode where oxidation occurs.

(d) The electrode where reduction takes place.

4.8.2 (a) To produce an electric current.

(b) Release of electrons occurs during oxidation at the anode. These have to travel to the cathode. By having the anode

4.9.1 (a) Standard reduction potential is a measure of the relative tendency of a substance to gain one or more electrons

These are measured under standard conditions of 25°C, 1 atmosphere pressure and using a 1 mol/L electrolyte solution. The larger the E value, the greater the oxidising power of a substance.

inertmetale.g. Pt

H2 gas

1 mol L–1[H+]

(c) Voltmeter

4.9.2 (a) The redox table is a list of standard reduction potentials (E ). A copy of this table can be found at the back of this book.

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4.9.3 (a) –0.44 volts

(b) (i) Al(s) Al3+ + 3e– +1.68 V

(ii) Cu(s) Cu2+ + 2e– –0.34 V

(c) There is no reaction with iron in a solution of aluminium ions.

For the iron in copper sulfate solution, the reaction is as follows:

Cu2+ + 2e– Cu(s) +0.34 V

Fe(s) Fe2+ + 2e– +0.44 V

Cu2+ + Fe(s) Fe2+ + Cu(s) +0.78 V E = 0.78 volts

(d) Cu2+ + 2e– Cu(s) +0.34 V

Zn(s) Zn2+ + 2e– +0.76 V

Cu2+ + Zn(s) Zn2+ + Cu(s) +1.10 V E = 1.10 volts

4.10.1 (a) Various, e.g.

Diagram of lead acid cell:

H SO and water

2 4 e–

e–

Pb anodes

PbO cathodes 2

Chemistry of lead acid cell:

Anode: lead plates

Pb Pb2+ + 2e–

Cathode: lead(IV) oxide

PbO2 + 4H+ + 2e– Pb2+ + 2H2O

Pb ions combine with sulfate ions and form lead sulfate.

Electrolyte: 6 mol L–1 sulfuric acid

(b) Various, e.g.

Diagram of lithium cell:

Electrolyte Lithium Anode contact

+

-

Positive electrode (mixtureused varies with type)

Separator Cathode contact/case

Seal

Chemistry of lithium cell:

Anode: lithium

Li Li+ + e–

Cathode: carbon

Reaction involves silver chromate or iodine, e.g.

I2 + 2e– 2I–

Electrolyte: lithium iodide

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4.10.2Lead acid cell Lithium cell

Cost and Practicality Expensive, but long lasting.Used as car batteries. Practical for this purpose as they do not need to be portable.They can be recharged. The reactions above are reversed by the car generator forcing current back into the battery.They work in a wide range of temperatures.

Expensive compared to other batteries. Used in cardiac pacemakers, cellular phones, watches , computers and cameras.Practical for these uses as they are long-lasting, rechargeable and high voltage.Lithium batteries are very light and deliver more power (about 3 V) than dry cell and alkaline batteries (1.5 V).

Impact on society Their development meant that cars could be started much more easily and reliably – they did not have to be cranked. They improved the capability of people to move around and travel long distances.

The development of these long-lasting, rechargeable, very light batteries that produce a constant, relatively high voltage has led to the development of medical applications such as cardiac pacemakers which have saved lives. Their small size and portability have allowed the development of smaller electronic devices such as cameras, watches and phones. These have improved our ability to communicate over distance.

Environmental impact

Contains concentrated sulfuric acid (about 6 mol L–1) which must be disposed of safely as it is highly corrosive.Also lead is a toxic heavy metal so must be disposed of carefully.

Lithium must be transported and disposed of safely to avoid environmental damage.

4.10.3 Various, e.g. a dry cell versus a button cell:

Dry cells

Also, if used continuously, ammonia may be produced and cause the cell to burst.

The button cell provides a more constant voltage for a longer period of time. These advantages have made possible the development of small watches, hearing aids, microphones and calculators. The reduction in size of these appliances has made them more portable and made them available to a greater percentage of the population. Hearing aids, which were previously bulky and obvious are now smaller and more convenient.

At present the button cell is more expensive than the dry cell however, and it usually contains the heavy metal silver so must be disposed of carefully to prevent environmental damage. Heavy metals such as silver are toxic and they can bioaccumulate.

Overall, the button cell is superior, its small size and constant voltage making possible the developments of small electronic devices that would not otherwise be possible. Its cost limits its use slightly, however, with time and mass production, this should decrease.

4.11.1 Various. In your answer you should include the following:

Outline the fossil fuels used in the 19th and 20th centuries to obtain energy – include coal and petroleum (oil and gas).

Discuss the problems associated with the use of fossil fuels including the production of pollutants and their effects, the greenhouse effect (CO2

Explain that supplies of these fuels are running out and they are not renewable.

such sources as wind power and solar energy.

Sum up your ideas – is it likely that renewable resources will replace fossil fuels during this century?

5.1.1 (a) Isotopes are forms of an element with different numbers of neutrons in the atom and thus different atomic masses. They have the same number of protons, and the same atomic number, as they are the same element. But their mass numbers differ.

(b) A stable isotope does not normally disintegrate.

An unstable isotope is said to be radioactive. It continuously emits alpha, beta and/or gamma radiation from its nucleus.

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(c) The stability of isotopes is determined by the number of particles in the nucleus and also by the ratio of neutrons to protons. For light elements, the stable neutron to proton ratio is approximately 1:1. For heavy elements the stable neutron to proton ratio is approximately 1.5:1.

5.1.2Alpha radiation Beta radiation Gamma radiation

Structure Particles Particles Electromagnetic radiation

Consist of 2 protons and 2 neutrons (same as a helium nucleus)

Electron from the nucleus High frequency radiation

Charge +2 –1 Nil

Ionising ability Good Fair Poor

Penetration Poor (2–10 cm in air) Fair (5 m in air, 2 mm in aluminium) Very good (several cm of lead)

Deflection in electric field Towards negative plate Towards positive plate Nil

5.1.3 alpha radiation

gamma rays

beta radiation

5.1.4 (a) Radioactive atoms decay at random. The nucleus emits particles and/or energy in order to attain a stable structure.

nuclear, not a chemical, reaction.

5.2.1

the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki.

elements that only exist for a fraction of a second.

5.2.2 Various, e.g.

95243

2048

115287 1

95243

2048

11528

Am + Ca Uup + 4 n

Am + Ca 88 1Uup + 3 n

Element 108 – hassium – isolated a few atoms by a nuclear reaction involving the fusion of isotopes of bismuth and iron. Hassium is radioactive and decays very rapidly.

208Bi + 58Fe 265Hs + 1n

Element 109 – meiterium – isolated a few atoms by the fusion of isotopes of lead and iron. Meiterium is radioactive and decays very rapidly.

208Pb + 58Fe 266Mt + 1n

5.3.1 (a) An element heavier than uranium, e.g. neptunium, americium.

(b) Synthesised in a nuclear reactor or an accelerator.

During the past 20 years, transuranic elements have been created in nuclear reactors and by accelerator laboratories in

they are radioactive and spontaneously decay.

Nuclear reactors bombard targets with neutrons produced by uranium decay. For example neptunium and americium are produced in this way.

Accelerators bombard target atoms with positive particles such as protons or nuclei of atoms such as helium or iron. For example, meiterium and hassium were produced in this way.

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(c) Various, e.g.

In accelerators, e.g.:

Hassium produced by bombarding lead with iron.

208Pb + 58Fe 265Hs + 1n

In nuclear reactors:

92238

01

93239

10U + n Np + e→ −

Americium – obtained by neutron bombardment of plutonium.

94239

10Pu + 2 n Am + e0

195

241→ −

5.4.1

(Note: You must be able to state name and mass number.)

(b) Commercial radioisotopes are produced by accelerators and nuclear reactors.

An accelerator is a machine that allows particles (e.g. protons, helium nuclei or other nuclei) to be accelerated to high

Cyclotrons are accelerators.

A nuclear reactor is a device that allows a uranium chain reaction to occur safely, releasing neutrons at a slow and controlled rate. A target is bombarded with neutrons to produce a radioactive species with extra neutrons in the

5.5.1

5.5.2 Various, e.g.

This consists of a sealed glass tube with a thin mica window at one end. The gas inside the tube, often argon, is ionised by

device is most effective in detecting beta particles; it can also detect alpha particles if the source is within 2 cm of the window.

Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD)

A TLD measures the amount of gamma radiation received over a period of time. It consists of a badge that contains crystals of an inorganic salt that absorbs the radiation.

When these chemicals are heated, the energy they have gained from radiation is released as light. The intensity of the light emitted on heating gives a measure of the radiation the person wearing the badge has received.

5.6.1

5.7.195

24193

23724Am Np + He

When no smoke is present, the alpha particles ionise nitrogen and oxygen in the air in the detector.

When smoke is present, the smoke absorbs the alpha particles emitted, so the rate of ionisation drops and this sets off the alarm.

cancerous growths. It can be attached to a range of biological carriers and thus can concentrate in a number of different types of tissues and organs.

Dot Point HSC Chemistry 271 Production of Materials

Science Press

5.7.2

exposure to radiation.

and organs.

5.8.1 Various, e.g.

checking the interior of solid objects for wear and cracks, analysis for forensic science and determining when containers are full.

5.8.2 One problem associated with the use of radioisotopes in industries and medicine is their effects on living cells.

Because of these harmful effects, the use of radioactive isotopes must be carefully monitored.

Another problem is with security during transport and storage of radioactive substances and wastes.

Waste disposal is also a problem. At present radioactive wastes are stored pending agreement on safe disposal.

Science Press

Production of Materials 272 Dot Point HSC Chemistry

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