how to write an academic paper dr. verónica donoso [email protected]
TRANSCRIPT
How to write an academic paper
Dr. Verónica [email protected]
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Organisation
What is academic writing?
Common stylistic problems
Academic genres
Writing an academic paper
Avoiding common mistakes
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The writing challenge 1
Writing can sometimes be difficult and even frustrating…
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The writing challenge 2
But it can also be rewarding
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Common stylistic problems
Non-native language often sounds translated, not natural
Choppy and disconnected writing style
Sentences are needlessly wordy
Too informal or too direct style
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Non-native mistakes
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We don’t want to write like Tarzan, do we?
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To avoid writing like Tarzan…
Non-native language often sounds translated (not natural): Improve WORD CHOICE
Choppy and disconnected writing style: improve the FLOW
Sentences are needlessly wordy: write CLEARLY and CONCISELY
Too informal or too direct style: Improve the TONE
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What is (“non- Tarzan”) academic writing?
Writing done by scholars for other scholars
Topics and questions of interest to the academic community
What your write must be useful = help your reader to better understand your topic
Present an informed argument = what you know is not what you think about a subject
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Getting started
What do I need to know about my topic?
Try to answer the questions who, what, when, where, why, how?
What do I know about the context of my topic?
What (historical, cultural, etc.) influences might be important to my topic?
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Academic writing
Different academic genres ranging from abstracts to acknowledgements
Our main focus = the research article
Specific structure = abstract, introduction, methods…
Rules= conference proceedings, short-paper, peer- reviewed paper, etc.
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Writing an Academic paper
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Important aspects of an Academic paper
The thesis sentence The paragragh Abstract Introduction Literature review Methods section Results section Discussion section References
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The thesis sentence
Thesis sentence = asserts, controls, and structures the entire argument
Thesis sentence= strong, persuasive, thoughtful to avoid unfocused, weak paper
A good thesis makes a claim = develops an interesting perspective that you can support and defend (+ than a mere observation)
e.g. observation: "Americans are violent”e.g. perspective/position: “Americans are violent because
they are fearful"
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A good thesis sentence...
controls the entire argument and provides it with a structure
determines what to say + what not to say
signals to the reader what your argument is + how your argument will be presented
Every paragraph in your paper must support your thesis
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Tips for good thesis statements (by Erin karper, 2008)
specific = should cover only what you will discuss in your paper
should be supported with specific evidence
usually appears at the end of the first paragraph of a paper
revise your thesis statement to reflect exactly what you have discussed in your paper
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Example of an expository (explanatory) thesis statement
“The life of the typical college student is characterized by time spent studying, attending class, and socializing with peers.”
The paper that follows should:explain how students spend their time
studying, attending class, and socializing with peers
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Example of an argumentative thesis statement
“High school graduates should be required to take a year off to pursue community service projects before entering college in order to increase their maturity and global awareness.”
The paper that follows should:present an argument and give evidence to
support the claim that students should pursue community projects before entering college
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The writing unit = a paragraph
A paragraph = single "unit" of a paper
Declares a point and offers support for that point
A good paragraph is:
Supportive = supports the thesis
Strong = develops its main idea using sufficient + relevant evidence
Considerate = shows up when + where it's supposed to, makes sense within the text as a whole
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Did you write a good paragraph?
Do I have enough evidence to support this paragraph's idea?
Do I have too much evidence or too many details?
Am I repeating myself in this paragraph?
Can I say, in a nutshell, what the purpose of this paragraph is?
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Some useful writing tips
Move from old to new = readers move from the familiar to the unknown, new information is more important than the old
Use repetition to create a sense of unity BUT don’t be redundant
Use key words and phrases to add coherence
Use transition markers wisely (e.g. to announce some turn in your argument, to emphasize one of your points, etc.)
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Useful Transition Markers
Time - after, before, currently, during, earlier, later,
Example - for example, for instance,
Addition - additionally, also, furthermore, moreover, equally important,
Similarity - also, likewise, in the same way, similarly,
Exception - but, however, nevertheless, on the other hand, on the contrary, yet,
Sequence - first, second, third, next, then,
Emphasize - indeed, in fact, of course,
Cause and effect - accordingly, consequently, therefore, thus,
Conclude or repeat - finally, in conclusion, on the whole, in the end,
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Structure of an Academic paper
Abstract IntroductionLiterature reviewMethods sectionResults sectionDiscussion sectionReferences
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Abstract
Short: Written as a single paragraph
Summarizes the major points of the results
Summarizes the major points of the methods, and the discussion
Does not include bibliographic citations
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Example of abstract
The Ubicomp scenario of wirelessly networked processors embedded in everyday objects has been dubbed "the invisible computer''. Users no longer interact with a computer but with familiar objects whose functionality is transparently enhanced by computing features. Using the results of an extensive survey, we highlight the major problem of this new style of interaction: because the computer is invisible, the user lacks an appropriate cognitive model for it, and cannot predict the behaviour or even the available features of the system. We argue that effective and usable Ubicomp systems will have to make the invisible computer visible.
Introduction+ theory
Methodology
ResultsConclusions
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Introduction (1)
Get your reader interested in your subject
Inform, but not to the point of being dull
Intrigue, but don’t be vague
Take a strong stance, but not to the point of alienating your reader
Your introduction needs to "place" your argument into some larger context
Announce your topic broadly, then declare your particular take
Provide any background material important to your argument
Define key terms, as you intend to make use of them in your argument
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Introduction (2)
Introduction = the first impression your argument makes on your reader
Introduction: persuasive, interesting, and clear Define the terms for your reader. e.g. how do you
understand the term “usability“? Acknowledge your opponents: (1) summarize the point
of view of your adversaries, (2) state your own position in opposition to theirs.
Consider your audience and their background (very knowledgeable about the subject, less knowledgeable, etc.)
Write your introduction AFTER you've written the rest of your paper
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Example of introduction
“Since the end of the first phase of Ubiquitous Computing (Ubicomp) which was marked by the deployment of initial prototypes, there have been a number of increasingly sceptical views on Mark Weiser's vision of hundreds of information appliances connected together in order to relieve the human being of common frustrations of traditional computing. These concerns are mainly associated with "over-automation'' and the loss of control arising from it, the lack of appropriate feedback, the breakdown of traditional mental models for the system functionality and difficulties in using ubiquitous interfaces. We believe that most of these difficulties could be solved by concentrating on a simple idea…
( Rehman, Stajano and Coulouris, 2002, p. 213)
Background information
Your own stance
Place your argument within a larger context
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Literature review
Critically read and evaluate the sources (trustworthiness, relevance, up-to-date)
Use current sources
Check that the author is a credible source who has authority and expertise in the field
Use more than one or two key sources = lend weight to your argument
Be concise
Include all your sources in your reference list
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Tips to avoid plagiarism
Extract important information
Paraphrase
Compress and write in your own words
Make notes, don’t take notes = Highlight key passages
Translate and rewrite notable research findings
Summarise findings: Research has shown that 95% of students listen to the radio while they study
Quote opinions as Dr. Z "believes" that …
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Methods section
Similar to an instruction manual = describe the apparatus and the procedure that you used in your research
Clearly and specifically written = your research can be exactly duplicated
Do not (necessarily) describe materials and methods that are standard to your field
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Useful questions about your methods section
How was the research designed?
On what subjects or materials was the research performed?
How were the subjects/materials prepared?
What machinery and equipment was used?
What sequence of events did you follow as you handled the subjects/materials or as you recorded data?
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Method section example
“Two user-based usability evaluations were conducted, one in a usability laboratory and one in a field setting. Both evaluations were based on Rubin’s guidelines for planning and conducting usability tests (…).The two evaluations involved users that were skilled worker apprentices (…). The evaluations were conducted while they were at the technical high school. A teacher at the school described initial task proposals, which were then modified to fit the purposes of the evaluations (…). This resulted in nine specific tasks, which dealt with the following working assignments (…)
(Nielsen, Lagerlöfs Vej, Bach Pedersen, Stage, 2006)
Research design
Procedure
Machinery,equipment
Participants
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Results section
Talk about what you discovered, invented, or confirmed through your research
Present your data, observations, and outcome
Focus on the facts of your research and present them in a straightforward way
Organize your results section in the clearest and most logical way
The most common way to organize information is chronologically
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Results section example
“In this section we provide an overview of the problems identified in the two usability evaluations: Evaluation Type and Number of Problems.
The two usability evaluations identified 76 different usability problems altogether. 27 usability problems were categorized as critical, 30 problems as severe, and 19 as cosmetic. The laboratory evaluation identified 104 occurrences of usability problems and the field evaluation 123 instances....”
(Nielsen, Lagerlöfs Vej, Bach Pedersen, Stage, 2006)
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Discussion section
Begin with a discussion of the data
Consider how the data addresses the research problem or hypothesis outlined in the introduction
Discuss what can be inferred from the data as they relate to other research and scientific concepts
Emphasize the importance of your own contribution
Identify the nature and extent of any limitations of your research, especially if your results are inadequate, negative, or not consistent with earlier studies or with your own hypothesis
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Conclusions
Conclusions = opinions, based on the evidence presented in your report
Usually a very short section that introduces no new ideas
Summarise your findings + generalise their importance
Convey the importance of your research to your reader
Raise questions that remain unanswered and discuss ambiguous data
State your conclusions clearly and discuss their implications
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Useful sentences for writing conclusions
Present your conclusions: “This research demonstrates…”
Discuss implications “This research
suggests . . .” or “This research implies . . .”
To warn readers that they should not generalize your conclusions: “Under the following circumstances,” “In most instances,” or “In these specific cases”
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What you are NOT going to do...
http://nl.youtube.com/watch?v=ynhGiZNCyeo&feature=related
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References
Referencing: standardised method of acknowledging sources (books, articles, websites, etc.) of information and ideas that you have used
If you don’t you could be accused of plagiarism
Direct quotations, facts, figures, ideas and theories (from both published and unpublished works) MUST be referenced
Many acceptable forms of referencing (e.g. APA style)
Necessary to verify quotations, and to enable readers to follow-up and read more fully the cited author’s arguments
Insert the citation at the appropriate place within the text
Provide a reference list at the end of the document
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Referencing (1)
For journal article include:
• Author(s) of the article, • Title of the article,• Title of the journal• Volume and issue number of the
journal, • Year of publication,• Page numbers
e.g. Anderson, R.E. Social impacts of computing: Codes of professional ethics. Social Science Computing Review 10, 2 (1992), 453-469.
For books include: • Author(s)/editor(s), • Title, • Edition,• (Volume number), • Place of publication and publisher • Year of publication,
e.g. Schwartz, M. Guidelines for Bias-Free Writing. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, USA, 1995.
Note down the full bibliographic details of the source from which the information is taken:
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Referencing (2)
For all electronic information include: database name or web address (URL) + the date that you accessed the information
e.g. Yahoo Finance (2003) ‘Yahoo! and Carat Unveil Research Results Showing Teens Are Truly Born To Be Wired’, URL (consulted January 2004): http://biz.yahoo.com/bw/030724/245198_1.html
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In-Text Citations (1)
When citing references within the text = name of the author + year of publication e.g. Comfort (1997) claimed that…
Authors of different references with the same family name = include the author’s initials
e.g. Hamilton, C. L., 1994 or C. L. Hamilton (1994)
If two or more authors are cited at the same point in the text = separate names by a semicolon + present alphabetically by author
e.g.(Brown 1991; Smith 2003)
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In-Text Citations (2)
When directly quoting from another source = relevant page number + double quotation marks around the quote
e.g. “… to achieve consistency” (Madden & Hogan, 1997, p. 45).
When paraphrasing or referring to an idea from a book or lengthy text = include relevant page number e.g. The theory was first presented in 1993 (Comfort, 1997, p. 58)
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In-Text Citations (3)
3, 4 or 5 authors = Cite all authors the 1st time the reference occurs
e.g. Guerin, Labor, Morgan, Reesman, and Willingham (2005, p. 6) found …
Subsequent citations = surname of the first author + et al. + year
e.g. Guerin et al. (2005, p. 6) found …
6 or + authors = Rodgers et al., 1996, p. 35
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How to Create a Reference List (1)
Reference list: books, articles, etc. that are cited in the text
Reference list: arranged alphabetically by author No author = cite by title (ordered in the reference
list alphabetically by the 1st significant word of the title)
APA Referencing 2007http://library.curtin.edu.au/referencing/apa.pdf American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (5th ed.). Washington DC: APA.
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A practical example on how to cite
http://nl.youtube.com/watch?v=96QEIDznXI4&feature=related
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Let’s see how much you’ve learned...
http://nl.youtube.com/watch?v=pkpwFpMYShY&feature=related
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Useful Links
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/materials/student/ac_paper/write.shtml
http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Writing/
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/index.html
http://www.oed.com/ http://thesaurus.reference.com/http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/54
5/01/
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/545/01/
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Thank you for your attention
and
Have a nice weekend!