How to Make Scientific Audio-visuals

for Research, Teaching, Popularization

Virgilio Tosi

Unesco, Paris

Publishcd in IYX4 by thc United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, 7, place de Pontenoy, 75700 Paris Composed and printed in Unesco Workshop

8 Unesco 1984 Printed in France

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank: Ms. Clare Norman who rendered the text into good English, keeping in mind those among the readers for whom English is a second language; Mr. Stephen Natanson for. his contribution to bibliography; Ms. Suzanne Duval, managing director of the International Scientific Film Association, and other persons and institutions active in the same Association that provided information, documents and suggestions; his wife Alena and his daughter Barbara for their help in revising the text and the members of Unesco's Division of Scientific Research and Higher Education. The author wishes to thank, also, Ms. Anne Sacher and Ms. Yvonne Perroudon for having set up the manual on a word processor.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PREFACE

1 - INTRODUCTION 2 - THE NEW LANGUAGE 3 - THE ORIGINS OF SCIENTIFIC CINEMATOGRAPHY 4 - CINEMATOGRAPHY AND TELEVISION FOR

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 4.1 The exclusive role of film in scientific research 4.2 The camera as part of a scientist's equipment 4.3 Organizing the research film 4.4 Understanding and analysing the information

contained in cinematographic images

5 - CINEMATOGRAPHY AND TELEVISION F,OR EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES 5.1 History 5.2 Modern trends in the use of teaching film and video 5.3 Audio-visual centres

6 - CINEMATOGRAPHY AND TELEVISION FOR USE IN POPULARIZATION 6.1 Historical aspects 6.2 Has the popular-science film still a role to play? 6.3 Using television to popularize science

7 - SCIENTIFIC FILM AND TELEVISION PRODUCTION 7.1 A n operational approach 7.2 The phases of practical production

Page

1

3

5

7

13

13

16 20

23

27 27 29 55

6 3 6 4 67 71

85 85 90

8 - FILM OR VIDEO? 8.1 Technical interaction between film and video

9 - A P R O S P E C T I V E APPROACH 9.1 The future of optical and electronic systems

10 - G L O S S A R Y OF S E L E C T E D TECHNICAL T E R M S

APPENDIX 1

APPENDIX 2

The need for specialized training

Information on specialized organizations 2.a International bodies 2.b National organizations

APPENDIX 3 Selected bibliography

109

114

117 117

121

127

135 135 136

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P R E F A C E

Film and television, radio and photography --we can hardly imagine how our daily lives would be without them. In the industrial- ized countries, the public information system is based on these media and in some countries children spend more hours per day in front of the television set at home than in school. But for such important activities as teaching and learning, w e still rely mainly on words: printed, written or spoken. O h yes, the new media have reached the schools and universities. For some reason, however, the quality of many teaching films is below that of cinema films; and videotapes made for teaching often do not match the quality of television programmes.

What is it that makes us lower our standards when visual media are concerned while, at the same time, we place the highest demands on texts? Teachers and researchers are still "geared" to the written word. They should remember, however, that they face a young generation growing up with images -- a generation learning to use computers much more quickly than their parents. These students do not usually accept "talking heads" on the TV; they are used to the professionally produced video programmes they see at home, and they expect the same from school or university.

Professional film and video production: it sounds extremely complicated but it is all much easier than one might think.

The author of this book, Virgilio Tosi, is a professional producer of film and television who has specialized in scientific and educational work. H e has always been fascinated by science and its power to uncover the very nature of things as well as by the power of the image. "A good picture is worth a thousand words": a very old adage, and today it is truer than ever. If one could name a specific field in which the image carries the message, it is science with its never-ending variety of visual phenomena. Very few people can see these with their own eyes, so the camera takes the student and the public to a most privileged place, where the camera can see far more than the naked human eye. The viewer can profit from this capability provided that the pictures are presented comprehensibly, attractively.

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Professor Tosi has learnt much of this through some thirty years of contact with outstanding pioneers in scientific cinema- tography, specialists he met at the yearly Congresses and Festivals of the International Scientific Film Association (of which he spent six years as president).

Virgilio Tosi is a professor at the highly reputed Italian film and television school, Centro Sperirnentale di Cinematografia di Rorna. H e is thus among the best qualified to explain not only how films and videotapes on scientific subjects should be planned and produced, but also how such productions should be presented in order to serve research, teaching and the general spreading of scientific knowledge.

Aart C. GISOLF President, International

Scientific Film Association

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I - INTRODUCTION

The aim of this book is to provide an outline of facts and information on a subject important for the development of a modern cultural society. Our subject is often considered separately from the wider channels of mass communication as a sector reserved for a small number of specialists. Yet what w e call scientific cinema- tography is a fast-developing subject, from the conceptual point of view as well as in its practical applications.

The book is intended for potential readers with varying characteristics. In developing countries the volume may be of interest to scientific research workers, university lecturers and high school teachers, television directors, programmers and producers, film-makers engaged in non-fiction communication and who also have cultural and educational goals; and, in general, to all those interested in or directly responsible for improving the use of audio-visuals in education, scientific research and the popularization of science and technology.

In industrialized countries, this manual may be useful to students especially in the scientific and technological field, young research workers and teachers and all those who need a general overview of the problems involved in the use of audio-visual techniques and -- particularly -- the special techniques employed in scientific cinematography and applied to research, education and popularization.

The contents cannot cover the subject fully. Nor have w e set ourselves the unattainable goal of enabling anyone who reads the book to take up professional work in the specific sector of scientific, educational and informational cinema and television. O u r objective is, rather, to supply the greatest possible amount of information and a series of concepts and ideas which provide a general panorama of the subject and serve as a basis for its further development.

A small part of the text has been taken from a previous publication by the same author, Cinematography and Scientific Research, (Paris, Unesco, 1977) which is now no longer in print. These pages have been revised, updated and integrated into the overall text.

2 - THE NEW LANGUAGE

The century w e are living in has been defined in various ways: the Atomic Age, the Age of Electronics, and the era characterized by the ''Culture of the Image".

For several decades, industrialized countries have faced a situation whereby the average man, whether living in a large city, a small town or even isolated, is bombarded by images coming from television and other mass-communication media. Submerged by this continuous stream of audio-visual messages, the everyday life of 20th-century man has been overwhelmed, his social relations modified and his cultural development extremely enriched, on the one hand, yet deeply impaired, on the other. For many, in wide sectors of our society, the daily dose of images to be absorbed is like a drug which has become a habit and upon which they are dependent.

This state of things should lead us to reflect: rather than the civilizing effect of images, w e should speak about the barbarous invasion of images. We are still in the early phases of the Age of the Image, but the first conquest of this new language has given way to an orgiastic explosion of its use and abuse. The consequences are something similar to indigestion. And yet, the old Chinese proverb which says that an image is worth more than 3 thousand words bears out the fact that, for many centuries, the popular wisdom has appreciated the great expressive and communicative value of iconic data.

For the last hundred years m a n has had at his disposal a language which is no longer solely based on the traditional fixed image, the classical ikon, picture or series of variable pictures (including photography) which hypostatize, reproduce or represent a moment or an aspect of visible or imaginable reality. The new language, which developed from scientific cinema, consists of images in movement, either singly or linked, which are not limited alone to the phenomenological reproduction of reality. These images hold, as w e shall see, the key to new cognitive possibilities: information, communication, comparison, analysis and synthesis. Through the process, w e are allowed to discover, know and transmit data which it was previously impossible to discover, know and transmit. This language does not replace the oral or written ones entirely; it is another language with its own specific, expressive and commun- icative possibilities.

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It is therefore vitally important to be able to master this new language, for, like illiterates -- fascinated by a speech they may understand in part --we are unable to write or use the language actively. The average man daily receives audio-visual messages, but he is often acritically conditioned by them because he is unable to "decode" these messages correctly.

These "codes" are still largely indeterminate; scholars and other specialists are attempting to define, interpret, systemize and codify them.

There is thus an urgent need to teach the active and passive use of the language of images, just as reading and writing are taught. For the coming generations, w e must overcome the serious handicap of living immersed in the culture of images which w e have not yet learned how to use.

Because of its morphological characteristics, scientific cinema is (in some way) the grammatical basis of the language of images in movement. If this specialized medium is studied and if it becomes familiar so that one is able to apply its special techniques and use it correctly, then w e have an important instrument for reducing the vast area of illiteracy regarding this new way of acquiring knowledge, and of communicating and thus expressing ourselves.

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3 - THE ORIGINS OF SCIENTIFIC CINEMATOGRAPHY

The spectacular growth -- unexpected at its beginnings -- of the cinema, as both art form and entertainment industry, too often obscures the fact that cinematography originated from the demands of scientific research. In fact, cinematography has twin roots: in research on retinal persistence and in the technological developments required for research into the physiology of movement. This is a useful reminder today, when pure scientific research is often considered in terms of its effects on applied science.

Scientific cinema was born well before cinema as enter- tainment. The famous public projection of the Lumigre cinema- tograph on 28 December 1895 is generally thought to mark the beginning of cinema. Nevertheless, more than twenty years earlier, Jules Janssen, an astronomer and later director of the Meudon Observatory, (Paris) had recorded the phases of the transil of Venus across the sun's disc. To observe this phenomenon in 1874, he went to Japan and had a "photographic revolver" constructed. This instrument worked on the basis of a circular daguerre plate on which succe-' ddive images, each exposed for about one second, were recorded.

Janssen's technique is in many ways similar to that now known as time-lapse filming: a series of successive still photographs. The working principles of the camera, coupled with the displacement of a light-sensitive surface, are at the very foundation of the cinema, in the etymological sense of the word. Their function corresponds to the analytical and documentary aims of the research undertaken.

In 1076 Janssen wrote: "The characteristics of the revolver of providing, automatically, a series of images in close succession of a phenomenon with rapid variations, will enable us to deal with the i n t er es ti ng q u es ti ons of p h y s i ol og i c a1 m e c han i cs r el at e d to w a1 k i n g , flight and the various rnovements of animals. A series of photographs which cover a whole cycle of rnovements of a particular function would supply valuable data to clarify its mechanism. One can well imagine for example, all the interest there would be for such an obscure problem as bird flight in obtaining a series of photographs which represent the different movements of the wing during this action. The main difficulty at present comes from the inertia of the light-sensitive surfaces compared to the brevity of the impression these images require. But science will certainly remove all these difficulties".

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In the 1870s a British photographer, Eadweard J. Muybridye, living in the United States, carried out a series of photographic experiments in order to settle an argument over the successive positions of a horse's legs and their contact with the turf of the racetrack. (The argument had arisen between horse owners.) Muybridge was hired by the former Governor of California to try to settle the dispute by photography.

The problem had cropped up after examination of drawings showing the movements of a horse during a race. These drawings were made by using mechanically-produced sketches based on the graphic method created by the French physiologist, Etienne-Jules Marey.

Muybridge's experiments were carried out at Palo Alto, on a private racetrack belonging to Governor Stanford, on the site of the university campus which now bears his name. A series of cameras was strung along the length of the track, each instrument being triggered by the horse as it passed. The pictures, taken on wet collodion plates, revealed the successive positions of the horse's legs.

The scientific significance of these photographs is perhaps questionable from the point of view of their motivation, and no doubt the operation and synchronization of the camera shutters were not perfect. None-the-less, Marey, having seen the results, decided to use the technique of photographs recorded at short intervals in order to study the physiology of movement. For this purpose, Marey invented what he called a "photographic gun" (developed from that designed by Janssen) which he operated in 1882 with newly-available silver bromide dry plates. These were much more sensitive than the earlier wet collodion type.

The French physiologist then applied himself to the study of wing movements in the flight of birds. Taking the camera he had just built, Marey set out for Naples, where he owned a winter residence. There he took his first pictures of the flight of gulls. He was able, thanks to the good light conditions in the Naples region, to take silhouette pictures at the then exceptional speed of twelve images per second. One of his assistants told how Marey was nicknamed 'the m a d man of Pausilipe' by those who had seen him, armed with his bizarre 'gun' aiming at flying birds without ever hitting one, and afterwards putting down his 'weapon', visibly satisfied with the results.

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In the years following, Marey made and often used a 'clirono- photograph', first using fixed plates on which he recorded many images, and later using a film roll, to pursue his study of the physiology of human and animal movement. Technological developments had, in the meantime, substituted very short flexible film mounted on a spool for the fragile glass plates.

In his report to the Academy of Sciences on 29 October 1888, Marey declared, "Today I have the honour of presenting to the Academy of Sciences a reel of light-sensitive paper on which a series of images was obtained at a rate of 20 images per second. The apparatus I have constructed for this purpose unwinds a reel of sensitive paper at a speed which can reach lm60 per second. As this speed goes beyond m y requirements, I have reduced it to Om80."

The film roll chronophotograph, which Marey presented to the Academy of Sciences, had all the basic features of a modern cin6 camera. It was a photographic camera equipped with a shutter in the form of a windowed disc moved by a crank, and a film moved along in jerks, stopping several times a second to allow a picture to be taken each time. (See G. Sadoul, Histoire gkngrale du cingma, Paris, 1946, V0l.I.)

In 1804-5 Muybridge, in turn, made about 20,000 serial images for the University of Pennsylvania, perfecting his filming technique still based on batteries of cameras arranged at various angles and synchronized. Books were printed bearing thousands of pictures, such as Animal Locomotion and The Human Figure in Motion.

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There can be little doubt as to the importance of the contribution scientific research has made in elaborating the basis of cinema- tography technique, as well as to the importance of the contribution made by this technique to scientific research and documentation at this early stage. The numerous scientific articles and reviews which appeared in the last quarter of the nineteenth century confirm these contributions. Examples include reports of the French Academy of Sciences, articles in La Nature, La Revue g6n6rale des sciences pures et appliquges, as well as the publications of E.-J. Marey: DGveloppement de la rn6thode graphique par I'emploi de la photographie (1885), Le vol des oiseaux (1890), Le mouvement (1894) and L a chronophotographie (1899). Wilbur Wright, the first aviator, said, "If I have been able to fly, it is because I have read Le vol des oiseaux". Not even Lumikre, however, had the slightest idea at the

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time that an extraordinary future was in store for the cinema as a means of education, communication and artistic expression.

The point of interest for the researcher was the breaking up of the different phases of a phenomenon (motion) in order to study each phase separately. Marey was practically never concerned with the idea of synthetically reproducing the entire phenomenon by the kinetic motion of recorded images. If he virtually invented the cine camera, Marey never dealt deeply with the question of projection, as Lumigre was to do later on, since he was not in the least interested in viewing a phenomenon as it had really occurred; the important thing was analysis.

What Marey wanted from cinematographic technique was the slowing of motion as much as possible. Before Lumihre's cinema- tography, Marey had made several 'shots' of 50-60 frames per second; one of these was of a cat which, when dropped spine-downwards, turned over while falling and landed on its paws. Marey's closest collaborator, Lucien Bull, pursued the same goal and in 1902 perfected a system which recorded automatically 500 frames per second (the normal speed was 16 frames per second). In 1904, Bull reached 1,200 frames per second, permitting him to analyse the flight of a fly.

All these studies were carried out in a rigourously scientific manner. The idea never occurred to Marey that his inventions might be profitable in any way: the technological advances he made resulted from the demands of research. He obviosly wanted his priorities and his results to be known, but only through the medium of his minutely detailed publications -- precisely describing his devices and their workings -- so that other researchers might repeat and profit from his experiences.

3

The object of the present publication is not, however, to trace the history of the scientific film; for this, it would be necessary to mention the work of many other experiments carried out in different countries. Here are just a few examples. In 1885-6, AnschCltz in Germany studied the action of a horse jumping and the throwing of a javelin, using Muybridge's method. Pfeffer filmed in 1900, at the University of Leipzig, the geotropic movements of plants over a 28- day period; in Russia, Admiral Makarov had filmed for scientific purposes the advance of an icebreaker's bow. Several physicians and

surgeons had their operations filmed. Before the end of the nine- teenth century Dr. Marinescu of Bucharest Hospital applied cinema- tography to the study of the movement of hemiplegic subjects. At the beginning of the new century, F. Martin Duncan, an Englishman, made microscopic cinematography available for public projections and Omegna, an Italian, recorded the different phases of the meta- morphosis of a butterfly.

A multitude of other examples could be given to illustrate the interest shown by scientific researchers, from the very beginning, in cinematography as a research tool. W e have mentioned the work of Marey with a certain amount of detail, not only because he is truly father of cinematography, but also to show how the birth of cinema was linked to scientific research.

While some of the general works on the history of cinema at least mention the pioneering work of Janssen, Muybridge and a few others (even though these are underestimated) the same works neglect the history of scientific cinema after the beginning of the century. In spite of this, for several years after the birth of entertainment cinema, technological research in the filming sector remained almost exclusively in the hands of scientists, and was done in the confines of their laboratories. In fact most of the special techniques of scientific cinema (high speed, time-lapse, roentgen- cinematography) emerged and developed directly from the pioneering years of cinematography.

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4 - CINEMATOGRAPHY AND TELEVISION FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Cinematography and video can be used as tools of scientific research in all cases where movement is implied, whether it be a question of behaviour, of transformations of matter, or of any other kind of change occurring in time or in space.

Its use is complex because a choice has to be made in each case (of film stock, speed, light source, equipment, etc.) and because of the constant adaptations of the visualization procedures used. Complexity is increased by the fact that visualization techniques are evolving continually. In the last decades, for example, a series of new techniques (electronic recording and transmission systems, optical fibres, computers, etc.) have been either integrated or added to the traditional methods so as to offer an ever-widening range of possibilities for identifying, analyzing and understanding phenomena which could not previously be observed or measured.

4.1 - The exclusive role of film in scientific research

The use of cinematographic (or, in some cases, video) techniques in scientific laboratories has made it possible to obtain research data which could not be obtained in other ways.

The recording of dynamic events or phenomena offers possibilities such as: shortening their time-span (in time-lapse recording of slow

phenomena); lengthening their time-span (by accelerated, high-speed shots of

phenomena occurring at varying degrees of rapidity); observing or studying phenomena which occur in inaccessible places

(as in under-water and space exploration, filming in dark places, endoscopy, very high or very low temperature media);

obtaining the enlargement of phenomena (via cinemicrography, cinemacrography, enlargement of details through the use of very high definition emulsions);

observing phenomena occurring at great distance (via telephoto lens, astronomical telescope);

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observirlq phenomena orcuring at wavclenqths invisible to the tlurnarl eye (in infra-rcd, ultraviolet, X-rays, ~arnrrra-radir_lr]r.ophy, or by using interferometric and holographic techniques;

visualizing differences of density and temperature (strioscopy, sonography, thermography);

viewing the reproduction of a phenomenon any number of times; conserving a fugitive phenomenon, or one that would be difficult or costly to repeat;

studying, analyzing and measuring a phenomenon and plotting curves.

These possibilities can be combined, for example by using R particular visualization process whilst, at the same time, modifying the time factor. In other words, film allows us to throw off the lirnitation of time or of space.

In the First World War, film was used in ballistic research. Since then, military, aeronautical and nuclear power establishments have used film and video a great deal; they have, in fact, brought about important advances in the field of high-speed cinematography, as witnessed by the results presented at the Congresses of High- Speed Photography.

Similarly, in the fields of physics and chemistry, film has permitted observations to be made of metallic dislocations, electron interaction in inorganic crystals, the transformation phases of solids, and the polymorphous transformations of crystalline solids.

Biology -- the science of observation par excellence -- is an important domain for research film. Since the work of Dr. Cornandon, who at the beginning of this century applied cinemicrography to the study of cell karyokinesis, for example, and until recent film studies on the lysosomes, the number of research films in the field of biology (not to mention those of animal and vegetable behaviour) has been large. The following examples will serve to recall the wide range of discoveries made by means of cinematography: the rotation of a cell which accompanies its division by mitosis, the autonomous movement of plants, and the role played by gaseous formations in the chrysalids of certain insects undergoing complete metamorphosis.

Medical applications are found mainly in the use of cineradio- graphy, the use of infra-red and thermography and, often, overlap applications in biology -- as far as the study of cell biology is concerned.

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Finally, there are also a very large number of applications in the field of technology: stress-and-strain analysis, detection of metal fatigue, and so on.

Depending on the use made of it, therefore, film may provide a rneans of revealing new knowledge, of confirming an assumption, or demonstrating a theory. It is therefore difficult to determine the limits or precise field of research film. More than a century ago, the astronurrier Jarisscri gave a succinct formula summarizing what he saw as the scientific rariye of photography: "It is the retina of the savant". Marey's assistant, Lucien Bull, defined research filrri as one "made with the purpose of resolving a scienlific problem which cannot be investigated by any other rneans". This idea is shared by Dr. Pierre Thgvenard: "A film which, thanks to the inherent properties of the cinematographic technique, allows us to display a previously unknown phenomenon". And Dr. Anthony R. Michaelis: "Research films are motion pictures made in the laboratory, or during the course of field work, which aid directly in the discovery of new know 1 edge".

There is general agreement on the recording aspect of rescarch film. Controversy begins when one tries to broaden the definition to include what might be called the 'documentation' of research, which does not necessarily give results, but which inay suggest a new approach to research. M. Jean Painlev6 has written: "Research films m a y be defined as films whose aim is a discovery, even if unsuccessful in this aim, ... or films which leads to n discovery even if this was not its original aim".

Professor Gotthard Wolf believes that the definition of a research filrn should include: "the use of cinematography as a means of scientific investigation and also the conditions in which the shooting vias done, the recording of a phenomenon discovered during research but which can only be made visible by an appropriate cinernatoqraphic method, as well as research material filmed for the purpose of subsequent comparative studies".

A n even wider definition is favoured by some British and American writers. For example, Dr. Randall M. Whaley has proposed: "This category of filrn rnay be defined as one resulting from the use of cinematography as a research tool, as a data-recording technique, or as a reporting medium in pure and applied science".

The fact that the word 'film' is used sometimes to connote the instrumental method, i.e. the method of investigation, and at other

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times to connote its end-product, i.e. the communicating document, serves only to accentuate the ambiguity of definitions.

4.2 - The camera as part of a scientist's equipment

When the camera forms part of the research equipment of an institute, laboratory, university or other scientific body, it is frequently used only as a means of obtaining precise data which will supplement results obtained by other means. These data may, in some cases, provide new information; in others, they may confirm a result. Once the data have been abstracted from the film or tape, they are filed in an archive, often in a degraded condition because the original was used carelessly and because no one took the precaution of making a duplicate copy.

According to a survey carried out by the American Science Film Association in 1964, covering 509 American universities, some 250,000 feet of 16 mm film were recorded over a period of 5 years, dealing with 81 different subjects -- but this activity did not result in a single, titled research film.

The British Scientific Film Association has reported a similar situation, explicable by the following reasons: considerations of security, either national or commercial;

once the data have been abstracted from the film, the data are included in a research report and it is the report that is filed. The film may be kept, but it may be badly scratched because the data are usually read directly from the original negative;

the producer often feels that his research film is so specialized that no one else will want to see it; he therefore feels no obligation to list, file or distribute it;

the work entailed in providing shot-by-shot complete descriptions is not usually considered worthwhile, as the scientist would rather move on to his next experiment.

These arguments, perfectly valid and justifiable from the scientist's point of view, invite several comments.

In cases in which film supplies only a strictly quantitative analysis, the total data given by the images can be adequately represented by figures, curves and other symbols. But the situation is quite different in the case of qualitative analysis. The viewing of a

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phenomenon has persuasive power far superior to that of verbal interpretation: it can change the orientation of the researcl-i itself. In this case, the quality of the image demands particular care and greaL mastery of the cinematographic technique.

Lastly, the visualization of a phenomenon may demand technical skills which are not always within the reach of the scientist or his team. In a report on scientific film at Moscow State University, Professor V. Pel1 has stated:

"Requiring both scientific and technological abilities that scientists of various disciplines do not always possess, specialized film-makers are in charge of making research and teaching films for various university departments. Research films are used not only to record objectively scientific experiments, but also to reveal new information on the subjects under study and to constitute basic documentation for qualitative and quantitative analysis. The Department of Scientific Photography and Cinematoyraphy of the Lomonosov University in Moscow works in close co-operation with all other university departments ... Its activitics cover three main directions: the training of students in photographic arid cinema- tographic techniques, the making of teaching films, and the setting up of new methods to record phenomena for research purposes.

One of the main tasks of the department is to make available technical data and methods of applying film techniques to scientific investigations undertaken in the various departments of the university.

In the early days of the department's existence, demands from scientists were rare, but now the situation is reversed and the services of the film department are in great demand from scientists.

The problem to be dealt with is first clearly defined. It is then studied in detail before any decision is made as to the most appropriate method for dealing with it. Equipment, technique, format and sensitivity of the film to be used are then determined; problems of lighting and exposure are worked out, and special equipment is often set up in collaboration with the other departments concerned.

Tests are then made, and if the chosen method proves to be inappropriate, it is sometimes necessary to change it for an entirely different one. Once shooting has been started, the scientists involved are given all the necessary practical information for them to be able to carry on on their own.

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To analyse the rushes obtained, the film is first screened several times and a visual and qualitative evaluation is made. Next comes a quantitative frame-by-frame analysis, with measurements of the displacements occurring from one frame to the next, of changes of light intensity, colour, etc.

Decisions concerning method, output, film stock, processing, etc. are often made with the aid of computers. If shooting is to last a long time, it is carried out by the scientists of the department concerned, either using their own film equipment or else under the control of the cinematographic department. If the project is of short duration, it is carried out entirely by the specialists of the film department.

Once the results have been analysed, and an evaluation of possible and permissible error made with the aid of the film specialists, then the final analyses and interpretations of the results are made by the scientists who requested the making of the film''. (See Science Film, No.3, 1973.)

0 0 0

Cin6 film units exist within a great number of scientific research institutions. In the United Kingdom more than 1.000 research establishments have film units: 130 government installations, 150 hospitals and medical research centres, 118 universities, polytechnics and other educational institutions, and over 500 in industry. In the Netherlands, a survey carried out by the Dutch Photonic Association revealed 18 scientific institutes, 21 universities and 19 industrial research units using film as a research tool. More than 300,000 m of 16mm film were shot each year in the United States of America in universities alone during the 1970s.

The role, importance and level of skill of these different film units vary considerably from one institution to the next, and they are all the more difficult to evaluate since their productions are little known, for the reasons stated above. All the surveys which have been carried out by the International Scientific Film Association's national branches bear witness to the problems encountered in trying to obtain precise and complete results.

A working party appointed in the early 1960s by the United Kingdom's Department of Scientific and Industrial Research to carry out a survey in that country proceeded in the following manner. A questionnaire was sent to 680 government research establishments,

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university departments and industrial units, inviting responses on the following subjects:

a) The value of cine-photography in their research, and the kind of filming work done;

b) the value of information about other research film, and the need for special editing and titling facilities;

c) the need for a technical information service on scientific cine- pho tography;

d) their willingness to provide information about their film and research film techniques; and

e) their views on the need for a research film centre.

Of the 680 organizations approached, 490 replied. Analysis of the replies was supplemented by a survey under the direction of a consultant, appointed by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, who spoke with interested people in a selection of the establishments contacted. The aims of his survey were to discover:

whether failure to make full use of scientific film or photography was due to ignorance of the available possibilities or rather to a need for readier access to, or further development of equipment for shooting, or analysing and interpreting film;

in what way film shots made for analytic or recording purposes could be made intelligible to people other than the researchers who made them, and in what way could better photographic habits in such matters as making copies of original material, editing and distributing be fostered;

the kind of organization which could carry out such tasks and how it might be financed.

One result of the survey was the creation of a National Research Film Centre, but this centre was closed in 1974 because of reductions in government spending.

A survey was carried out in 1965 by the Italian National Research Council, covering 2,408 university institutions, with the aim of finding out what use they made of cinematography as a research tool. Eight hundred and seventy six replies, of which 68 per cent were positive, were received. More than a third of these replies stated that the films made were not suitable for projection, their aims being rather to analyse a phenomenon, to make a clinical diagnosis, or to conserve data in order to use them later as scientific documentation.

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Apart from these surveys, there are relatively few official and precise data on the use of film as a research tool by scientific institutions. The situation is further confused by the fact that budgetary credits for the rnaking of films are sometimes hidden or diverted because cinema is still viewed with suspicion by some administrative services -- because of, on the one hand, its cost, and, on the other, a certain scepticism about its usefulness. Furthermore, the equipment bought for scientific research film-making is some- times little or badly used: it was bought without sufficient consideration for the uses to which it was to be put (a problem which is doubtless not confined to the cinema). Anecdotes concerning such errors are legion: one group bought a camera which could he used only for shooting thousands of images per second, when what was needed was a much lower speed; another bought film stock quite inadequate for the work at hand; yet another set itself up with equipment for cinemicrography without realizing that no one in the group was qualified to use it, and so on.

Technical errors, and the resulting wastage, can be avoided when a film unit with competent personnel exists in a scientific organization. This implies, of course, that the organization is sufficiently large to justify the setting up of such a unit.

Apart from the example of Moscow University's Chair of Cinematography cited above, the aims of which extend considerably beyond the needs of research alone, film departments exist in a certain number of state or industrial scientific bodies (see Appendix).

From the above remarks, we can conclude as follows: film is widely employed as a research tool by scientific institutions;

film documents made in these institutions remain for the most part little known, or even completely unknown, outside the laboratory in which they were produced;

surveys carried out in various countries have shown a trend in favour of the setting up of a National Research Film Centre.

4.3 - Organizing the research film There is great organizational diversity between the different

countries in which film is used as a research tool.

In those countries in which a central body has been set up, w e can see that it plays an important part in the development of

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research film and fulfils functions which are not dealt with when the use of cinematography is dispersed amongst different scientific bodies. The surveys carried out on this question confirm this observation. In the United Kingdom, for example, the inquiry to which w e have already referred revealed that adequate facilities for the training of technicians, researchers and administrators in this field do not exist, that the low salaries offered to technicians discourage them from specializing in it, and that researchers in need of information on the application of cinematographic methods do not know where to go to get the assistance they need.

It should be pointed out that the existence of a central body does not preclude the carrying out of research Cinematography in laboratories in which its use is regularly and frequently required. For example, in the field of the life sciences, it is often more convenient to do filming on site; the necessary technology can be more easily placed at the disposal of personnel who, in this field, are familiar with the necessary operations regularly used in experimentation. The scientist then will be more at ease in mastering what he wants to obtain. >

In the physical sciences, on the other hand, a broad range of high-speed methods is often called for, implying the use of costly and less frequently used equipment. This demands specialized technical skills and raises delicate questions concerning synchronization of the phenomenon and of shooting. Unless national or industrial security demands the making of the film by a team attached to the body carrying out the research, the most economical solution would be to put this costly and complex equipment into the care of a central organization which would make it available to individual scientific bodies as needed.

We can define the different functions that a national centre should be capable of fulfilling as follows:

1) Informing scientists about the use of cinematography as a research tool, initiating them in new techniques, comparing results obtained from the projection of films produced using these techniques, and demonstrating recently developed equipment;

2) promoting the installation of appropriate and relatively simple equipment in university, industrial or hospital research organizations -- in cases in which the use of such equipment on a regular basis justifies its installation. It is always preferable, and sometimes indispensable, that filming should take place on-site, with personnel who are familiar with the problems raised by the research under way;

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3) bringing together and making available specialized equipment involving considerable investment and requiring high-level technical skills, so that maximal use is made of it;

4) carrying out research on new adaptations and visual recording methods for phenomena;

5) ensuring the conservation of research-film documents, planning for the eventual use of such documents for teaching or popularization, and distributing them as needed;

6) establishing the indispensable links, at national and inter- national levels, between scientists from different disciplines called upon to use cinematographic techniques.

These functions, taken as a whole, are no doubt too heavy an undertaking for a country in which research film is little developed or non-existent. In cases in which it would not be adequate to set up a central body charged with the functions enumerated above, other solutions can be envisaged. For example, a liaison centre would make it possible to collect and disseminate technological information for the benefit of interestd scientific bodies; it would facilitate the setting up of links with foreign establishments, the collecting of filmed documents with a view to a more or less wide distribution according to their content, and the establishment of a scientific film library to be used for scientific documentation available to the country's scientists.

The role of such a centre would thus be limited to stimulating and promoting the use of film as a means of investigation. Its success would depend largely upon the nature of its relationship with scientific organizations, whose members would have to be convinced of the utility of cinematographic methods. It would thus be desirable to appoint members of the scientific community to take charge of the centre.

It may be tempting to attach the centre to some other, already existing one. Such a solution could have advantages, but it is preferable to avoid the seemingly logical step of attaching it to a body specialized in the use of audio-visual technology for education, within which educational aims would easily deflect attention from the needs of research.

It is not possible to recommend a structure suitable to all situations. Solutions depend on multiple factors connected with the organization of scientific research and the particular nature (geographical, economic, or other) of the country concerned.

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4.4 - Understanding and analysing the information contained in cinematographic images

G en er all y speak i n g , the three f o 11 o w i n g f e at ur e s char act er i z e film or video and distinguish them from other tools of scientific investigation: - -

the particularities of their 'language'; the continual process of adaptation which they undergo and the constant evolution of their technology;

- the fact that, over and above being research tools, they constitute a means of communication -- of knowledge transfer.

W e have already pointed out that the cinematographic image is not only a source of information to be measured and counted, but that the visual observation of a phenomenon under way may give a new direction to research by showing the relationship between cause and effect. This implies that the scientist is capable of unravelling, and then interpreting, an ensemble of strictly visual data. Other investigations may then be carried out to confirm or refute his i n t er pre t a t ion.

Such an attitude is not an inborn gift; it requires background and training in order to be able to put aside preconceived ideas and observe the unfolding of a process with perfect objectivity. Without this capacity, the usefulness of the image as a source of information may be underestimated, and so:ne of its significance neglected. A n in-depth knowledge of the recording conditions is thus necessary so that all parameters revealed by them can be taken into consideration when detecting the possible errors of analysis.

4.4.1 - Knowledge and adaptation of visual recording techniques

The wide range of technical options requires skills which are not always possessed by the scientist. If the scientist does not have such skills, a very competent technician can help him find the best way of visually recordinq the phenomena he is dealing with, and then carrying out trials, adaptations and adjustments which he alone would not have the time for. Indeed, the rapid evolution of recording systems makes the technology of this field more and more complex. Advances in electronic recording over the last few years have (for example) yielded considerable possibilities for sensing recording and reproducing moving images.

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The cornbination of these new possibilities with thc classical technologies, using traditional visual recording procedures, is continually opening up new vistas. The improvements made to the image intensifier have already made possible important advances in radiological research. Night shooting in colour without lighting is now a reality -- thanks to lenses equipped with electronic systems. The laser has opened the way to new memory-storage techniques in the form of holograms and to investigations in fields not yet explored. Optical fibres make the conducting of light and images through very thin flexible channels possible and permit the exploration of phenomena in cavities and other zones hitherto inaccessible. It is possible, using computer technology, to obtain moving images which provide a visual representation of answers to specific problems solved only by calculation.

4.4.2. - Visual research and the human or social sciences Research using visual analysis techniques is not limited, as

some are led to believe, to the fields of experimental and exact sciences alone. In the human sciences, too, cinema and video as research and documentation tools are used widely. They have become important especially in ethnography and cultural anthropology, taken in their widest sense -- which includes social behaviour (work techniques, rituals in daily life) and environmental situations (ecology , urban pl ann i ng , i ndus t r i al archeology 1.

Two specific terms have come into use to underline the importance of these research and documentation techniques: urgent anthropology, for all those situations (whether belonging to primitive societies or our modern society) which must be recorded to conserve them, given their imminent disappearance in the rapid process of social transformations; visual anthropology denotes the introduction of the new language of images in the formal connotation of the science dealing with human behaviour. Research carried out with visualization techniques often produces results which go far beyond the confines of the subject under study. Audio-visual recording is so rich in information, it constitutes such a vast analytical source of data of the phenomenon under examination that it becomes, in turn, a research document for interpretation and intervention to be made by other scholars.

Objections have been raised about the scientific quality of some ethnographic films. Often reference is made, however, to films or documentaries on ethnographic subjects which -- though they may

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have been made with scientific collaborators or advisers -- were produced for commercial or spectacular ends. W e are obviously concerned with films or video recordings whose purpose is research, or the documentation of an event or situation, using a scientific approach. W e should add that it is not only in the field of human science that non-scientif ic infiltrations or deformations penetrate when cinematic or television techniques are involved. In biology and especially in zoology, there are cinematographic treatments which not only cannot be classed as research or documentary films: these are not even educational or popularizing. (I shall cite examples later.) Not to mention science fiction: these are speculations which have nothing at all to do with scientific cinema. A film may be defined as scientific on the basis of its subject, but also on the condition that it is made in a scientific spirit.

To return to ethnography and anthropology, we may conclude that, in spite of the bad examples set by pseudo-scientific films, the language of images, precisely because of its peculiar qualities of reproducing reality in its dynamics and the possibility of spatial- temporal analysis, is in itself more scientific than other forms of documentation which (though equally exposed to subjectivation) include translations into other expressive codes, e.g. verbal and written summaries of dynamic events. We should not forget that these techniques of scientific cinema are not only an investigatory tool; once data obtained from a film have been used in research, the audio-visual document m a y still be of value as a means of communication.

In his fundamental book, Research Films in Biology, Anthropology, Psychology and Medicine (see bibliography), A. R. Michaelis has collected technical information and descriptions of about 1,500 applications of scientific cinema to research only in the fields indicated in the title and made by the early 1950s. Scientific films may, thus, according to needs, be used to communicate results and to prove their validity or teaching purposes. This may necessitate re-editing, the addition of diagrams, or other modifications. The film can constitute a basic document for science popularization, for the purpose of illustrating a talk, or be used in the form of extracts included in a longer film or TV science programme.

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5 - CINEMATOGRAPHY AND TELEVISION FOR EDUCATIONAL PU R P O S E S

The ever-increasing needs of schools and permanent education peculiar to our twentieth-century society have brought to the fore- front the importance of the role that audio-visuals can play in this field. O n several occasions the possibilities of cinema and television as teaching instruments have been overestimated. It was thought, for instance, that the teacher could be miraculously replaced by an audio-visual. The enthusiasm for the language of images led some to believe that the transmission of ideas through audio-visual perception could take the place of verbal language. Yet many persons with conservative, traditionalist outlooks on teaching have prejudicially underestimated the rational use of audio-visual means by mis- representing their functions and, therefore, not taking advantage of the real possibilities.

Certain illusions foreseeing a total use of audio-visuals in the schools of the future should be rethought, but it should be emphasized that -- even today -- in industrialized and developing countries the possibilities of the language of dynamic images are still not fully exploited. It should not be forgotten that w e are dealing with a new way of communicating, and that its most effective applications will enrich modern teaching techniques as well as widen the possibilities to study and understand many phenomena.

5.1. - History In the 17th century Comenius, the Czech educational reformer,

supported both in theory and practice the great value of images in the learning process. His book, Orbis Sensualium Pictus, is based on illustrations used as a key and a guide to learning words and concepts. In the treatise, Didactica Magna, he states repeatedly that visual perception must be used to the maximum in schools. A golden rule for teachers, he writes, is that visual objects should be presented for scrutiny because ocular observation replaces demonstration.

Purkinje (Purkyne), a well-known physiologist and fellow- countryman of Comenius, may have been the first person (around 1850) to use short cycles of moving pictures, while teaching at university, to demonstrate blood circulation and heartbeat. H e used

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apparatus derived from optical instruments previously inventcd by Plateau, the Belgian scientist, and Stampfer, an Austrian.

At the outset of scientific cinematography, i.e. still prior to the birth and spread of cinema as entertainment, there were impassioned preachers of the importance this new instrurnerit for knowledge would have in teaching. For a niJmber of years cinematographic projectior~s were shaky and silent, in black and white, and often photographically imperfect. But a few pioneers already maintained that in many cases film would take over from books and even replace the teacher. They were also convinced that educational cinematography would raise the cultural level of the masses, victims of ignorance and illiteracy at the time. Cinema was spoken of as a possible universal lariguage of the future as its images would enable different peoples to communicate reciprocally at a distance; even the underprivileged, of every race, unable to read or write and hardly knowing their own language, would be among those to benefit.

Subsequently it became obvious when entertainment cinema was available to the masses in many countries that even the language of moving images, forming the basis of film, requires the spectators to have a cultural background and some type of education to receive and understand it.

Secondly it also became clear that only in some cases is this new language total, direct and essential in expressing the complexity of a dynamic phenomenon with the maximal effectiveness. At other times interpretative elements and spoken or written comments are needed. In these cases the visual language is no longer universal: one must know how to read to understand the short texts in a silent film. Even though the images may be universal, one must know the language in which a film's sound-track is recorded.

The arrival of sound film reproposed the idea, at least in some of the largest developed countries, of cinema for teaching purposes as a total means almost entirely able to substitute for teachers. This led to a great improvement in the technical quality of production and reproduction including colour film. Cinema courses were planned and made, and were to provide forms of teaching at a distance: series of films to be sent out to decentralized towns and villages so that students could follow courses in specific subjects -- even when an expert was not available.

Developments in television have reopened the breach for a new invasion of activities which could well establish 'tele-teaching' as a

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fact and, in the more advanced proposals, abolish the traditional type of school. In at least one case, such as the Teleschool experiment in Italy in the 1960s, television was used to broadcast an entire cycle of lessons for the 10 - 13 age group. This was a costly, provisional effort to cover the initial stages of the prolongation of compulsory schooling at a time when there was a lack of schools and teachers in some regions.

There was also an experiment in India for a year, during which a satellite was used to broadcast educational programmes to decentralized or remote areas; two different sound versions were used as the programmes were destined to two ethnic groups.

But these and other cases cannot be taken as general indications, especially when comparing their cost and practical effectiveness. So far, the use of film and video for teaching in different countries has had very varied results: while it had great success in some places, in others the medium caused deep disappointment. Very often cinema and television have not been used rationally in teaching: audio-visuals have been projected at odd intervals, and not always with proper objectives. In spite of all this, there remains the conviction that the language of moving images has great potential in the educational field and that its wealth of possibilities has not yet been adequately explored. Especially in industrialized countries, this phenomenon has raised some strange contradictions: children spend more time in front of the T V set than they do at school. In everyday life young students are, as w e have said, literally submerged in a sea of images, of which there are far too few in school -- and these not explained or interpreted sufficiently .

5.2 - Modern trends in the use of teaching film and video The illusions of several cinema pioneers, who acclaimed the

new invention as an ideal instrument for teaching, have often been shattered by technical, practical and economic difficulties. What is more, clumsy attempts to use audio-visuals in education at any cost have caused open rejection of the traditional educational sound film, considered extraneous to the teacher-student relations established by educational theory. In other cases, the same educational film has been used as a gap-filler instead of a substitute teacher.

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In the last few decades overwhelming technological progress has revealed new theoretical and practical trends which have often created further pedagogic illusions or even utopias, though some rJf them may have positive elements which can be inLeresling and useful. Among these are Io ng- di s t a m e teaching , corn p u t e r- as s i s t e d instruction and teaching machines.

Modern electronics -- with all its facilities and the vast amount of material in audio-visual archives growing at a tremendous pace -- can certainly do a lot for those who wish to study alone. Essentially it is a question of technical means and available organization to give adequate support to the venture. For the moment, all this involves high costs and in rnany countries is linked to the general economic situation. The inter-personal relationships between teacher and student and the two-way flow in the teaching process also have an intrinsic value and educational effectiveness which a machine or automatic process cannot totally replace, even if the costs of all these devices are lowered.

While examining modern trends in the use of audio-visuals in teaching, w e shall base our ideas on realistic data and the conviction that in many countries schools and universities -- in the medium and perhaps even long term -- will continue the traditional forms of teaching, while integrating audio-visual techniques.

5.2.1. - Advantages and weak points The point of departure lies in the selective use of audio-visuals

in teaching, not only when they are needed but when the language of mobile images adds something special and irreplaceable to words and fixed images.

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All attempts to use film and video when these are not essential end in the devaluation of the new channel of communication for the transmission of certain types of information and knowledge which can only be conveyed by moving images.

By respecting these conditions, teaching methods will be enhanced and in the future, when the use of new techniques is simpler and less expensive, w e shall see a progressive yet radical trans-

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formation of teaching procedure; both still and moving images will be integrated, with increasing cohesion, to the old channel consisting of the oral and written word. In the more or less distant future the image as an element in teaching will no longer travel one-way, from teacher to student. When the forming of still and moving images becomes as simple as the formulation of a word or sentence and the student becomes familiar with the process, audio-visual dialectics will become as common as the verbal relationship has been for thousands of years. It seems utopian perhaps, hut technological progress is so fast that w e can begin to rethink our conceptual and practical approaches. Our goals will he reached all the faster if w e learn how to invest our resources for social and pacific ends rather than, for example, in armaments.

To return to the present situation, we should emphasize the importance of the use of film and video in education for the presentation-explanation of all those phenomena or situations in which the dynamic element plays a fundamental role -- and when the word or still image is ineffective or gives only a vague idea of the evolving process. It is also important to screen films or video (a) of all the dynamic events occurring in geographically distant areas or (b) which took place in the past, or (c) events which are difficult to repeat, such as expensive scientific experiments, and rarc natural happenings. Scientific film is also essential in (a) visualizing an entire series of events referring to temporal scale or physical dimensions which are not otherwise visible; and (b) the possibility of translating into observable images everything occurring at wave lengths where visibility is nil (see Chap.4).

In all these cases it is quite obvious that films or video are advantageous, not to say indispensable, in providing effective modern teaching.

There are other examples, too, in which the use of dynamic audio-visuals in teaching is both useful and profitable, if not essential:

- transmitting information, especially the repetition of courses, in the absence of the teacher;

- presenting propedeutically, or by way of introduction, a number of questions and problems which then become the subject of analytical lessons for teachers; such audio-visual introductions may be very important psychologically in arousing the students' attention to a question they were unaware of, or thought problematic, or which might seem boring or difficult to expound in words alone;

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- recapitulating series of informations (problems or explanations) at the end of a cycle of lessons. Audio-visuals of Lhis kind are often very useful in (a) pinpointing the essential elements of a subject to be memorized and (b) provoking discussion among those who had not grasped parts of the previous lessons.

Film or video which presents problematic aspects of the outside world (in nature, in physical-dynamic phenomena) or of our personal life (biology and physiology, interpersonal relations and the human and social sciences) is especially appropriate as an attractive propedeutic phase t'o a teaching cycle. When subsequent lessons deal with details and probe problems, reference to or repetition of images already seen will reinforce the clarity and effectiveness of teaching. This is true for all those events or processes which are presented audio-visually through the use of special techniques in scientific cinema.

Lastly, strictly didactic and specialized film and video have an important role in teaching and memorizing all the elements connected with practical exercises in any scientific laboratory: to illustrate different manual techniques, the use of a piece of apparatus, and the subsequent stages of an experiment. Short ad hoc audio-visuals, especially single-concept films (see 5.2.4.) which can be projected non-stop (like film loops) enable students to grasp work techniques on their own and save the teacher precious time and energy.

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In certain practical situations, film and video have been used in teaching to fill spurious functions in an attempt to exploit their use for ends not directly connected with the special nature of the language of images. By linking the instinctive association of the ideas of film and video as forms of amusement, didactic film-video has been used as entertainment. In some cases this can work, to arouse unattentive or tired students, but it is often a trap which can spring the wrong way. If the audio-visual is truly educational it can frustrate the hopes placed on the "show"; if it is not, the screening detracts from the purpose, and the teacher's task of conveying problems and information correctly becomes more difficult.

In an infinite number of other cases the educational audio- visual is essentially considered a useful medium for increasing the number of students who can follow a certain lesson -- thanks to its repetition in time and the ability to transmit it through space. It is

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obvious that this type of use may be very important in solving certain critical situations (such as the lack of teachers and classrooms), on condition that the lesson be authentically audio-visual. This IS, in other words, integration of the presence of the teacher with all the visual elements: film, experiments, still images having different sources and characterislics. These give the lesson its original nature and differentiate it from radio, telephonic and recorded broadcasts, even providing the teacher's voice or the reading of the text of the lesson itself.

Yet there are dangers lurking when film and video are used in this way in teaching. This is especially so where there is no dialectic contact with the teacher, because the unmotivated student loses interest and does not absorb the lesson; or in the absence of the special nature of the use of the language of images (i.e. when everything is based on the mechanical reproduction of the figure of the teacher who is speaking). In such cases, the effectiveness of the audio-visual for further, more appropriate uses will, in a way, be neutralized.

Teachers who spend time, and give care and attention to multiplying their image through film and video should dedicate the same time, care and attention to the elimination of their "talking heads" from didactic film and video. Whenever their words can and should be substituted by real scientific images linked to the expression and communication of the theme of the lesson, they must be.

So far, w e have reviewed the real, or questionable, advantages of the use of dynamic audio-visuals in teaching. Let us now have a brief look at the weak points.

There are essentially two fundamental limits or defects: one is structural and the other of a technical-practical nature. The present structure of the language of dynamic images lends itself badly to any type of conceptualization or expression of abstract thought. The direct link which images have with the reality they reproduce obstructs or limits the rational processes whereby abstract meanings can be extrapolated. The editing of different images, either in logical sequence or purposely set side by side to emphasize their difference, creates forms of conceptualization which w e receive inductively. Development is such that, in the use of the language of images in mass communication in our present-day society, this conceptual induction is essentially impressionistic and rarely touches on the rational. This is partly because of the instrumental character imposed

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by technology in this early stage of mass use of the new language. And this is a one-way, manipulated use. W e can accept it only passively (or perhaps reject it). We cannot infuse dialectics because, though it is usual for us to receive messages (we are in fact submerged by them), there are very few of us who can use them as a means of self-expression.

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In future, this situation will change as developments occur in the language of images and the forms and techniques of its reproduci- bility. W e should not forget that in the history of culture the use of the oral/written language initially was limited, for practical reasons as well as questions of power (availability of instruments, papyri, tablets as well as scribes to use them), to the transmission and registration of one-way messages: commands, documents, accountancy and the like. The democratic, revolutionary invention of the printing press was, for a certain time, controlled by a few to spread the one-way, incontrovertible message of the Bible.

Whilst awaiting future improvements to widen the present limits to expression in the language of images, w e can only maintain an awareness of them and try to use this language solely within its specific possibilities.

The other limit or defect -- often brought out by the use of audio-visuals in teaching -- is of a technical-practical nature. There are a number of factors which make it difficult, complicated, irritating, unsatisfactory or even impossible to project a film or present video in the right way, at the right moment in certain conditions. These include obtaining the software (film or video) in addition to the technical-practical requisites for projecting the film: the appropriate apparatus which should be in perfect working order, the need for technicians in use and maintenance, classrooms with good acoustics and where blackouts are possible so that films can be screened. Then there are problems of differing standards in the cinematographic field: projectors and film in different gauges, differing types of sound track, dubbing of foreign films. In the video field, there are the widely different systems used in Europe and America, with contrasting models produced by different manu- facturers. T o all this w e can add the low quality of a projection hastily organized in imperfect conditions. All in all, there are many practical reasons, which teachers have experienced directly, that dampen initial enthusiasm for the use of audio-visuals then kill it completely after several encounters with difficult or negative situations.

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All the pitfalls and obstacles will not disappear overnight. There will be a gradual improvement of the situation as long as audio-visuals are used correctly and at the right moment in an increasing number of countries, schools, universities and other places of teaching.

The process of standardizing projection techniques and making them automatic, as well as greater ease in obtaining the film and video material required, will be the inevitable consequences of increased and more highly motivated requests from potential users.

Thousands upon thousands of teachers, in many countries and different types of schools, now make regular use of 16 mm film or the most common types of videocassette in their teaching activities. Our advice is to persevere when meeting initial difficulties and arm oneself with information before using audio-visuals -- to be able to select the good ones from the first made available and to avoid wasting available resources.

5.2.2. - W h o is the author of an educational film or video?

If one is to use film and video in teaching, one must obviously have access to hardware (production and reproduction apparatus) and software (film and videocassettes). Later w e shall take a look at the problems concerning hardware (Chaps. 8 and 91, but in section 5.2.5. w e shall examine the sources of software now available.

At this point w e shall deal with what is, in a certain sense, a preliminary issue: When producing an audio-visual (whether film or video) specifically intended for teaching purposes, who is the ideal author of this production, and what are the prerequisites needed to achieve a good production?

In many industrialized countries where there is also a strongly developed industry for cin--television production, most educational audio-visuals are made by film-makers specialized in this type of production. They work closely with a scientific consultant or, in other words, a teacher of the theme of the film.

There is evidence though of an increasing need for teachers thernselves to produce their own audio-visuals, both in their technical as well as their conceptual aspects. Teachers intent on following this path must therefore master the language of images by acquiring knowledge of its rules and an "audio-visual culture". This is not merely a question of techniques and manual ability.

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These days, and still more in the future, cinematographic cameras, television cameras and video recorders will become highly automatic and much easier to handle. The problem lies mainly in knowing how to express oneself through images in a way which satisfies needs in teaching.

This does not mean that in the future every single teacher must be the author of the audio-visuals he or she uses in teaching. Centuries and centuries after the early circulation of printed books, most instructors today still use textbooks written by their colleagues who have become experts in this job. Everyone knows, though, that in universities and many schools all teachers integrate textbooks with lesson texts, monographs and other specific matter. The same should be the case for audio-visuals too, when appropriate.

In some highly advanced centres for the study and production of educational audio-visuals, like the Audio-visual Centre at Utrecht University, an "ideal" formula has been drawn up to define the partners who should co-operate in the production of this material. This configuration can be seen as a triangle with the student at its centre. The three vertices contributing to audio-visual production are: the teacher, the media specialist and the educational specialist.

Thus an expert in educational problems is placed alongside the teacher and the specialist film-maker; his role is to ensure the greatest effectiveness and validity in the audio-visual expression of the scientific content of the film or video cassette being produced.

As w e have already said, this formula is an ideal one. In the narrower sense of the word, this also means the formula is not always applicable. Practical problems often prevail, and in the proposed "trio" no one has precedence over the others. W h o is the production leader? There are at least two plausible replies. The teacher leads the work assisted by the media specialist who deals with the technical-expression side, having consulted the educational specialist where necessary. Otherwise, the media specialist makes the products with the scientific co-operation of the teacher after consultation with the educational specialist, if necessary.

As regards the language of images at its present state of development, our general awareness of it and its assimilation, we may conclude that

(I) In the developed countries where there are specific pre- requisites in educational film and video production, the simplest way

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is often to hand over the production to specialized film-makers working in close co-operation with the teacher. The audio-visual centres (see 5.3) will be engaged in work to promote, guide and qualify teachers' -- especially young teachers' -- access to the use of film and video techniques, so that they can produce their own work directly. At the Institut fUr den Wissenschaftlichen Film (IWF) in GHttingen, Federal Republic of Germany, scientific films on research and higher education are usually made by a scientific author (a researcher or teacher) with technical co-operation from a producer- director who (a) usually works at the Institut, (b) has scientific training in the subject of the film, and (c) is specialized in scientific cinema techniques. Within the IWF, such a producer-director is called Referent fUr... followed by the name of the scientific sector in which he works (botany, ethology, etc.).

(2) In developing countries, where these activities are still at early stages or have yet to get under way, it would be wiser to set down guidelines immediately for teachers to make direct use of audio-visual means after adequate preparation. Even if there are difficulties or shortcomings in this preparation, it is far better to run the risk of having teachers make mistakes at the outset. The alternative is much more dangerous because, if one depends on the few or ill-prepared (although willing) film-makers on the market, it almost always means dealing with technicians and directors working professionally in commercial advertising, other publicity films or low-quality film or video stories. It is easier to convert a teacher to make good use, in his specific sector, of film or video techniques, than it is to transform a cin6-television professional with years of hard-boiled commercial experience into a good producer of scientific films. In the best possible case the latter would introduce expressive modules, connected to the motives for advertising, into the language. Contrarily to superficial appearances, these modules are not the best for the rational use of audio-visuals in teaching.

In some countries young teachers must, after university studies, follow compulsory courses or seminars on the use of audio-visuals in education before they themselves begin teaching -- or at least in the initial trial period. In most cases they are trained to make passive use, in their teaching activity, of films and video already existing as well as other static visual devices. In a few cases, and this trend should be encouraged, young teachers are given an introduction to the active use of production apparatus so that (should the need or possibility arise) they can make or co-operate in making audio- visuals.

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Some avant-qarde theories in education maintain that the active use of the language of moving images rnust be introduced into teaching in the very first classes of primary school in order to develop potential abilities in this mode of expression. As a result of such views, some countries (European ones especially) have seen film and video made directly by children and young students in elementary and secondary schools -- with or without the close co-operation of a teacher. In Italy there is a biennial festival in Pisa to present and discuss productions of this kind.

5.2.3. - The educational technology Over the last few decades a trend has developed in the field of

educational sciences, mainly in the Anglo-American countries, which tends to bring automation to teaching. Whether called computer assisted instruction, teaching machines or programmed learning, automation removes the traditional figure of the teacher entirely (or almost completely) and substitutes electronic technology: basically a computer with optional equipment. The strongest argument made by subscribers to these theories and practical experiments is that it is the student himself, together with educational technology, who directs and guides the learning process. The student has all the possibilities offered by the memory of the 'slave machine' at his fingertips. This view has aroused heated discussion over questions of principle, especially because costs are often extremely high. In the most concrete cases, advanced educational technology is an absurd flight forward which in no way helps to solve serious teaching problems, especially in science, in many countries. O n the contrary, such technology tends to widen the gap between the levels of science in industrialized countries and in the developing ones.

W e shall deal here with a few aspects of the problems of educational technology which refer directly to the use of cinema and television in teaching. First of all, w e must agree on what w e mean by technology. "Educational technology can be a computer. It can also be a gifted teacher using a cord stretched across a room to demonstrate wave phenomena in physics" (New Trends in the Utilization of Educational Technology for Science Education, Paris, Unesco, 1974, p.15). Between these two extremes comes the use of educational audio-visuals. This use often involves improvement in teaching methods: "Film cannot improve bad teaching, but it can reinforce the efficiency of good teaching" (The Role of Film in Connection with New Teaching Methods --_~_ --- in Hi her Education, International Seminar, Padua University, 1973, p.17 Audio-visuals

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can be considered, therefore, as elements in modern educational technology. They have the advantage of being ablc to be inserted both into avant-garde teaching methods (such as automated and computerized teaching) and in traditional teaching methods where they can help to improve and modernize these.

Another important trend in educational technology can he seen in the various experiments which have been carried out and are still of great value in "teaching-at-a-distance". The classic example is the British Open University, which has won international praise. Much has already been written about it, and some forty similar ventures have been set u p or attempted in both industrialized and developing counlries. In this chapter w e would like only to pinpoint some of this i ns t i tu ti on's character i s t i cs.

We should say, first of all, for those who might be mistaken, that the Open University is not a teaching formula based on audio- visuals: television programmes, film or radio broadcasts. In the overall number of study hours demanded of students, film and video programmes make up less than 10 per cent; the remainder consists of study with appropriate books (usually high level texts, especially written for individual study), practical exercises using small home- laboratories, homework by correspondence, and periodic meetings with teachers. This confirms what w e stated earlier, i.e. the hest teaching method today is still the one where dynamic audio-visuals are used only when necessary, and for subjects which require them. O n the other hand, w e must say that most of the filmed programmes used by the O.U. in its educational broadcasts are of a very high standard, made with great care and with the use of up-to-date scientific cinematographic techniques --including computer graphics. The students can also consult these audio-visual texts, which are broadcast more than once and at variable times, because they are available as videocassettes in a number of centres.

It is also interesting to point out that the special BBC service and its academic staff which makes the films has, over the years, built up a group of audio-visual technicians and specialized producers and favours, as w e have maintained, those with a scientific training who acquire competence in making audio-visuals, instead of vice- versa.

Side by side wilh these specific teaching-al-a-distance ventures w e should remind readers that in many countries television stations, almost exclusively state-owned (public) now transmit special programmes or dedicate a channel to cultural and scientific

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broadcasts intended (a) especially for adult education, (h) to help young people to choose further studies or an occupation, or (c) as refresher courses for certain groups of professions (doctors, technicians). There are also cycles of programmes to be integrated into curricula at various scholastic levels.

So far so good, as long as the language of images is used appropriately. Sometimes many programmes are basically conversations illustrated with generic pictures to fill the time and give variety to the "takes" of the speaker. In this case radio transmissions would be better, money would be saved and resources and technical means could be concentrated on subjects requiring the specific use of the language of moving images.

In this respect also, the BBC school programmes have had useful and important experience. If a particular subject cannot be taught effectively using words alone, but where television is considered superfluous because still pictures would he sufficient, there is a low-price service which supplies the schools, already informed about the programmes months ahead, with an ad hoc series of slides. During the school year the BBC radio service transmits "guides" for teachers on the use of still pictures; the teachers can then easily record the broadcasts they are interested in onto audio cassettes and use the information when they think best.

Thus, the field of educational technology is a wide one, ranging from what w e may consider the excesses of total automation of the learning process to the more reasonable use of some of the teaching- at-a-distance experiments. In all cases, thanks to these experiments, there has often been positive fall-out in the improvement of specific uses of film and video in their applications to teaching.

5.2.4. - The different genres of educational audio-visuals

As w e mentioned earlier in this chapter, the idea that a film could be a self-sufficient, independent entity in teaching, at least for certain subjects, prevailed for many decades. This idea took root especially when cinematography added sound and colour.

The so-called 'traditionall type of educational film usually makes use of live shots; special techniques, animation and other graphic indications; arrows, diagrams and boards with writing are also employed. Sometimes the science teacher-consultant appears in person to announce the subject and link up various parts of the film.

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In some cases, the sound track includes music which merely distracts viewers. Thousands and thousands of such films have been made all over the world. Many arc now out of date from the point of view of scientific information, and others have had only limited circulation in the countries where they were produced. Furthermore, a large number of these films, usually made by multinational companies for commercial ends or by sponsoring the film and thereby obtaining indirect publicity, have had and still enjoy international circulation. Generally speaking these films, or scrics of films which cover a part of the teaching programmes of science subjects such as chemistry, physics, biology, or the earth sciences, give descriptivc, systematic views of a whole series of laboratory experiments, as well as phenomena and specific aspects of the external world and the life of animals and plants. In the history of traditional educational films, there are dozens or even hundreds of films of the type, "the life of insects'' or "the wonders in a drop of water seen under the microscope".

Initially, the advent of television had little positive influence on production trends in educational films. Quite the opposite: in many cases educational films already available were used in "education" broadcasts, presented with an introduction and scenes of a teacher inserted. This led to the production of series of educational films for cinematographic use in schools and in television programming; they lasted a little under 30 rninules and included famous scientists, some of them Nobel prize winners, as talking heads.

It was only later that examples of television programmes appeared with educational aims, though these were not strictly educational; they made intelligent use of the expressive possibilities offered by television. Good use of television for teaching, such as the British Open University programmes, derive directly from the tradition of high quality science and nature programmes produced by the BBC.

Today the best teachers show very little interest, if not outright disdain, for the so-called traditional educational film which is systematic and descriptive, has a sound track (often with music) and lasts about 20 minutes. They show a preference for scientific films which deal with a single subject in detail and illustrate various aspects of the topic.

This type of film is usually made not only specifically for teaching purposes but also to (a) act as guidelines in certain sectors of public opinion, when the problems at hand are important scientifically having socio-economic aspects, e.g. the question of

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energy sources; (b) provide professional updating for specialized groups; and (c) supply information to specifically motivated audiences, for example health or clinical problems for nursing staff and families which have been hit by a certain illness. Another kind of scientific film which is arousing increasing interest among teachers is the one which presents problems leading to scientific research in a certain field, or issues concerning animal, vegetable and physico- chemical life in the world around US. After screening of the film, discussion follows naturally and serves as the introduction to a cycle of lessons or the summary of an argument already dealt with.

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There can be little doubt that the experience of almost a century of scientific cinema, first sporadically and then more widely used as a teaching aid, enables US to confirm that there are many different (yet valid) forms through which the language of images can be inserted into the learning process. At the present state of the use of various languages, both the verbal and iconic ones, the form which _ _ in our opinion -- seems to ensure the best result is that of the single-concept film.

What is a single-concept film? It is a short, usually silent monothematic film whose subject is a single phenomenon, experiment, concept or event. Many such films last only a few minutes. Because of the basic characteristics of these films some people have called them "dynamic slides" or "moving diapositives"; they tend to promote the spread of audio-visual techniques in teaching. The more a system of educational films and video is offered as an all-embracing, self-sufficient information element, the more the teachers are suspicious and even hostile -- as though the instructors believe that their prerogatives have been curtailed, that they have been excluded from the teaching process. But the 'short, silent films which can be shown during a lesson are no longer an alien element; they have their part in the lesson just as the teachers' exposition and the students' discussion have theirs. They become part of a modern educational theory making use of images, because they are more meaningful than words.

During the 1930s, Jean Painlev6, a French pioneer of the scientific cinema, maintained that true educational films should (a) be very short, (b) deal with one subject only and (c) be able to be shown several times in quick succession with the possibility of being stopped at a single frame. Painlev6 added that the projection apparatus should become as simple to operate as chalk on the

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blackboard. His last hope has not yet come true, but we are unanimous about the other features of an ideal educational film. What is more, in the last few decades great technico-industrial efforts have been made to make one or more single-concept films easier (and more automatic) to project during a lesson. In theory, the technique is as easy as using blackboard chalk. In this respect, A. I. Berman has written: "The most exciting recent innovation in the employment of motion-picture media in science education has been the widespread use of single-concept film in the continuous-loop cartridge." In his opinion, "the teacher's description of the life-cycle of a flowering plant is no substitute for the time-compressed colour motion picture of the event." (New Trends in the Utilization of Educational Technology for Science Education, Paris, Unesco, 1974, pp.102, 107). Since this particular venture was begun by a large multinational firm and a number of others had transferred huge quantities of short educational films onto cassettes, one would think that the singlz-concept film would have achieved success in teaching. These are still used in many countries, but as of a certain moment expansion failed.We shall mention later (in Chaps. 8 and 9) the factors to be taken into account in marketing and explain why an evolution did not take place. Here we must reiterate, if a play on words will be excdsed, that the 'concept' of concept-films should be thought of independently from the success of a commercial venture involving precise technical limits. The idea of a single-concept film reposes in its thematic structure and formal characteristics. The practical method of presenting them may vary, improve and become simpler in the future as technology progresses.

In many university lecture halls, for example, the super-E projector has not had even the slightest possibility of satisfactory use. It has poor luminosity, and its images are small; it was, in fact, designed for use in small classrooms. Many lecturers therefore make their own short, single-concept films, edited in the order of presentation on a single reel of 16 mm film; they use them regularly, sometimes "jumping" one film and inserting another in its place. A n expensive projector-analyzer is not always available, to stop at a single frame or run in slow motion, and it is inconvenient to have to rewind film in order to view a phenomenon several times and explain it in detail. The use of electronic technology will soon allow a teacher to edit the various pieces of single-concept film which he or she intends to use.

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2

There are undoubtedly many advantages to the short films we are discussing:

useless introductions or embellishments;

inserting digressions;

primary schools and even at university for different types of lesson.

their content is limited to what is visually essential, without

they can be used without inserting extraneous material or

they are valid at various levels, and some films can be used in

A single-concept film on the locomotion of an animal, for example, can interest wide-ranging classes; the teacher adds his or her own comments. The same film can be used, perhaps with other short footages for general zoology or in analytical studies of an animal, or for questions of comparative anatomy or physiology. A long, traditional educational film with sound track, its other components and introduction, would simply let the students' mind wander; this almost always has an approach which differs from the one needed by the teacher showing the film.

Given screenings. (sometimes technicians phases of a At present,

their brevity, these films offer the possibility of repeated This aspect is of great value when the films are used with a pre-recorded comment added) with students or on the subject of handling equipment or subsequent technique for laboratory practice or real-life operation. there are thousands of single-concept films on the inter-

national market, on very different subjects. Thousands more can be extracted from scientific or other educational films.

W e have a case, w e might call an emblematic one, of this type of film in what happened when the Walt Disney production company decided to issue their "Wonders of Nature'' series to schools. Since their first appearance on public cinema screens these films, though they were very popular with the public, were highly criticized because too often there were spectacular effects which deformed the presentation of the life in nature and the animal world. The real time of a phenomenon was often altered for the sole aim of achieving editing or sound effects, and spoken comments often gave anthro- pomorphic meanings which were quite out of place -- so that natural situations seemed ridiculous or grotesque. Biology was presented as a series of strange and wonderful events, often caricatured. There was no really scientific approach, not even at a popular level (yet the Walt Disney films had been made with a large budget), expeditions

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were sent all over the world to film the most interesting things which were then manipulated in the films.

A company specialized in the production and distribution of educational films purchased the rights to extract almost two hundred short, silent single-concept films from the scientifically controversial productions. The cinematographic material, often unique as documents, acquired in this new form (without formal juggling or superimposed, musical effects and editing) its value as a document of dynamic phenomena and became a matter of scientific observation.

Single-concept films are obviously of special interest in multi- medial educational systems where the teacher makes use of various types of teaching aids. The same may be said of the various forms, automated or not, of self-teaching.

Another kind of audio-visual means for teaching -- which, in our view, will continue to develop and have widespread use -- is the television programmes for teaching at a distance or broadcasts for adult education. This type of television programme often uses sequences, which are almost always cinematographic, for reproducing experiments and natural phenomena. These are in fact series of concept films linked to each other by their presentation, diagrams and animation. As video-magnetic recording and reproduction techniques become more widely available, teachers can use such material with greater ease by obtaining a copy of television programmes on videocassette or film, or by recording directly what they need.

As for T V programmes broadcast directly for classroom distribution, "the normal broadcast pattern is unwieldly and inefficient. It is far better to use broadcast facilities as a vehicle to 'deliver' material to schools where it may be recorded and re-played to suit the teaching pattern. An especially attractive option is the potential use of the idle hours of broadcasting stations for the purpose, since inexpensive automatic recorders are now available to capture such programmes unattended, at any time of the day or night." (Unesco seminar on Popularization of Science through Television, Ljubljana, December, 1980, Final Report, p.6.)

Special types of educational audio-visuals are now appearing in professional refresher courses for teachers, physicians, technicians and professionals working in rapidly developing fields. They often take the form of special TV programrnea, which can also be viewed and discussed by using a videocassette at home or in special video-

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centrcs. The audio-visual may thus become not only a teaching element but also a stimulus for discussion within homogeneous groups, or a kind of preparation for professional qualifying examinations.

Lastly, a significant use of the video-recorder for teaching purposes is found in "microteaching" -- when mini-lessons by student- teachers are recorded, to be reviewed later in order to promote discussion during teacher training courses. There is already full documentation and a bibliography on the experiences acquired through this teaching method. (cf. N e w Trends in Educational Technology, Paris, Unesco, 1974.)

5.2.5. - Existing sources Some people may object that it is all too easy to speak about

the importance of the use of film in teaching, but that in practice there are a number of difficulties which occur. Not only are there technical difficulties, such as organizing a screening: this is not difficult, but obtaining a screening often is. There are also questions of appropriate rooms, equipment and its maintenance. The greatest difficulty, though, is identifying and obtaining the appropriate films. Only a few countries with adequate resources can afford to produce themselves most of the audio-visual material required by a modern educational system. Most other countries must integrate the scientific educational films they have produced with films ordered from foreign countries.

This raises a series of questions: how can w e learn whether the films we would like to use exist, and where; how can they be obtained; how much does this operation cost; and how should the films be used?

One might think that looking through catalogues and selecting the films required would be enough. In future, no doubt -- thanks to the marvels of electronics -- all w e need to do will be to make a request, perhaps even by telephone, for what w e need in order to receive immediately all information available from a data bank on the screen of our set. Present-day reality is, unfortunately, different, and probably for some time to come w e shall have to search for incomplete and perhaps out-of-date catalogues, then procure and study them. There are no general archives for this purpose, and even in the electronic future it may be difficult to find sources containing a record of all educational film productions made in all countries.

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In some cases there are national catalogues, but often vlhcn these arrive abroad they are already partly obsolete. What is more, they usually contain many films imported from the country where the catalogue was printed. Obtaining these films usually means applyinq to the country of origin. There are also sectoral catalogues, the most. useful, which list the productions made in one or more countries or perhaps by a single, large institution or firm making audio-visual material on one subject or in a certain scientific sector. Unfortunately these compilations take much time to examine and, when finally published and distributed, begin to he out of date. S o m e catalogues are continually updated, and are obviously the best. One must learn to distinguish between the promoters of these catalogues. Some, often multinational, companies have an exclusively economic interest in circulating their material, offered to all and sundry; they are expensive, and one must be careful that they have not come from the "bottom shelf'' and contain obsolete data.

The cultural sections of some embassies, which usually lend scientific and technological film free of charge, and are made in the countries they represent, do so for reasons of prestige and propaganda. Here too, one must be careful as to the real educational value of the material offered. There are scientific and educational institutions at both national and international levels which produce scientific films and audio-visuals with their institutional ends in view (rather than financial success). Even though this material is not free of charge, it is obviously less expensive than commercial productions. Unfortunately it is often far from easy to learn of the existence of these films or videocassettes, especially when they are single or occasional productions made by a university, a specialized scientific instilution, a company producing cultural films, or television programmes made b y a non-profit making station. The national and international bodies listed in the Appendix of this publication are points of reference for research and further information.

Once the films required have been identified and the information for acquiring them obtained, there are practical problems which are not always easy to solve because they involve economic questions. Foreign productions usually require translation of the sound tracks; this entails high costs and technical problems, often difficult for many developing countries to resolve. One must always ascertain that the general content of a film corresponds, at least along general lines, to one's teaching programmes. Countries which have developed differently, and have different cultural Lraditions, use teaching approaches and methods which arc not always effective or even useable elsewhere.

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In many cases, acquiring a foreign film also involves limits to its use and reproduceability. A commercial film or non-profit production is usually available only for teaching and strictly non- commercial ("non- theatrical") purposes. Those who purchase these films must guarantee that a particularly meaningful sequence, for example -- which may also be beautiful from a spectacular point of view -- is not used arbitrarily outside its scientific or educational context for advertising or in a commercial television film or programme.

0 0 0

From what w e Save said above it is clear that the single- concept film has many advantages as regards its use internationally and in different cultural contexts. It is relatively easier to ascertain its contents, and its translation may be a question of a few captions (which could even be done vocally); it is economic because of its brevity and less subject to annoying bureaucratic difficulties occurring at customs offices in many countries, who are unaware of free-circulation statutes. For example, a long educational film often will not be allowed to enter without import tax or permits because its nature is often difficult to identify. A free-circulation statute has been given to scientific films via a Unesco agreement adhered to by many countries.

There are two reasons why we have emphasized the difficulties in acquiring films from other countries:

1) whenever possible and less or equally expensive, it is preferable for each country to produce its own audio-visual material for teaching;

2) in many cases, unfortunately, it will be necessary to obtain films already made because it is impossible or uselessly expensive to produce them oneself. This means finding the best existing production and not accepting the first offer. The latter may be highly advertised for profit, or to sell off old stock, or for reasons of influence as well as economic, industrial and even cultural penetration.

Over and above these observations, w e should underline the fact that there are thousands and thousands of scientific-educational television programmes which (in the right conditions) can be of great help in increasing the use of audio-visuals in teaching. There is no need to advertise the production of a number of European and North- American companies which sell countless films in many countries; these do their work well where they think that there are chances of

4a

making a profit. We prefer mentioning the existence of a few international or national ventures which are good examples of production or distribution of scientific-cducational films for universities especially. These can, in many cases, be used in secondary schools too:

- Encyclopaedia Cinematographica is a collection of more than 2700 films, many of which are single-concept or monographic films, made in different countries and published by the Institut fUr den Wissenschaftlichen Film in Ctlttingen, Federal Republic of Germany. There are categories for biology (zoology, botany, microbiology), ethnography and the technologies. The Institut also produces many educational films for universities and secondary schools on physics, chemistry, earth sciences, mathematics, psychology. There are partial or complete archives of the Encyclopaedia Cinematographica in several countries, including the United States and Japan.

- The Service du Film de Recherche Scientifique and other French scientific institutions distribute a large number of French and foreign scientific-educational films to universities and secondary schools in France, as well as films from the Encyclopaedia. Many French scientific films are also circulated abroad without profit- making ends.

- The British Universities Film and Video Council (BIJFVC) publishes a thick catalogue and organizes the distribution of much national and foreign audio-visual material in the United Kingdom. This, too, is a non-profit making activity.

Other information, as w e have said, can be found in the Appendix and still more useful, updated information in a situation in continual evolution can be obtained by applying to the appropriate institutions and other sources indicated in the Appendix.

5.2.6. - Self-made productions

Earlier w e said: When it is possible (and more economical than buying good material already made), each country, teaching institution or university should produce its own films or video- cassettes for teaching. This is not an invitation to promote indiscriminate production initiative -- since this would mean a great waste in economic terms. But if each country manages to overcome the inevitable rivalry and pride among individual institutions, it should try to co-ordinate its own production to avoid making a film twice. Knowledge and co-ordination of the various projects proposed

should result in several different films being made with the sarne commitment of resources, rather than a single film made several times over by isolated groups.

There is also a problem of scientific and technical competence. It is an error to take the initiative, merely out of a spirit of autonomy, to produce a film on a certain subject when another institution which could make it is (a) more highly specialized, (b) much better equipped technically to conduct experiments, and (c) also able to use special techniques to film any possible experiment or phenomenon.

Apart from these general remarks, when the opportunity arises to produce films or video-recordings which are needed for one's own teaching activity, besides the technical and practical indications given in detail in Chaps. 7 and 8, the following points should be kept in mind.

1) One of the greatest dangers w e run is falling back on amateurism, or "let's play at cinema or video taperecording." In a society where day-by-day mass communication through images assumes a greater role and achieves increasingly higher technical levels, a teacher should not run the risk of appearing an amateur (or worse, an uninitiated in the field of iconic communication) before his students. It is a different thing, of course, if the students helped to record the visual phenomena being studied. In this case, they have participated in the technical realization and thus become responsible too for the result. If there are technical faults, these must be considered problems dealt with inadequately and become part of the training for further experience and success.

What must be avoided is the demonstration of bad taste and pedagogic authoritarianism. We quote here a true story. A surgeon, lecturer at a Faculty of Medicine, decided to make a videotape of one of his operations. He invited technicians from the local commercial television station who, for the occasion, used good technical apparatus lent for promotional ends by the branch of a television equipment supplier. As a document, the recording stood a chance of being adequate and acceptable from the didactic point of view, although the technical crew had no experience in scientific cinematography and fell into commonplace banalities of expression instead of emphasizing what was useful for teaching purposes. The result was severely impaired by the fact that the surgeon decided to use not only an often superfluous spoken text (typical of those who are unable to utilize the language of images) but also a symphony as a musical comment, This was out of place; it clashed violently with the

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delicate gynaecological operation hc was performing. When he was asked the reason for his musical choice, the surgeon replied "My country is a dcveloping one, and our students have very little chance to hear the good music -- which I like. I thought that I would use this chance to give them some musical education while they were studying how a surgical operation should be carried out..." The results could not have been worse. It was tiring to follow the logic of the operation because the music completely disturbed the viewer, and the music could not be appreciated because (first) it was imposed and (secondly) it was in direct contrast to the images it accompanied.

2) One solution often adopted by teachers, who do not want to run the risk of amateurism or improvision, is to turn to local cinema and television professionals not only for their technical assistance, but also as directors: for the script as well as for the direction of the shooting and editing. Here we must point out that, in almost all cases, such professionals are in no way qualified to make a film or videotape which is effective as a teaching aid. Their professional training has usually been that of making films for advertising, public relations, third-class entertainment films, or sports or news reporting for television. They can easily become a 'foreign body' between the teacher and the material in hand; their shooting and editing of the subject and the added sound track will result in a hybrid of the various kinds of audio-visual work they usually produce. The educational value of the product will be strongly diminished as a result of all these reasons.

In these cases the teacher should not abdicate his or her functions or responsibility as the promoter of the initiative to produce educational films. In the best case, as w e shall not stop saying, the teacher himself should be trained to use the language of images in order to be able to prepare the approach to the work and direct its shooting with the help of the technicians. But when he does not think that he can do the work, he should at least try to use the professional film-maker intelligently by insisting on the teaching aims of the production. This means convincing him of the importance of the role of "scribe", that is, the person who helps to express and document the problems and phenomena which must be effective in teaching in a new and elaborate language.

3) The importance of the visual documentation of a dynamic phenomenon is all the greater if the phenomenon in question occurs at a moment or in a place preventing it from being inserted directly into the teaching programme. By recording the phenomenon on film or videotape, it can be used at the right moment and thereby make teaching more effective.

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4) A good professional standard in making a filrn and ensuring its visual effectiveness will guarantee its validity for direct use in one's own teaching. This will also facilitate the use of the same material by other teachers.

5) In the choice of the natural or artificial phenomenon to be documented visually for teaching purposes, and in the way it is documented, one should not think simply of one's specific needs. Without neglecting these needs, one should keep in mind that the phenomenon in question may be interesting as an audio-visual in other countries too. In some cases it may even become a valuable document, e.g. the animal whose behaviour is recorded or the physical phenomenon reproduced may be well known in the country where the film is made but unusual or unknown in other areas.

6) After practical proof of the value in teaching of the material produced, it is useful to publicize information on the technical characteristics and content of the educational audio-visual, through the proper channels, and as far afield as possible. This will be helpful for those who may need such material but, in this way, it will also be possible to acquire royalties for commercial use for a film or television broadcast -- or to obtain in exchange other audio-visual material which may be of interest. There may even be the possibility of setting up a chain reaction. If a large number of instructors in teaching institutes, scientific laboratories or universities were to make good audio-visual documentation of natural phenomena and those pertaining to the life of man -- typical of their geographic area and which had not been filmed for teaching purposes previously -- the systematic exchange of copies of these films would greatly enrich the total amount of material for teaching. Here, too, the single-concept film is the most appropriate. For more elaborate, complex educational films, w e have already mentioned some of the problems.

The remarks above refer essentially to isolated productions arising from specific needs in one's teaching, where self-produced material is considered necessary. When production activity is no longer a marginal fact and becomes a professional specialization, then one should refer to the questions dealt with in 5.3,

5.2.7. - The value and effectiveness of audio-visuals in teaching In many specialized texts based on experimental research, there

is information showing that audio-visuals are of undoubted advantage in learning. For example, in the handbook, Audiovisual Techniques for

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Industry by John Iialas and Roy Martin-Harris (Vienna, United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 1980), the authors quote the results of research work which indicate that the use of audio-visuals can lead to a reduction of 40 per cent in the time needed for learning compared to information only read or heard and that, in the same conditions, the coefficient of memorization rises by 20 per cent.

Those who go more deeply into the subject and study its scientific literature will note that there are opinions and conclusions on the value of audio-visuals which at times are diametrically opposed. W e must remember that the field of enquiry is very wide and complex, and mostly interdisciplinary: it covers learning theory, psychology of perception, problems linked to the functioning of the brain, and physiology connected with sensory activity. Much research has also been carried out using different methods and value judgements for the results; the aims of this research were extremely diverse ar)d hard to compare. Studies ranged from pure pedagogical research to sophisticated experiments on the training of a soldier or technician where audio-visuals were and were not used. More detailed research has gone into the difference in the effectiveness between static and dynamic audio-visuals, films in black-and-white and colour, and so on.

Unfortunately much research does not deal with a leading issue which w e consider fundamental. It is that the value and effectiveness of an audio-visual should not be looked for or measured in absolute terms, compared to the value and effectiveness of verbal teaching alone or the use of still images alone; it is more a question of the appreciation of its possible superiority when teaching is linked to dynamic processes, or its possible limits when there is a question of abstract conceptualization.

Also, as many experts have pointed out, the tests on which the conclusions of much of the research were based were verbal and expressed therefore by a series of mediations and sensory and perceptice translations (codification/decodification) which remove US from a direct assessment of the iconic and dynamic/iconic value of the images administered to a subject.

Rather than make a haphazard guess at figures or percentages, an examination of much research carried out demonstrates the value and effectiveness of audio-visual language in teaching -- when it is used appropriately. This can also be confirmed by the fact that the most highly equipped, specialized structures in armies and leading

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industries have carried out innumerable studies (commissioning them from the most advanced research laboratories in universities) dealing with the preparation of audio-visual material for teaching and training their personnel.

A number of problems remain. So far, there has been very little qualitative research aimed at optimizing audio-visuals for use in teaching. W e should not forget that the language of images in movement has still not been clearly defined in its structural and cognitive terms.

One promising field of research is based on the observation of eye movements; through fixation points, we can follow the process of a subject's attention on images projected for Ihim. Most. of the research carried out so far with this method, though using different techniques, was to (a) a study of the foundations of visual perception or (b) practical applications in advertising or, yet again, in the military or industrial sectors. This observation of eye movements, applied to the assessment of the effectiveness of audio-visuals in teaching, may yield very important scientific results and lead to developments in the theory of learning as well as improvement of the audio-visuals themselves.

One study, made some years ago, examined the fixation points of a student's gaze as regards the figurative elements in a television lesson; this revealed that students in a given class were more attracted by the teacher's face than by the objects he was showing or talking about. Apart from the conclusions that a psychologist or educational theorist might draw, the lesson the media specialist must learn is obvious: If students' attention is to converge on an object, the image must present that object in close-up and exclude other elements (including the figure of the teacher) which can attract the student's gaze and disturb the learning process. H o w long should the image of the object last in close-up, therefore, so that it is perceived without disattraction arising through tiredness and monotony?

This simple question is by way of indicating that there is still much work to be done at the levels of scientific research and conversion of its results into practical activity needed to improve the quality of the use of audio-visuals in teaching.

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5.3. - Audio-visual centres

A n 'audio-visual centre' usually means a production and possibly a distribution unit which makes audio-visuals. The word is used here in the widest sense to include not only films and videorecordinqs but also photographs, especially slides and series of slides with synchro- nized sound tracks, sound-track recordings and transparencies for overhead projectors, and the like.

These audio-visual centres are usually found within universities, though this is not always the case. In particular situations, there may be one or more independent audio-visual centres of an educational nature linked to scholastic institutions of various levels, ranging from compulsory school to higher schools; they may also be connected with a centre for scientific research or an organism of a non-profit cultural foundation.

The important point is that these centres should be public ones with the declared aim of promoting the use -- the good use, w e would like to emphasize --of audio-visuals in educational activity. In the learning process, the language of images is to be given specific, particular use for teaching purposes; the formal structures of this language must not be modelled or based on the structures of simple inforrnative communication, much less on those used in the cnter- tainrnent sphere. Production units must therefore have their own specific, particular policies and aims rather than exist as a by- product of the commercial entertainment industry, audio-visual journalism, or advertising and propaganda.

5.3.1. - Tasks Since the university audio-visual centre, which may also have

extramural activities, is the most common type of unit, w e shall refer mainly to this. Wha: follows below is relatively easily to adapt to other situations in which the audio-visual (AV) centre m a y have a role.

First of all, w e must clarify a question of principle. Is the AV centre a technical service or a unit for pedagogy? The answer depends on how far the use of educational audio-visuals has been developed in the country where the centre operates. Where there is a long-established tradition of audio-visual techniques and where teachers are well-instructed in their use, the AV centre will essentially be a technical service with possibly other marginal

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functions in teaching theory -- such as the audio-visual preparation of young teachers, where other institutions do not provide this.

In countries where Lhe sitting up of an AV centre corresponds to a need to promote and develop the use of films, videorecordings and other audio-visual aids in teaching, it is obvious that the centre must have technical and productive tasks as well as pedagogic ones.

The basic task is to produce audio-visuals considered useful for the improvement of teachings, after agreement has been reached on the various teaching demands involved. The AV centre must therefore have suitable technical equipment and the know-how to deal with the demands made on it. It must also ensure, if classrooms are not suitably equipped, that practical use can be made of the audio-visuals produced by the centre as well as those from outside, at the right moment and in the right place -- i.e. the organizing of screenings with mobile apparatus, too. When the situation arises, the centre must act as promoter and consultant to disseminate and develop a rational awareness among teachers of the use of audio-visuals; this can help to modernize and make teaching more effective. Such activity is very important, and the AV centres must carry it out intelligently and carefully. The effort is not simply a question of informing teachers, both in theory and in practice, how and why audio-visuals have their specific role in teaching, especially in science subjects; it also involves giving directives for the correct use of audio-visuals. Often there are teachers who, because of their training and age, fall into two diametrically opposed groups: one thinks that the audio-visual is simply a technical means for recording a lesson and then repeating it mechanically, or a visual amplifier, as in the case of closed-circuit television (whereby a large number of students can see the teacher from the outside of the small lecture room which will not hold them all). In the other group, there are those who think that using audio-visuals in teaching means trans- forming the lesson into a show and therefore using the language and forms of commercial television and advertising.

The counselling function of the AV centre is very important. O n e must know how to convince an enthusiastic teacher who wants to produce an interminable series of videocassettes for his course of lessons that it may be more fruitful to make a single scientific film, utilizing special techniques for a more effective presentation of a series of experiments which can be more easily understood and memorized than using a few drawings on the blackboard or one or two photographs to accompany the teacher's words. Or demonstrate to those who want an expensive scientific film at all costs that a series

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of slides or transparencies for an overhead projector, perhaps integrated with a short animated film, would be preferable for his purposes. Convincing a teacher that several single-concept films based on visual presentation of dynamic processcs and events are more effective than a long videotape or film, where the teacher talks and talks, is not only a step toweards the improvement of teaching; it is also a saving of economic, technical and human resources which can then be employed where they are really useful.

Another important task is keeping teachers informed about the latest films or other audio-visuals available in the country, or from abroad, for teaching purposes. These operation considerations give rise to the opportunity for the university AV centre, in a country where there are no ad hoc pedagogical units, to organize separate courses and seminars on the use of audio-visuals in teaching for "old" teachers and recently qualified instructors. These courses should, before all else, familiarize teachers with current usage of audio- visuals in their lessons: various types of screening, preparation of more simple iconographic material, sound and video recordings, and the like. The training and refresher courses to prepare teachers for the active use of audio-visuals should be more specific and should cover (a) the selection of subjects to be visualized, (b) the choice of techniques and forms of production and (c) practical training in and the approach to educational characteristics of a project. The centrcls work dealing with technical-practical problems concerning the value and educational effectiveness of the audio-visuals to be made and used should be even more specialized. For these ends it is indispensable for the centre to work in harmony with teachers and researchers in the field of educational theory and psychology. Once specialists have been trained in the psycho-pedagogy of audio-visuals, research and development in this sector should be entrusted to them; they can then become valid consultants for the centre's productive activities when there are improvements to be made or problems to be solved in teaching communication, which might otherwise be disputed by audio-visual technicians and the teachers of the subject on which they are at work.

If the AV centre distributes films and videocassettes, it would be useful to ask the users (teachers especially, but also students where possible) for detailed critical evaluations of the effectiveness in teaching and possible defects of the audio-visual. This information will be useful for subsequent users, and it will help to provide a series of criteria founded on practical experience for future productions and outside purchases.

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In conclusion, the university A V centre has the task of promoting, in teaching, the correct use of scientific cinema and audio-visuals in general; the centre should also make a concrete contribution to the qualitative improvement and modernization of teaching.

We should not forget that at this historical stage in the development of teaching systems w e are witness to an apparently absurd contradiction in many cases and in many countries: young students, who grow up in a social context in which images often play an even pathological role, have a cultural-anthropological relation- ship with audio-visual language which is often more advanced than that of their teachers.

5.3.2. - Structure

The creation of one or more A V centres, either within a university or other scientific or teaching institution, or as independent organisms, is an important decision for getting under way a phase in the development of scientific cinema and the use of audio-visuals in teaching.

The structure and functional aims of these organisms must therefore be studied with care, keeping in mind similar institutions already operating in different countries as well as the local context in which they must carry out their tasks. Drawing up a project and preliminary discussion among those involved will eliminate expensive errors (such as the construction of a "cathedral in the desert") and should ensure the best possible results with a reasonable, limited investment.

The most important point, where a decision of principle is to be taken, is whether the structure to be set up should have the function of a national A V centre -- even when it may be inserted into a sectoral organism -- or whether its tasks should be limited to a decentralized, local area such as the typical AV centre found within a university.

In a small country this may be considered a negligible question because it is obvious that, though several audio-visual centres might be set up, one of them must be equipped to act as a pilot centre able, where necessary, to make more complex scientific cinematographic productions which require the use of special techniques. The other centres will carry out the routine work of producing simpler audio- visuals for everyday use.

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In medium to large countries where there are several univer- sities or research laboratories, almost each will tend to set up its own audio-visual centre or department. This brings up the problem of how to co-ordinat2 existing equipment and know-how in order to obtain the best resuits for everyone. First of all, the different centres should contain different and complementary pieces of equipment. A n effort should be made to avoid setting up excessively expensive laboratories which are used only occasionally but to opt for units open to everyone, when necessary, without useless increase in expenditure for investment and management. (Concentrating all the various activities in a single, super-centre is out of the question.) AV centres should be decentralized, established in the various teaching and scientific institutions, and they should specialize in the various tasks they were originally required to fulfil. In a centre for biological research, for example, it is obviously indispensable to have a micro- cinematography sector with the appropriate apparatus for time-lapse filming; in a teacher training faculty, though, a complete video- recording system is most useful for teaching experiments.

The problem of centralization-decentralization also occurs within a single institution, for example in a large university where there are a number of faculties and many students. Is a single A V centre advisable in a university, or should the various specific pieces of equipment be scattered among the various laboratories and departments? There is obviously no single answer to this question. There are valid functional examples of both tendencies, as well as a series of intermediate solutions.

In a small to average-sized university it may be more convenient to rationalize all the photographic work, transparencies for overhead projectors, and equipment and premises for film production and videorecordings in a single service. Specialized sectors, such as microcinematography could then be left to the department directly concerned. In a large university, it will often be more appropriate to have several centres subdivided according to faculties or groups of faculties; each centre will then acquire the specializations they need. One of these centres might provide services which other centres require but which it is useless and costly to duplicate: a laboratory for animation and graphics, an editing laboratory, laboratories for copying videotapes with different standards, and so on.

At a national level the centralizing-decentralizing problems are much more complex and often difficult to solve. Here, too, various countries have adopted different solutions, or else situations have

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developed spontaneously giving priority to centralization or decentralization so that it is hard to say which is the best system. The most functional system should be found for each context, with regard to the demands to be fulfilled and the resources which are available.

So far w e have touched mainly on the problems connected with the production of educational audio-visuals in a centre designed for this activity. But, as w e said at the outset, such an organism must also be responsible for the use of the audio-visuals during normal teaching activity.

In many institutions, the AV centre acts mainly as a distribution unit for (a) the scientific films or videocassettes produced there but also (b) those produced by other institutions in the same country or abroad. The centre often has a fairly large film or tape library, usually called a mediatheque; this also serves as a channel for obtaining audio-visuals at the request of a teacher or department, even from another source, for a single presentation. It is obvious that this will greatly facilitate the use of audio-visuals because the specialized centre can thus simplify the operations involved afferent to the request: mailing the material, returning it, dealing with hire payments when they occur, customs duties, technical controls, and the like. A n individual teacher or department, on the contrary, might be discouraged by bureaucratic difficulties and give up trying to obtain the audio-visual material. When he has to say to his students: "I know there is a good scientific film on this subject which presents the most complex aspects of this phenomenon very clearly, but it was so difficult to get hold of that I had to give up", the instructor will not achieve very brilliant results. (If he decides not to tell them at all, he could be accused of not informing his students correctly.)

There is, too, the practical problem of screenings and the presentation of audio-visuals in general -- not to mention use of the equipment needed for them including the overhead projector, video- recorder, the projector for slides with a sound track, and the cinematographic projector. The question of how well a normal classroom or lecture hall can be adapted for the presentation of audio-visuals is therefore not to be overlooked.

Technical trasks associated with lessons or lectures have been approached and dealt with differently by university A V centres in very differing objective conditions: industrialized countries with resources, developing countries with meagre resources, developing countries entering an expansive phase and where, for example, new

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building and technical units are being created for a university and for which rational solutions can, to a certain extent, be planned.

For the problem of the distribution/presentation of audio- visuals in the teaching context of an average to large university, the most widespread solutions usually come down to two: the diad of centralization-decentralization, essentially a duo of alternatives.

In the- first solution and apart from its equipment, premises and personnel for making educational audio-visuals, the AV centre has a series of classrooms fully equipped for lessons during which various types of audio-visuals are used. The instructor is assisted by specialized technicians who prepare and present the most varied material when he requires it -- from slides to series of single-concept or sound films, transparencies for overhead projectors, video- recordings reproduced on large screens using a teleprojector, etc. When the teacher and his students move from the various departments to the rooms in the centre equipped for multimedia audio-visual lessons, efficient programming for the use of the special areas is needed. There exist some interesting examples of centres from the architectural and structural points of view, one of which is the four large lecture halls and amphi-theatre, each holding 400 persons, in a single cylindrical building at Pennsylvania State University (USA), where all the technical services related to audio- visual presentation in the various lecture rooms are concentrated in a single, central nucleus.

The other solution involves the use of audio-visuals in the class or lecture rooms throughout the university departments. This means that each room, or at least one room per building, is fitted out for this use. In some cases, the AV centre provides the equipment and technicians each time they are required.

Some institutions have tried to unite the advantages of both trends, where centralized structure of a centre provides audio-visuals and distributes them to the classrooms, even the most distant ones, via a television network of coaxial cables. Also, a piece of apparatus called a telecine can transmit televisually slides and films. One or more television screen or a teleprojector are therefore required in each classroom. As videorecorders are becoming more and more popular, distribution via cable will probably be replaced by this new device. It will then become one of the tasks of the AV centre to transfer cinematographic films (or sequences from them) for teaching purposes onto videocassettes, a procedure bringing us back to the idea of concept films.

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From the points of view of production as well as every-day use, it is clear that there are advantages and drawbacks to the trends to centralize or decentralize the AV centre's functions. W e must keep in mind, though, that rapid technological progress brings us increasingly automated apparatus, simple to use, improvements in the quality of electronic images, and greater daily contact with the language of images will continually alter the advantages and disadvantages contrasting centralized and decentralized AV units. For each specific situation, the right measure must be found for the solution best meeting demands and available resources.

The guiding concept to be used to interpret and adapt each case individually can be summed up as follows: In the production of audio- visuals, the greater the centralization the greater the economic saving will be -- as this will mean no waste in terms of means and personnel; with the best know-how and equipment, hiyh qualitative standards will be obtained. In the everyday use of audio-visuals, the greater the decentralization of screenings the greater the use and integration of audio-visuals will be in teaching.

In countries where educational structures are most efficient and organized along modern lines there are AV centres, and often more than one, in practically every university. Generally (on a national level) there are also special AV centres, or other organizations, with production or distribution tasks of general interest; they make scientific films or videomagnetic tapes involving costs, apparatus and know-how which cannot be met by normal AV centres. They also select and import films and audio-visuals from abroad to be distributed throughout the country, and they organize exchanges of udio-visual material between various centres in the country. Sorne of these institutions have cinema libraries, or media- theques, with several thousands of titles. Further indications will be found in the Appendex.

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6 - CINEMATOGRAPHY AND TELEVISION FOR USE IN POPULARIZATION

It is not at all unusual now to hear, in very different context, that the development and even the survival of the society w e live in is almost entirely conditioned by science and technology. It is said that more scientific researchers are now at work than the total number of scientists in man's previous history. The social onus of economic investments in sectors in some way connected to science, continues to increase; and the related political decisions are more and more important, at times even decisive for the future of the progress or extermination of the whole human race. There is an urgent need to provide the public with cultural and informative elements to serve as yuidelines for the problems connected with scientific-technical development in the world of today, to enable people to assume informed positions and contribute to the decisions which can influence future life on the planet. Our everyday life is increasingly conditioned by technical-scientific elements. t-lere, w e need think only of two words: ecology and energy. The technician or scientist must totally renew his know-how every ten years, or perhaps even more frequently: this is just how fast new information is becoming available. In many professions, updating and refresher courses have become a permanent need which begins immediately after basic studies have been completed. Many practical activities now require specific technical knowledge which also must be continually up-dated -- more than mere manual training and practice.

At the same time, and precisely as a consequence of scientific- technical progress, our society has increasingly become one based on mass communication. In the last few years the growth rate of the quantity of information available has shown an exponential curve. Given the spread of audio-visual tools, this information flow reaches even the still large numbers of illiterate, uneducated populations of the less developed and some industrialized countries. Modern technology has filled the spatial-temporal relationship stretching between the occurence of an event and the dissemination of its pertinent information. Corresponding development of popularizing instruction, and of educational processes in general has been much slower, though outstanding when compared to the past. It is much easier for an illiterate, backward peasant in a village forgotten by God and man, as they say, to sec on TV a sports or political event or space conquest, thousands and thousands of miles away, or hear about it over the radio in real time than receive educational or cultural aid

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via the same media which can help improve his work, and consequently the quality of life thus developing his elementary "culture".

This situation gives rise to very serious defects, which may not be apparent over the short term, but which leave a deep mark on the evolution of society. In the context of mass communication, this poses the problem of the relationship between information and culture; when this occurs training, education and the promotion of literacy are neglected or underestimated, or deformed, either for political motives or questions of economic profit. The problem is even more serious in industrialized societies where the quantity of messages, especially audio-visuals ones, is so great that the ordinary man is submerged by them and tends to tolerate rather than use them. This means that in the end man places information, advertising and entertainment on the same level. Even film sequences of a real war somewhere in the world, or floods or any other dramatic situation, therefore, risk becoming entertainment. W e reach the high point when television brings us an event live, even a horrific one such as bandits holding hostages, while it is happening and where the outcome is unknown. There results a climate of suspense and often morbid curiosity; reality has become entertainment.

In a world which cannot ignore this existing and perhaps ineradicable social behaviour, the need to face the problem of using mass media also as educational aids has become terribly important. At the beginning of this chapter, w e emphasized the present importance of science and technology for man's future; it is necessary therefore that mass media such as the cinema and TV, which now reach many more human beings than shcools, books or newspapers can, make their methodical, effective contribution to (a) raising the level of the general culture and (b) furthering public understanding of the scientific dimension as well as of the new role of technology in our private and social lives.

It would be wrong to think, though, that cinema and television alone can face and solve the problem of providing widespread information awareness and scientific culture; but they can play an important role as general guides and stimuli through other social initiatives, including the use of the more traditional vehicles of cultural dissemination.

6.1 - Historical aspects After seeing LumiBre's early films Leo Tolstoy, the Russian

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novelist, declared: "I think the cinematograph is an intelligent and instructive show. It has immense value as a teaching tool." In 1898, when cinema was still in its early stages and was gaining popularity, one of its pioneers wrote: "Cinematography is not essentially amusement or a toy. It deserves a much less frivolous role ... After a deviation, to which goes the merit of making it known universally, it must return to the service of science and progress". Later, while speaking of documentary and popularizing cinema, the same specialist said: "When selecting possible advisable examples such as improvements in industry, hygiene and agriculture as subjects, very fruitful work would be done on simple souls, well-being could replace wretchedness in vast areas". (B. Matuszewski, L a Photographic animee, Paris, 1898). Others extolled the importance of cinema- tographic pictures in informing the masses about different peoples and far-off countries, along with their customs, animals and cultural phenomena, thus bringing a large contribution to the elevation of popular culture and understanding among peoples.

Quite apart from these somewhat messianic tones (and a margin of illusion) the aspirations of the most enthusiastic pioneers have largely been achieved. From the beginning of the 20th century a number of popular scientific conferences, illustrated with films, were held in various countries from the United States of America to Russia. Ad hoc production ventures emerged and, in the subsequent decades, leading directors spent most or part of their time making documentary films with the declared or implicit aims of popularizing science. Roberto Omegna, an Italian, had already made several popular-science films before 1910, including "The Life of Butterflies"; in the '20s Flaherty, an American, won the kind of acclaim usually enjoyed by highly successful entertainment f ilms with his documentary, "Nanook of the North". H e made the world aware of an almost completely unknown population of the Arctic. In the following decades Jean PainlevB, a Frenchman, made a number of popular-science films which have become classics in cinema history. He wrote, "A documentary is scientific, whether the subject is scientific or not, when the spirit with which the subject is treated is scientific". John Grierson, a Scotsman, set up and presided over the famous British documentary school for many years, with the explicit intent of making films for social and educational promotion; he was also responsible for the birth of Canadian cultural cinematography. H e wrote: "I think of the cinema as a dais or pulpit and use it with the spirit of a propagandist". H e wanted "to use the cinema as it had never been used before: scientifically preordained, so as to provide what could be called a subsidiary system of national education".

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Under the influence of Grierson's school, the cinematoyraphic production of Shell, the large multinational oil company, took on a strictly scientific slant. In the wake of wide-spread interest arnony cinema audiences in various nature themes and the animal world, the large Hollywood company, Walt Disney Productions made a great number of films of this kind in various parts of the world. Many of these were spoilt, however, by a search for spectacular effects of ten betraying and humiliating nature. In many European countries a tradition grew up, often endorsed by appropriate laws, of public cinema programmes comprising the feature film and a cultural or educational short subject. There was a flourishing production in the USSR of popular scientific films which were shown all over the world; two of their leading directors were Boris Dolin and Aleksandr Zguridi. After the Second World War a large number of popular science films were made in the Eastern European countries and even, as in Bulgaria, where there had been no real cinematographic industry previously.

For several decades documentaries and popular scientific films played an important role in disseminating culture, information and scientific education. These films were screened in cinemas as a programme complement, but they also had an important specific use in non-commercial screenings in cultural clubs, associations and other ins ti tu tions.

Things began to change with the birth and spread of television. Despite the deformations produced by advertising, publicity and the purely escapist entertainment which television programmes are often subject to, this mass medium rapidly became the most effective instrument which has ever existed for popularizing knowledge.

In a few years only a rapid development occurred: at the outset TV re-used cinematographic productions which had already been screened in public cinemas; then, two separate versions of more important products were made. The cinematographic version used technically superior material and the television one, usually shown in instalments, assembled remnants from cinematographic footage and linked them with interviews and stock material. The television edition has now become the most important version and the cinema- tographic one is made as a subsidiary "recovery" product, from cast- off TV material, or as a synthesis of a widely popular TV series to exploit its success in public cinemas too.

This transfer of functions from cinema to television, incomplete as yet, has had important consequences for popularizing and qualifying scientific information. In public cinemas short and

more or less spectacular films on science had always been given a secondary role, even when they were not imposed. In spite of the many existing limits, when scientific programmes conquer a place on television they are usually watched by a vast audience already motivated by choosing the programme. Such productions achieve a much more intense function as a vehicle for information and popularization than previous related activity in the cinema.

6.2. - Has the popular-science film still a role to play?

In some industrialized countries people have come to the conclusion that the cinema as a form of entertainment is on its way to extinction because television and other electronic devices are replacing it. It has been said, in the popularization of science, that this type of film has almost disappeared and has been replaced by television programmes.

W e should say here that even though this may be true for a very limited number of Western countries, the situation in the majority of the other countries is very different. W e should not automatically link, furthermore, the destiny of cinematographic entertainment to the use of cinema for essentially cultural ends --as is the case with popular-science films.

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Even with the rapid rate of technological progress (we shall come back to this in Chap. E), a good many years must pass before new, reliable, simple and unified technology can impose itself, throughout the world, with functioning standards comparable to those of the 16mm cinematographic film.

For the moment, wherever there is an electricity supply one or an infinite series of meetings, even for a large number of people, can easily be organized to screen scientific and technical films on hygiene and preventive medicine, family planning, agricultural problems or any other subject of popularizing films which people require or which interest them.

With a little care, the results of the screening will be satisfactory from the point of view of quality. The large screen can be seen by hundreds of people, the definition of the images is enough to make objects and events requiring attentive perception visible. The fact that the films must be shown in the dark helps to maintain the audience’s con c en tr a t i on.

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W e should add that it is very easy and useful to use the screening of one or more popular-science films to attract people motivated by a topic which interests them. After showing a film, one can take the opportunity to organize a debate to provide people with the means of ventilating their views of certain problems.

In theory TV has arrived everywhere and can therefore, with a single programme, reach a much wider audience than several cinema- tographic screenings. In actual fact, in many countries today (and this will be true for many years to come) TV, when it exists, is still not widespread; its images can be poor so that the audience often listens passively and unattentively. There is no aggregating or motivating factor such as can be awakened when participation in a film screening is followed by a discussion offering the chance of exchanging ideas and comments on what has been seen with other people or the organizers of the meeting.

Television's birth and spread have seen the birth and spread of many illusions, too. It was hoped that "teleclubs", for example, would emerge in poor villages in remote parts of backward countries, where peasants could not only see educational and popular films on problems about their land but also get to know aspects of the agriculture practised in other parts of the world. We can now see that very little is being done in this direction. In those developing countries where television networks function, other interests of general enter- tainment often prevail -- mixed with commercial advertizing and political propaganda. So it is usual for groups of peasants in poor villages deep in the countryside to be found in front of a television (when there is one), watching a multinationally-produced police or romantic serial, just as in the West. Popularizing programmes aimed at helping them improve their daily life would have a more significant impact.

The promotional function of popular-science films is thus far from concluded. It has acquired a specific capacity of its own nevertheless, and for some time to come it will have important tasks to perform. Further use of television will also be an undoubted advantage, but we must remember that although 16mm film can easily be transformed into a TV programme, for the moment the inverse procedure is technically complex and expensive -- not to say impossible at times (cf. Chap. 8.1.).

One should add that in more advanced countries where TV almost seems to have replaced cinema, documentary and popular- science films still have a specific appeal. They are used in the so-

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called non-theatrical circuits: in non-commercial cinemas belonging to social and cultural associations, and in cineclubs.

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The promising new market of videocassettes, and in the near future videodiscs, will offer further possibilities for specialized productions in the various domains of popular-science films. T V programmes of this type, at least the most popular ones -- precisely because they are for large audiences --cannot satisfy the public specially interested in particular problems of science or technology. Such audiences will be able to find material on the specific scientific topics they require in videocassettes and on videodiscs which (in one form or another) will constitute the audio-visual version of traditional books, magazines and newspapers. For the time being these demands will partly be satisfied by the thousands of scientific films already existing, even though a thorough distribution can be achieved only through the new electronic aids.

The role that popular-science film can play is based essentially on its visuality. When good use is made of the language of moving images, information and impressions are transferred to the viewers through visual perception without the mediation or deformation of verbal language. Visual communication is fundamental in all the geographical areas where there is still wide-spread illiteracy and the basic level of instruction is elementary. It must not be forgotten that in similar conditions the link-up of meanings between the images on the screen and the spoken comment of the sound track may be difficult and can create problems of comprehension and, consequently, effectiveness in the use of film.

The question should be treated with great care when a popular- science film is made specifically for audiences with a low level of formal instruction. The language of the spoken comment must be very simple and kept to a minimum; it should avoid condescension, allusions, play on words and witty remarks which documentary and popular films are often full of, apparently to make the topic more appetizing. When the screening is organized by one or more specialists who know the film and its topic well, and the spoken message of the film does not respond to the required characteristics of simplicity and immediacy, then an improvised comment could be given instead during the screening. This should be spontaneous and kept at the level of comprehension of the audience.

The language of moving images, which can be very clear and effective, should also have its specific literacy. In many cases

involving culturally uncomplicated audiences, films may run the risk of not being understood, of being mistaken one for another or perceived as "an interrupted flow of images in rapid succession on the screen and attracting attention in the same way as a dream." Another word of caution: "We calmly speak about post-Gutenberg man, forgetting that the majority of the populations in developing countries is still living in the pre-Gutenberg era." (P. Hopkinson, rale du film dans le d6veloppement, Unesco, Paris, 1972, p.28).

Research undertaken and comments collected by Unesco expert

the best reactions are those of partially literate young adults, which points to a direct correlation between the level of literacy and the reaction of films;

o films must be made specifically for illiterate or recently instructed audiences;

in the non-industrialized countries show that: o

o where possible, special effects and techniques should be avoided ... a film based mostly or entirely on the spoken comment for transmitting information is bound to fail in its aim.

o the cinema can be used to advantage for development only through the qualified representation of its local social services or in close relationship with them. - (Ibid., pp. 23,28,31).

Popular scientific films should not be mistaken for teaching or directly educational films. Their characteristics relate them to classic documentary films, informational or survey films. In some cases a good popular-science film can be used for teaching purposes, when there are no specific films of this type available: vice-versa, good teaching films can sometimes be used for popularizing science.

The main difference between these two types of film is that popular scientific films do not purport to transmit an educational message in a precise form; its aims are arousing awareness, interest and curiosity -- promoting information around a given topic or problem. Educational films supply the elements for the learning process as objectively as possible by presenting their subjects in their various aspects and, with logical and rational correlations, using a method which usually goes from the general to the particular through a succession of details and in-depth demonstrations. To motivate interest in its subject, the popular scientific film also uses highly expressive artistic forms of cinematographic language; in other words, it often produces an emotional impression which makes a

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strong appeal to the audience. The challenge is one of actiieving an "artistic conversion of scientific reality" by uniting logic and poetry. (G. Sielcr, producer of popular-science programmes for the German Democratic Republic's television service, speaking at the 35th Inter- national Scientific Film Congress, Jena, 1982).

This is how the popular-science film accomplishes an important mass cultural function. There have been changes in its approach, in both style and choice of the content. In short, there has been a transition from the traditional type of popular film, intent on presenting scientific events and phenomena as spectacularly as possible in order to astonish the audience, to the modern trend of dealing with scientific problems and questions in a way which involves the viewer as much as possible.

6.3. - Using television to popularize science

"Television is a particularly powerful medium that should be used in such a way that it encourages and aids public involvement in the process of debate and decision about major issues related to science and technology." (Final report, Unesco seminar on "Popularization of Science through Television", L j u bl j an a, Dec. 19 80 , p.4).

Television can have an important function not only in popular- izing and raising widespread scientific awareness but also in contributing to bridge the gap between the so-called two cultures, according to C. P. Snow's wellknown expression. There is a tradition in many countries tending to keep the concepts of culture and science apart, as though the latter were not part of culture. The hurnanities are thus considered true "culture", as though science were not human.

Television can undoubtedly help to improve the science-society relationship which has become problematic because of the cost of scientific research, its final aims and the lack of clarity about the functions science should fulfil on behalf of society. Rut such improvement does not always occur in a linear fashion. In reflecting on the television programmes in her country, a research associate at the Massachussetts Institute of Technology, USA, has written: 'Commercial television ... has been under-utilized for bringing information about science to mass audiences. The reasons for this are neither technical nor necessarily implied by the subject.'' (M. C. L a Follette, Science on Television: Influences and Strategies, in Daedalus, Vo1.111, 1982, p.183).

Another expert studying the problem states that "the average viewer spends thirty hours per week in front of the television set ... one hour of viewing in each weekday evening can include a programme that involves science" /but/"most of what the average viewer will be exposed to may be exaggerated or completely fictional images of science." H e concludes by pointing out the "remarkable negative correlation between the amount of television viewed and public confidence in the scientific community." (G. Grabner, in a paper presented at the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Toronlo, 1981, quoted in the above- mentioned text, p.189).

If phenomena like these occur in highly industrialized countries where the relationship between science and the quality of life is very high and where television is enormously developed, w e must use much care when considering the importance of TV in popularizing science throughout the rest of the world.

6.3.1. - About topical matters and responsibilities Surveys made by state television networks in various European

countries agree that science programmes, in general, obtain very high popularity ratings; they are almost always the most popular among the cultural programmes, and it is thus not unusual if they obtain the highest ratings. We should remember, however, that the decisive - if not the priority -- element in the popularity of a cultural programme is precisely the level of interest of its subject. Elements such as spectacular or emotional effects in this kind of broadcast take a definite second place in the viewers' priority.

Some might think that such favourable assessment of interest in scientific subjects is limited to a small number of motivated viewers. This may be true when science programmes are broadcast in off-peak hours or, in countries where there are several channels, when they are shown at the same time as peak-viewing programmes such as films, variety shows and sports events. But this is not always so.

If the programme scheduling is right, then the popularity index of science broadcasts is usually high. From the data collected at the 1974 European meeting in Brussels of producers of television science programmes, one can say that a broadcast of this type for a wide public reaches (if it is shown at a good viewing time) about half the number considered the maximum of viewers --that is, those who watch news programmes. There is a high number of viewers, too,

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when there is competition from fiction or variety shows. A great number of examples from different countries could be cited here, especially where high quality serials are concerned -- such as those produced by the BBC. Some television networks, having realized how much the public is interested in science programmes, have decided to broadcast these (at least the most important ones) in peak-viewing hours and then repeat them some days later, at rather less popular hours, for those who missed the first broadcasts.

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Roberto Rossellini, the famous Italian neo-realist film director, almost totally stopped making fiction films, preferring to work on educational films and programmes for television. It was his theory that these programmes would have a fundamental role in under- standing and solving wide-ranging problems of cultural and economic underdevelopment at a world level. In this sphere Rossellini directed a series of films on great figures in the history of human thought, with a didactic purpose in mind, without spectacular effects, using unknown actors, and on a limited budget. One of these films, Blaisc Pascal (1972) -- in spite of the fact that Pascal is not a popular figure nor of great attraction to the general public -- was shown by Italian television in prime evening viewing time on the most widely used channel. The other channel, of the then existing two, was showing a very popular, lively, journalistic programme on current affairs called 'Boomerang'. There was a widely positive response from the public: more than 16 million viewers, of a maximal audience calculated then at around 20 million, saw this show. Rossellini's film was divided into two instalments and, the following evening, while an American comedy was being shown on the other channel, the second part of the frlni attracted the same number of viewers as the first part.

Unfortunately, selective elimination occurs to the detriment of the majority of scientific or technical problems which can play an important part in the functioning of the world today. This is done for the sake of comprehensible messages and subjects which can be assimilated easily by the general public (5. A. Moles, Sociodinamica della cultura, 1971, p.347).

What should be ensured, on the contrary, is that highly controversial subjects, which seem difficult to deal with or are considered hard to grasp, should be present in television science programmes. "The view that certain subjects are not suitable for public discussion is ... advanced ... by specialists in all fields of scientific knowledge. It is a view which the broadcaster should treat

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with respect, but not with too much respect. It involves a rejection of the public right to know on the grounds that a little learning is a dangerous thing. Carried to its logical extreme, it leads to a divorce between society and its leaders and ... would ultimately destroy the foundations on which a scientific culture rests." (from 'The BBC's Medical Programmes and Their Effects on Lay Audiences,' BBC, London, 1976). Especially on the basic topic of health and related television broadcasts on medicine, the British Medical Association has declared, "The medical profession recognizes that broadcasting is a most valuable means of promoting health education." And on the question of controversial topics which may be difficult to grasp: "It is no argument against broadcasting popular programmes connected with health education that a section of the public may misunderstand them."

If television is to play a role in scientific dissemination, the weight of the maximal responsibility lies on those who must decide on policy and production of programmes. The function of the producers of these programmes is especially important as it is they who are responsible for the choice of topics and their broadcasting times.

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At the International Science Conference held in Brussels in 1974, Philip Daly, then head of BBC's scientific programmes, was asked to give a report on the subject The Responsibility of the Science Producer. As representative of the most important producer of science programmes in the world, broadcast in many countries, Daly's opinions were listened to with great attention. "Our editorial judgement should be based on what is televisually appealing. We should be presenting science not as a dull collection of facts, but as the intellectual contribution to society from some of the most gifted men of our day. Our aim must be to create a climate of opinion in our respective countries where the work of scientists can be understood, encouraged and criticized. Science is what a scientist does, which makes our field extraordinarily rich and varied, but as television producers' w e are also professional entertainers. The challenge w e faee is to use our craft without distorting our subject."

Daly complained that in many countries the budget for the production of science programmes is frequently very low because television directors are often art-minded and believe that viewers have, as t>hey, little or no interest in science. He went on to say, "If w e wish to compete for financial equality with drama or liyht- entertainment producers, w e should be prepared to compete for their audience too."

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The question of science has almost unlimited possibilities of being inserted effectively into television programming. W e are not referring here only to traditional broadcasts of periodical 'magazinest on various topical scientific or technological problems, or about the series of monographic programmes on important emerging subjects or other of widespread interest. Scientific content can be introduced into fiction or entertainment programmes: television films on figures in the history of science, the problems of scientific research, or scientific subjects or unusual facts built into quiz or game programmes. Broadcasts for children or young people, or adult education programmes, are other "containers" into which science can be usefully introduced.

The way in which science or technology is to be inserted responsibly is most important. Producers should be aware that problems in science should be presented as a research process having a tentative approach, in which the importance of experimental method is emphasized. Obviously the irrational conception that tends to see science as a kind of modern magic should be avoided. The relations between science and society, between science and the quality of life of the ordinary man should not be overlooked. The problems of scientific and technological research should also be seen in their possibly dual aspect as (a) contributions to progress and well- being and (b) instruments serving potentially aggressive or destructive ends.

The positive and negative effects of the increasing exposure of much of mankind to continuous television messages will surely be assessed several decades hence. How not to use television as a modern "opium for the masses" or as a kind of high-level, habit- forming drug is a scientific subject too; or even explaining, through T V itself, how to use television without becoming addicted. W e should also remember that if someone wants to refer to something obvious or unquestionable, it is popular to say, "I saw it on television"!

Yet modern scientific culture should be based on a critical capacity to rationalize and accept information while reserving one's own judgement. Too often, though, even in the case of science programmes, television becomes a vehicle for revealed truths, or opinions which are assumed without discussion or examination because they are proposed by a so-called expert.

Fernand Seguin, a producer of televised science programmes for the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation and winner in 1979 of the Unesco's Kalinga Prize for popularization, declared that in the 1970s

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80 per cent of the students in scientific faculties in French-speaking Canadian universities had been motivated in their academic choice by his popularizing broadcasts. Sequin did not mention this fact so as to call attention to his personal success, but rather to recall the importance and responsibility of those using TV to speak about science.

6.3.2. - Presentation and style Providing a satisfactory solution to the problem of presenting

the scientific subject in a television programme is both a qualitative and a quantitative question. If w e deal with the same problern from the point of view of the language and structure of the broadcasts, w e must be especially careful about the qualitative side. A first conclusion may be that it is better to count on a limited number of good science broadcasts, instead of large numbers of programmes of which a part is of mediocre or even low quality. The damage that the latter can have on viewers has repercussions on the prestige of, and interest in, scientific topics in programming as a whole. While the failure of an entertainment programme can be blamed on its authors and cast, a bad science programme can also be attributed to the difficulty, remoteness and aridity of some science itself. The "better a few but good" points of view should he adopted only at an initial stage whilst awaiting further, also quantitative, developments in the emergence of scientific knowledge.

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The problem of the language of TV science programmes should obviously not be limited to the comprehensibility of the text of the commentary. Some experts believe that television language consists mainly of images, that words take second place. This is true in some cases, but in current practice we can speak of the audio-visual character of such language.

It is a fact that the language of moving pictures as a form of mass communication is still in its early stages. While cinema emerged essentially as a visual form of communication and arL, acquiring sound in a second phase, television was horn as an offshoot of radio and was therefore already equipped with an essentially sonic, verbal language. The picture component soon took on its own autonomy and originality, even if compared with cinema, yet it may be inexact to claim that the picture alone overrides the audio element. This, w e must repeat, is what happens in routine use.

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The language-image is, on an average, exploited much less than its expressive possibilities would allow. And it is not simply a question of everyday misuse of television that out of habit, laziness or a cultural bent towards verbal expression, a direct or adequate image cannot at times replace a talking head. Often it is ignorance or difficulty in using the possibilities of special techniques in scientific cinema which often constitute unique, irreplaceable specific characteristics. Such visual material is not used simply because of lack of time or, rather, lack of programming or organization of work. Instead, the cause is that programmes are improvised and broadcast too soon, without the necessary preparation. O f course, it is not always a question of only time or organization; there should also be specialized production structures which can use the special techniques needed for a science programme or obtain required material when it exists. A simple piece of apparatus for slowing down real time, for example, may well be available for sports coverage but not available when it is needed for a programme on popularizing science.

If w e aim at making a good broadcast on science, it is obvious that w e should attempt to use the expressive values of the languac~c of images as much and as well as possible. This may involve a constant tendency to visualize the problems, facts, ideas, research and demonstrations we are dealing with, but this may involve effort too to make a scientist's talk visually captivating. Often in such cases, while the interviewee talks, general pictures of his surround- ings are shown; but too often these visual diversions -- which have nothing to do with what the scientist is talking about -- simply divert the viewer's attention. The spectator would better follow the argument, which often is far from easy, if he listened to the words while looking at the convinced expression of the person speaking. The interviewee should be able to express himself well and speak without reading from a text prepared beforehand: But nowadays, the figure of the traditional scientist, who no longer wants to reveal himself in front of the camera, is disappearing.

As for the vocal language used, there are two aspects which must be kept in mind. First, always try to choose the appropriate language for the type of broadcast which is being prepared. The use of everyday words, immediate explanation of speciaIist terms, these are essential in programmes for large audiences. Going into the technical detail of a topic may be useful in a broadcast which in certain viewing hours is aimed at a motivated audience. In this case, on the contrary, excessively generalized language could lower the cultural level of the programme.

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Secondly, far too often there is poor synchronism, whictk is absolutely necessary, between the flow of the treatriierit of the subject in pictures and the related commentary. If vie really believe in the effectiveness of television's audio-visual language, theri vie must always think of its intrinsic unity -- even though by syrichroriisrn w e obviously mean expressive meaningful unity, whict-i can also consist of dialectic contrasts between sound and pictures. All iriter- ruptions and divergences between the two elements reduce the communicative value of the message and, at times, even becomc a disturbance, a factor of distraction and ambiguity.

When dealing with the practical difficulty of expressing scicntific or techrlological phenomena and problems in simple terrllu, one should not abandon the effort at the first objections that might be raised. It is not unusual to discover that when engineers, researchers, physicians and university professors are asked to explain something on television or write a commentary for a science programme, they are much more worried about what their, colleagues "might think" than how their words will be received by tthe public at large -- for whom, in fact, the script is written. It is a curious fact that sometimes the higher and more important the level of tlhe scientist, the easier it is for him to communicate simply ever1 concerning the most complex and difficult things.

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The majority of televised science programmes often have a similar structure, and in different countries, too. There is a general documentary-journalistic type with filmed parts (including interviews), alternating with talks with one or more experts in the television studio. A variant of the stereotype is a debate in the studio, led by a moderator, with filmed ssequences including inter- views inserted. On occasion, there is an irrelevant use of film: when, for example, general shots of laboratories are used without previous or other obvious relation to the matter being discussed. In these cases not only is the audience allowed to lose interest, but confusion and erroneous interpretations are provoked.

Graphic visualizations are, unfortunately, used often inadequately from both a qualitative and a quantitative point of view. Here w e mean animation, diagrams and graphs in movement, botti (a) those made beforehand and presented with films and (b) those anirnated in the sludio, commented upon and discussed live. Too often only still graphics are proposed via slides overloaded with data and made unintelligible because of the brevity of the film; this becomes

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ari excuse for not boring the viewer. Fortunately development in computer graphic techniques will, within a few years, rnake it easier (arid more economic) to make a rich range of animated visualizations of forms, figures and data which can interact with live pictures. These will be of enormous help in widening public interest in scientific subjects considered too difficult to translate into television terms.

The technique of presenting the various basic elements of a broadcast involves the use of structural artifices which can increase or reduce the effectiveness and significance of an interview or film. Presenting a visit to a laboratory, for example, or carrying out an experiment as a background to a studio debate, means making the film ineffective or hindering the viewer from following the opinions expressed by the participating scientists. Anticipating, in the corrimeritary to the film, the points of view expressed in subsequuril interviews with scientists means depriving the interview of its significance: It is more appropriate to present before the interview the visual terms of the problem, which will then be dealt with by the scientist(s), in order to increase interest in his or their declarations. Such a preliminary sequence can also be used to explain or clarify the basic notions involved, thus enabling a wider audience to grasp the scientist's words well.

Besides the traditional types of science programme there are, as we have mentioned (see 6.3.1.) other possibilities which are structurally different. These include dramatizations of the bio- graphies of scientists, the reconstruction of important moments in the history of science, topical stories based on problems connected with scientific factors, and so on.

Another interesting possibility is the mixture of a fictional presentation of a scientific topic and its subsequent cultural development in a debate, using documentary films which cover the subject in more detail. A television term from the Anglo-American world, "cultural entertainment," reflects a trend in a direction too little followed: using structural elements from fiction and "show- business" to introduce scientific cultural elements into a widely popular programme. This direction can offer interesting possibilities, ranging from scientific games to TV films accompanied by discussions and popularizing illustrations.

The tendency to exploit presentation modes and structures borrowed from advertising techniques should be treated quite differently. Aggressiveness and the attempt to impose an acritical

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point of view and the consumer mentality, at the root of publicity messages, contrast with the scientific spirit involving the viewer who car1 use liis own reasoning. Commercial publicity tends to lull an audicnce into passivity and succeeds in having its contents accepted with as little discussion as possible (if any). A good scientific broadcast tends in the other direction: communicating elements of cultural information, even through the emotions, SCI that the viewer can discuss these elements and finally master them.

6.3.3. - Talking heads, music and other dangers of misuse of TV The scarcer the scientific traditions in the cultural world of the

country where one is operating, the higher the illiteracy rate; the lower the average level of instruction, the more important the role of television becomes in its widespread work of popularizing science, whether generally or specifically addressed to specific problems or particular social groups. Too little care is given to the way this activity is carried out. Some think that it is sufficient to talk about science or technology in order to fulfil a positive and socially useful function. The quality of the broadcast must be treated with great care because the misuse of a medium like T V can cause more harm than good.

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O n e of the most common defects is the talking head. Professors, journalists, technicians and T V commentators enjoy expounding their views, and sometimes they are given free rein -- long, interminable minutes in close-up. The "heads" explain and describe what they think is important, but only its minimum is grasped by the public because the "heads"' language is difficult and lacks adequately effective visual illustrations. The viewer's level of attention, except in a very few cases, drops noticeably if the talking head goes on talking for more than one or two minutes at the most. Exceptions occur vihen the spectator is strongly motivated to follow the speech; the most significant example of this is the news programmes. There is a basic difference to keep in mind here: in general, except for important information, the announcer or journalist who reads the news is listened to more than looked at; in the case of the scientist who usually speaks on a subject which is not simple, looking at him helps to follow what he is saying. But if the talking head stays too long, visual attention lags and with it the conceptual thread is lost by the viewer.

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The danger of an abuse of talking about science with this technique on television, without showing anything but the face of a person, should not be confused with the problem of using n presenter for a certain type of science programme. The presenter has various functions including conducting the broadcast, linking the various film sequences, interviews, moderating debates if any, answering questions put by the studio or telephone audience or representing the viewers (as Voltaire's Candide) when he interviews the scientist.

The rolk of such a presenter is, in contrast to that of the talking head, usually positive. For popular broadcasts he or she may be a journalist able to develop the audio-visual approach to the programme's needs, almost like a show-business personality -- one who mediates the need for the public's comprehension, with explanations given by experts, or by live or filmed demonstrations. For broadcasts on a higher cultural level, the presenter can be a scientist or writer who puts a personal stamp on the programmes not so much throuyh his professorial or scientific importance but more precisely as a guide or entertainer. "Thanks to the uncanny power of Lelevision, the viewer often puts his faith in the person who conducts the programme to an extent unimagined by the latter. That is probably why he is referred to as the leader of the programme, one who, like Peter Pied in The Ballad of the Piper of Hamelin, can enchant his listcners and lead them wherever he wants. This is the origin of the extraordinary responsibility of the speaker when, by the magic of TV, in his image he personifies in the case of scientific programmes not so much himself as science at large." (Prof. Sergei Kapitza, of the Academy of Sciences of U.S.S.R, presenter of science programmes on Soviet TV). In the final report of the Unesco seminar on the Popularization of Science through Television (Luxemburg, 1978, in which Prof. Kapitza participated), w e read, "The presenter has a special responsibility not only to be loyal to the scientist but also to identify himself with the critical interest of his audience." Training programmes will be set up to identify and qualify persons having the ability to become successful popularizers.

"The popularization goals acceptable to scientists -- education and information -- conflict in most instances with the principal entertainment function of the mass media" (M. C. La Follette, in the text already quoted, p.191). The problem of scientists' active participation in direct, committed ways, is fundamental, but w e should not fall into rigid schemes of thought which could lead to a misuse of television (such as a super-abundance of talking heads). Entertainment may be the main function of a commercial TV network, rather than education and information. This does not mean

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that good scientific dissemination cannot be made iri Lhe form of cultural cntertainrnent, with serious scientists takiriy part; scientists often feel a need to broadcast messages to the public about their latest research in order to motivate and to obtain the necessary finances, as well as supply information on the relations between scientific progress and the quality of life. In the case of state television and non-profit-making organizations, education and information can be, at least, at the same level of importance as entertainment if -- as in the case of cultural or university TV channels -- it is not given privileged ends. But it should not follow that boring, monotonous programmes should then become the staple diet.

It should be obvious that the two extremes produce negative results. If talking heads can discourage a part of the public from watching scientific programmes, broadcasts made with spectacular effects and in a sensational vein can do almost as much serious harm because they induce erroneous opinions in the viewing public's rnind about science, its significance and applications.

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Sensationalism is sustained by a certain type of journalist as an effective way of attracting the interest of the viewer, but the distortions and aberrations sometimes arising from the treatment of the science subject provokes, on the one hand, the indignation and histility of those in the scientific world who should collaborate and, on the other (as w e have said) has as an end-product not the propagation of science but its opposite.

Faced with the danger of an everyday reality which risks becoming entertainment in itself, in a society submerged in real time by pictures and information, an effort must be made to avoid science becoming science fiction and a mouthpiece for irrational impulses. Such trends can be often induced by the type of visual language imitated or mediated by advertising.

Apart from having a role in education, scientific information can also produce harmful consequences if it is manipulated for sensational ends. We only have to think of historic events in space exploration and organ transplant operations when (a) an element of suspense prevails, (b) the publicity spirit of demonstrating power potential, and (c) the star-type personality of an operating surgeon and the creation of illusions among millions of sick people lead to believe that the human body can be repaired with spare parts, as an engine would.

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There is also the danger, through sensationalism, of creating, among the younger generation especially, impulses towards mysticism and irrationalistic theories, which tend towards an escape from or refusal of a reality and future apparently totally negative because of iniquitous science. Some examples of such danger include the destructive atom, energy which pollutes, the conquest of space for military and power goals, escalating rearmament which absorbs all the resources which could solve probems such as hunger and illness, and electronic and chemical technological wonders used for destructive purposes. Even broadcasts aimed at presenting scientific research in a positive sense can, in particular contexts, cause negative repercussions. A n extreme case can be seen in the BBC's decision to suspend broadcasts of programmes on the drug problem for several years; this was done because surveys showed that somc viewers were attracted by the experiences depicted and drug dependents were supplied with useful information on how to persevere.

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Another important, but often negative, element in science broadcasts is music. Too often any type of programme us subjected to the violence of inappropriate, stereotyped musical accompaniment based on interchangeable nondescript, consumer-type music which is disturbing and demanding -- the volume being lowered only a little when there is a spoken commentary. There seems to be an unwritten rule which imposes an uninterrupted musical comment on any science subject. Usually there are modern, often repetitative, rather obsessive rhythms, sometimes cool jazz; for more sophisticated operations, use is made of electronic music, or musique concr&te. In the worst cases attempts are made to interpret the filmed sequence by creating an atmosphere: it might be lyrical or sentimental for scenes about life or the natural environment or dramatic and tense for laboratories where work is going on -- with suspense when the results of an experiment are awaited. Then the usual, nondescript modern rhythem, seemingly suitable for all situations, takes over again.

After years of discussion at international meetings, the principle has been accepted generally that a good educational film or video programme for advanced teaching should tend to exclude, discounting rare exceptions, all forms of musical comment. Sound effects of the environment, real noises and a spoken commentary are usually sufficient for a good audio. Where there are no real sound effects, simple sounds (produced perhaps by musical instruments or

sound synthesizers) can be used, but without insisting on pronounced rhythms or melodies which disturb the flow of the message -- the images and words.

For broadcasts which are not directly educational but of more popular exposition, if it is thought that long moments of silence should not be left on the audio channel, there is still the question: What music or musical effect can make smoother the flow of images in the development of the significance of the information? Does prolonged silence concentrate attention on the video or create bore do m?

Even in the case of inappropriate musical comments, there is a mistaken attitude towards correct popularization. Using modern rhythm and melody, played by a world-famous group while showing scenes of a serious social or medical problem (on the pretext of relieving the weight of the pictures) is a radical error in regard to the effectiveness of a broadcast. The part of the audience really concerned about the problem will be disturbed and lose interest; the less motivated part of the audience, which should be involved, will find an excellent opportunity in the music for abandoning the meaning of the images and then shifting its attention to the musical comment.

Sensational, science fiction or horror-type musical effects will only emphasize an audience's mistaken attitude to science; they risk compromising the significance and cultural value of an entire broadcast of scientific content by emotionally creating an erroneous attitude among viewers towards the facts and opinions being presented.

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7 - SCIENTIFIC FILM AND TELEVISION PRODUCTION

In many ways the production of science films, videocassettes and television programmes does not differ from any other production. But in other ways it is precisely the subject and aim of the production: scientific research, documentation, teaching or propagation which create special demands and problems requiring an appropriate solution. Several of these have already been discussed in previous chapters.

In this chapter the more general approaches and problems of the more traditional aspects common to all genres of film or television production will be given briefly: readers are invited to consult technical, professional or amateur manuals for detailed information (some are listed in bibliography). Elements c o m m o n to cinematographic and television productions will be examined first, then the practical, specific aspects of the two types of production will be dealt with. It should be kept in mind that there is a big difference between the preparation and production of a film or bide0 for education and a popularizing film or video. Equally, the use of audio-visuals in scientific research poses problems which are completely different and unusual compared to t,he previous two cases.

7.1. - A n operational approach The first questions one generally poses when preparing the

production of a film or video for education or popularizing are: - I) why is producing an audiovisual considered useful? - 2) who is it being produced for, i.e. for what specific

- 3) what information, concepts, exemplifications and

- 4) what is the best, most effective way of presenting the

Those who like formulas can think of the above as four brief questions: Why, for whom, about what, and how?

audience?

demonstrations are to be conveyed?

subject?

The answer to the first question must give a positive motivation to the advantages of an audio-visual production over other forms of

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communication which may be less expensive but perhaps also less effective. Obviously the following factors must he taken into account: the size of the audience to be reached, and the ability to repeat and reproduce in time and space. The first answer also involves the choice of technique and the production characteristics selected, taking into consideration all the advantages and dis- advantages.

The answer to the second question seems simple and rnay well be, if generalizations are avoided. A film, videocassette or television programme may he useful for a certain audience but of little interest or even inappropriate or counterproductive for another. Attempting to make something which interests everyone is, generally speaking, a mistake and in the end may interest almost no one. So there must be a careful choice of the target-audience; defining and knowing it well means being able to answer the following questions better and more satisfactorily.

The answer to the third question is perhaps the most difficult, as it is obviously correlated with the elements emerging from the previous answers. But it is always difficult, even when one knows the target-audience well, to define precisely the limits of the subject to be dealt with: where to begin and where to conclude, what information should he considered already acquired and what should he supplied as indispensable for developing the theme. The total quantity of the information to be given is also a delicate point to define: going beyond a certain threshold means making it difficult for the viewer to follow the theme or to store the amount of knowledge with which to allow him to become informed or which enables him to study.

The problem of specific profesional capacities should be dealt with in this framework (in reply to the fourth question). The co- operation between a director and a scientific adviser will be important for a popularizing programme. A n educational production will require the best use of the particular possibilities of an audio- visual chosen precisely for teaching. Here the collaboration of expert in specific sectors, such as animation and graphics, will be useful and also the new opportunities offered by computer graphics. A research film needs to be able to draw on technical competence whereby one can obtain and record the maximal amount of information on audiovisual documentation --often made with the use of special techniques or special adaptations of routine techniques.

Having defined these first approaches, the basic problems involved must be faced from an operative point of view: how to make

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the production. There are not only economic and organizational questions express the theme of a production based largely on pictures. Many people, even well-informed ones, too closcly bound to traditional verbal language, have an almost instinctive tendency to conceive the preparatory phases of a production in the form of a text, i.e. What will be the spoken commentary to which the pictures will be added?

This tendency should be rejected, as it is profoundly wrong. The conceptual or documentary nucleus should be clear, first of all so that it can be explained and translated into images of the most varied origin, accompanying them only --if and when necessary-- by comments. The words must supply complementary information linked to the content of the images, not merely repeat or exp!ain what is already visible.

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One fundamental point to be discussed to answer the fnurth question is the reputed myth of the objectivity of a visual document. In the years immediately after the birth of cinema, theoreticians and commentators confirmed this legend, whose working slogan was: A single photograph can be retouched, but thousands of frames cannot. Hence a cinematographic document is the reproduction of objective reality. In the same period several producers filmed, for profit motives, certain cine-news which were entire reconstructions, especially of battles and coronations.

The myth of the objectivity of the audio-visual documentary should not be abated just because a phenomenon can be reconstructed and filmed as though it were real. This possibility, honestly used and declared, can be useful for research, teaching and popularizing purposes. Sometimes the documentation of an event or an experiment may even be clearer, more effective and more demonstrable if it has been arranged specially as an audio-visual recording. There are numerous examples of this in the works of the greatest masters of documentary cinema, like Robert Flaherty, Joris Ivens and even Dziga Vertov who, with his "cinema-eye", even theorized the need to film reality unawares.

The myth of objectivity should be dismantled because there is always a priori a subjective choice, even in the declared masking or non-intervention techniques used in cin6ma v6rit6, direct cinema or candid camera. In the case of a scientific research film, one must define carefully if and how the intervention of cine or video filming

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interferes with or changes the phenomenon being studied --from the light of the microscope which may influence the biological rhythm of a tissue culture to the presence of the camera which modifies behaviour in certain environments.

There are other aspects of the problem of the so-called objectivity of images directly connected with the formal structure of the language used. These are: - the point of view chosen moment by moment, i.e. the angle of

the camera and the spatial composition of the framing; the continual variation of the field being shot: "pans", travelling shots, dolly movements, widening and closing-in zoom shots; successions of pictures created through editing and with special effects (fading, lap dissolve, superimpressions and insertions of several pictures, mixtures of images from real life with graphics or artificial images);

- use of special techniques typical of scientific cinema which make the invisible visible; temporal duration of a visual message which differs from real time;

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This brief, indicative list is based on the physical as well as the psychological differences between (a) the visual perception of the human eye regarding external reality and documentation and (b) the visual interpretation of reality reproduced by a camera. Over and above the particular search for spectacular effects (like the Circorama 360° screen), a normal cinema screen and, still more, television-video only partially engages the complete angle of vision or the eye --which is about 120° in the horizontal sense. A wide-angle lens, too, does not cover the normal human visual field but, if it almost manages to do so, it covers the field only with considerable optical deformation. What is more, when reproduced in projection, everything becomes proportional to the dimensions of the screen and is related to the position of the viewer with respect to the latter.

All these limits, at least so they appear to us, are actually the main structures on which are arranged the message of the pictures w e choose as our means of communicating, documenting and inter- preting. From the conceptual point of view, i.e. the content and significance of the audio-visual communication, it is important always to keep in mind the relationship the author or producer must create and maintain between the subject he is dealing with and its potential audience. For a scientific research film the problem is

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simple because the author himself is almost always the target- audience, in as much as he takes the shots or has the shots taken to discover and study an object or process. As a document the s a m e film may be presented to other people interested; such viewers must therefore be supplied with all the informative elements so that they can appreciate the phenomenon examined and its significance in terms of its component parts.

For teaching films, it is of the greatest importance that the subject of the films be directly linked to and inserted in the teaching curriculum applicable to the target audience. This is where, as w e have already seen, the simple structure of single-concept films is so advantageous. For scientific popularizing films and television programmes, the problem is much more complicated. It is not enough to define or state to what extent the subject and its characteristics will be dealt with; what is most important is how the subject will be treated.

There should be an initial choice which acts as the descriptive and informative structure of the production, i.e. how the subject dealt with has an effect on the audience. Of course, the relationship between the audio-visual product and its audience will not always be direct or obvious. For a certain type of audience, a production on energy problems will have direct and immediate impact on the daily aspects of their lives. A production on an illness, perhaps a rather unusual one, or on specific pharmacological research into ways of curing it, may not arouse a direct response in the same audience. The producer's ability lies in bringing out the social, cultural and simply informative motives which can affect the potential viewers indirectly as well.

A last point: right from the first approach to the problems of the production of a science audio-visual of any kind, there are also the concrete questions of its subsequent effective use. It is often thought that these problems can be solved afterwards, but this is an almost completely mistaken view. It may sometimes mean the failure of the undertaking. Dealing with such problems before production helps to define the project better and improves the quality of the way it is made.

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7.2. - The phases of practical production

7.2.1. - Pre-production

When w e know exactly what we want to do, in the case of a project for a popularizing or teaching film or video, the firsl thing we require is a story or treatment, i.e. a short text in which the subject is described in its audio-visual characteristics (or, more briefly) what w e want to show. The story must be written without technical jargon. In fact, it should be passed around and read especially by persons who may not be familiar with cinema or video technicalities. Of these, the most important persons are those who must decide the future of the project -- either in giving their approval, or if and how to finance it, and in which channels to disseminate the production once it is made. Other important people by whom the story should be read are the scientists, technicians, and teachers who may be asked to participate and the heads of institutes or industries in whose laboratories a part of the film is to be made.

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TO write a good story, w e must be briefed on the subject in its scientific terms. If the person who writes it is to be the director or producer who is not himself an expert or teacher in the field being treated, then he must try to obtain the collaboration of a scientific adviser at this early stage of the work. If the author of a story of an education production is a teacher of the subject but not an expert in audio-visual language, he must try to obtain the co-operation or advice of a professional or at least a technician in this sector. In the first case (which is very frequent in scientific popularizing productions), it is important that the story be advised or checked by a scientist, engineer or teacher in the sector. This will mean avoiding a series of annoying interferences from people, often a large number of them, who will have something to do with the story and -- seeing that there are some shortcomings -- will feel authorized not only to propose changes but also to intervene in matters of audio-visual form, improvising in their turn, as experts in a field which is not theirs. If the producer or director of the projected audio-visual knows his job and does not try to have his say on the scientific topic, it will be easier for him to reject or avoid these not infrequent claims to interfere made by the financier, teacher or researcher involved in the project who might want to play at TV or cinema-making. Yet, obviously possible improvements can always be accepted.

Once the story has received approval (at least as a project) and because of its scientific or teaching propriety, w e go on to the next

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phase of reconnoitring locations possibly needed for broadening the subject, meeting people in order to obtain information and document- ation, and especially to identify and study places where filming can be done, and to clarify all the problems involved in setting up experiments or obtaining technical-scientific apparatus or personnel.

With all the necessary elements assembled, w e can then move to the script -- the true technical document of the project which has to be drawn up. The script can take various forms, depending on the type of production. For a popularizing news-type TV programme on a scientific event, it may consist of a schematic outline specifying the individual sequences, with brief indications of the content of the shots. For a more serious type of film or TV programme, both educational and popularizing, a shooting script may be needed; this is a very detailed text in which the various sequences are subdivided into individual "takes". Where the production contains sequences with animation, graphics or special effects, a "storyboard" is made. This is a shooting script in which each take is designed schematically, one by one, with precise indications on what occurs and the techniques to be prepared and used, and numbering of either the frames or the seconds to be shot in each single take.

A n analysis or breakdown of the script and its translation into technical shooting terms enables the shooting schedule or production plan to be compiled, in which all the phases of the shooting and the post-production stages are laid down. In the production plan it is fundamental to establish carefully and realistically the shooting times for individual sequences, calculate the technical times for movements, pauses, setting up of equipment, tests and realistic availability of interviewees. The more carefully compiled the production plan is, the less difficult it is to prepare the budget. In many cases, the decisive element for the effective realization of the project is the economic cost of the production. It should then be drawn up correctly; exaggerating the projected expenses, to be sure to meet a given sum, m a y discourage the decision to undertake the project. The opposite approach -- keeping possible expenditures low in order to gain a favourable decision -- is equally dangerous. Counting on the fact that, once production has begun, the funds to complete it can somehow be found (because a certain investment has already been made) is a frivolous and risky approach. Even if the game is successful, the possibilities are high that the final product will be of poor quality because of the uncertainty and lack of funds during the shooting. What is more, these expedients could compromise for good the reliability of the person responsible. It is much better to adapt the project to the budget offered, by modifying the script and the production plan accordingly.

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The most delicate phase in pre-production is, indeed, compiling a reasonable budget. In the cinema and TV world, there are producer- organizers or production managers specialized in such work. But often, in scientific or educational ventures which develop outside professional cine-television circles, one has to manage on one's own. Generally it is the director-producer himself, who is often a teacher or a scientist, who must take the responsibility for organizing and financing, at the levels of both production plan and budget. H e can always ask advice or help from an expert in administration or accountancy; but some basic decisions, which will affect the drawing up of the two documents, must be his. We have already mentioned that an estimated time period must be given for individual takes in order to define the schedule. Another important decision for cinema- tographic productions is the shooting ratio between the negative or reversal film which one intends shooting and the length of positive material ultimately edited. A fixed parameter obviously cannot be indicated, given the extreme variability of the situation where shooting can be made. W e may say that for sequences of average difficulty, during which most of the elements which ensure a good result can be checked, a 1:3 ratio is the minimal realistic forecast. It is not unusual to arrive at a ratio of 1:8 for difficult sequences. When dealing with children, animals and experiments, which are particularly difficult to record successfully or visually, one may go beyond this ratio.

Another variable to be kept in mind, which can affect both budget and production plan, is uncontrollable external factors such as the weather, when a part or all of the shooting must be done in the open. Alternative indoor shooting can be planned, if possible, estimating the time loss for programme changes. When shooting on location, some distance from home, one must calculate the margins of both risk and convenience in order to decide whether to stay and wait for good weather or leave and return at a later date.

The budget should have a preliminary section which includes pre-production expenses. In many cases these will simply cover the scouting to be done, even if the project is not finally realized. For professional, large-scale productions, costs for documentation (bibliographical research, purchase of books, research and screening of other audio-visual material on the subject) should be calculated, as well as payment for the story, script, production plan and budget.

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T w o very important items on the budget are the overheads and unexpected expenses. General expenses may vary widely depending on the type of production. We are not referring here to traditional expense items such as typing, postage, telephone, transport or insurance -- even though these costs can sometimes be quite high. As most of the productions w e are concerned with are of a non-profit- making type and often organized for universities, scientific or industrial institutions, ministries, public and social services or television channels with cultural objectives, there can be an enormous range in overheads. This is because this item can include, partially or totally, many items typical of general expenditure of an audio-visual undertaking in its production or post-production stages.

It is obvious that there is a difference between a production whose technical personnel and equipment must be hired and one which has personnel and production equipment wholly or partially at its disposal because it is part of an institutional structure promoting the venture. In the second case, it is not usually an isolated production: one should decide, therefore, (a) if single budgets must consider the cost of maintenance and repair of the equipment used as overheads or (b) whether percentages of recovery should be calculated and to what extent. The same thing holds true for technical personnel and their pay.

The problem often arises, in many scientific productions, of special takes --not only in the sense of special techniques used by scientific cinematography but also of particular adaptations of routine techniques to visualize certain elements better. It may involve a modification to be made to existing equipment, the purchase of an accessory, or arranging temporary availability of special apparatus both at the production and post-production stages. In these cases, one must make an estimate to see whether it is more convenient to purchase or hire the special accessory or new piece of equipment depending on the use which will be made in a subsequent phase. A question of accountancy also arises here: What percentage of these costs, where purchases are made, should be placed on the production budget?

Sometimes these special or occasional requirements can be solved through agreements between different institutions. A university audio-visual centre can establish a non-economic CO- operation agreement with a television station; the latter may need to film in various university departments so that it can be of great use

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to have equipment and technicians on hand, from Lime to time, for takes under a microscope linked to a cine-camera for time-lapse shooting or to a tele-camera. Vice-versa, a university centre m a y sometimes need equipment for high-speed takes, thus obtaining slow- motion effects (which television stations often use for sports events). The same is valid for special production or post-production techniques. While a scientific teaching department may have the technical experts and equipment for special vizualisations, a T V station may have a range of advanced technical possibilities in the credits and special-effects areas.

Unexpected expenses should also be considered within a safety rnargin for accideriLs or changes in plan during slhootirrg. These should never be estimated at less that 10-12 per cent of the budget.

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Pre-production problems concerning research and scientific documentation films or videorecordings are quite different. In the case of research using audio-visual techniques, it is obvious that the decision to produce a film or videorecording is the same as that taken for carrying out the research. Initial preparations are different, then, from the pre-production phases of an education or popularizing film or TV programme. Priority will be given to the identification of experimental technique and specialization of the shooting equipment which ensure the results required. Fundamental care must be given to estimating a priori possible interferences and influences which the technical apparatus used in investigation (cine-cameras, tele-cameras and lights) may have on the phenomena being observed.

In the case of scientific research, non-routine takes and recordings are not unusual, and special techniques are required. O n these occasions in the pre-production phase, i.e. while preparing the research, researchers should cover all the strictly scientific aspects of the work in hand in detail -- without forgetting to make an informative survey to learn about the best cinematographic or television techniques of the types needed and which have already been tried and used. In this way, researchers can exploit others' experiences and start off at a high, tested standard. Often in these cases the lack of information may mean that a high price has to be paid in terms of scientific results, because the right apparatus was not used and the most appropriate techniques were not identified in time. In other cases, though the desired result may be obtained, a very high price can be paid in terms of using specialized human resources which might have been employed much better. This is what

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is called inventing the wheel a second time -- because someone did not know of its existence.

W e would like to quote here a small but significant episode which occurred some years ago in an industrialized country. A scientific research laboratory had to make a lengthy enquiry involving time-lapse recordings of thousands of cinematographic frames. There was a good cinecamera available and a device had to be set up to film frame-by-frame automatically, with all the possibilities of setting and varying the intervals. The technician engaged for the job perhaps did not know that on the scientific cinema market there are numerous types of highly perfected timers, very simple as well as very sophisticated ones, at varying prices. (He may have supposed they existed, but perhaps he did not know how to obtain them.) So he decided to solve the problem single-handed and constructed, if w e remember rightly, a complicated device which consisted of a timer taken from an old washing machine and a motor from an automobile's windscreen wiper. All this vias very inqenious, and the laboratory director even had an article published in a specialized journal on the results of this home-make technique.

In principle w e are profoundly convinced of the importance of the art of managing on one's own: the ability to make adaptations, other modifications, and finding ingenious and unusual solutions in scientific research and (therefore) in its use of audio-visual techniques. The best avant-garde laboratories are full of strange equipment held together with strips of adhesive tape. But if months of precious time must be lost to invent something which already exists and is fairly accessible, perhaps it is worthwhile reflecting a little before deciding how to proceed.

For single-concept films, too, the pre-production phase is quite atypical. As w e have already said, the concept film mav often emerge as an extrapolation taken from the audio-visual context: a documentary, educational or popularizing film. In these cases, the problem is essentially a question of the budget allotted Lo pust- production costs. For films of this type, specially made, the effort to be expended may be serial work or be represented by isolated occasions to be grasped at the right moment. In both cases a qualified, multi-purpose productive structure, such as a good university or other scientific audio-visual centre, is needed. The pre- production phases may then have a wider perspective and the optimization of costs and results. For example, if a series of x single- concept films must be produced, w e can say that the productive set- up needed could practically enable - x + y concept films to be made,

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with only a slight increase in production costs -- in which y filrr~s could subsequently be used and inserted into other series to bc produced and, therefore, involving very low financial output.

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When single, isolated films are to be produced, e.g. for a teacher who wishes to make one or more single-concept films for his teaching programme, it would be wise to try to solve all the problems of a non-industrial character in order to prevent the costs of a regular production -- in the case of such a short film, from becoming disproportionate.

7.2.2. - Production

The making of a scientific film, a TV science programme or an educational videocassette can differ not only because of the different character of the products but also because of the different production techniques required.

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The shooting of a film has a long consolidated tradition, even though the methods are always open to technological progress and innovation. For a scientific popularizing film or teaching film, the production techniques are about the same as those for a documentary with the exception of a few details guided by the subject and specific destinations of the film. If the film is an important undertaking, e.g. a popularizing film on the history of science --a fictional recon- struction with actors, episodes, scenery, experiments and bio- graphical events, the productive characteristics will resemble those of a commercial feature.

Before magnetic videorecording techniques evolved and became simpler, many television programmes were made too (and some still are) with cinematographic techniques, and then broadcast over the television or transferred to magnetic tape.

The production techniques of a programme made in a TV studio obviously differ widely from those of a film. This is not only because there is a magnetic tape (instead of the cinematographic film which must be developed and printed before it can be seen), but also because there are a number of telecameras (compared to the single cinecamera used) and other characteristics of the work routine. It must be admitted that TV programmes recorded in the studio often have filmed sequences inserted which, quantitatively and qualita- tively, constitute the most important part of the film. The use of

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techniques such as Chroma-key, compared to older ones has made the insertion of filmed scenes into a context set in a TV studio ever easier and more interesting. Of course there are cases, and their number will increase in future, of science proqrammes made entirely by using Lclcvision techniques both recorded and edited before being broadcast, as well as broadcast live.

The case of scientific teaching or popularizing audio-visuals for special publics, made on videocassette, is different again. In the near future, the development, spread and reliability of so-called semi- professional electronic systems for shooting and recording will enable mixed production techniques to be used integrating traditional cinematographic techniques with those of television. Almost always, this type of production makes use of a single telecamera, and its expressive use is therefore partially referred back to that of the cinecamera.

The technical instruments used condition the way a production will be made. It is not always possible to choose the instruments one would prefer (for certain types of work). Often the techniques to be used depend on the instruments and, apart from renouncing outright the project envisaged, there is nothing one can do except take the available technical apparatus into account while organizing all the pre-production phases. Then, again during the production phases, vie must keep in mind the possibilities and limits of the apparatus available in order to obtain the best results.

In other words, one must try to use the most appropriate technical apparatus for the production but, if this is not possible, the project must be adapted to the technical basis available. In the next chapter w e shall deal with the differentiating characteristics and probable technological developments as a guide to choosing between film or video, when it is possible -- depending on the different requirements.

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The shooting or recording technique varies greatly depending on the technical apparatus: one or more film-cameras, one or more telecarneras, and depending on the setting or settings where the production is being filmed -- in one or more laboratories, on location, in a TV studio or other place equipped for cinematographic or video shooting.

The first problem to be faced is the order in which the takes are to be made. Usually this fundamental aspect of the production

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will have been discussed and decided in the pre-production ptiase, while preparing the script and production plan. For various practical and scientific reasons, in some cases a decision has to be taken on the spot; e.g., having to document an experiment or naLural event while it is happening, concerning which takes are accessories and can be shot apart (before and after the main shots). Of course if one has orily a tele-camera and a videorecorder and no other possibilities for editing, everything must be recorded directly, starting at the begin- ning with the credits, and going straight to the finish. When one uses elementary technical apparatus, the preparatory work, script and entire organization plan acquire fundamental importance. All the shots can be made in the order laid down, which permits editing while shooting. Obviously if one action does not succeed, it should be shot again immediately *- recording it over the previous one, which is then automatically cancelled. If there are difficult or "delicate" shots, one must be careful to define the level of acceptability, in order to avoid cancelling a mediocre scene and then having to keep another which may be worse.

Having to shoot everything in sequence can be a good exercise in learning to express oneself correctly in the language of images. But it is obvious that, when the professional level and seriousness of a production are uncertain, a post-production possibility must be envisaged which includes editing, the choice of various takes, possible insertions and additional takes.

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Fundamental questions to keep in mind while developing one's shooting technique include the relationship between the angle of vision of the eye and cine-televisual takes -- the point of view, i.e. the camera's position compared to the object being filmed, and the optical alterations produced by the lens and camera angles and the significance that these can assume.

The human eye, w e remind, covers an angle of vision on the horizontal plane of about 120°: Normal camera lenses offer much narrower fields of vision. The super wide-angle and "fish-eye" lenses alter the relationships between reality and its reproduction. The angle of vision of the eye includes both the foveal visual zone and the peripheral one. Physiologists and psychologists have explained that it is only in the very narrow, foveal zone that w e have precise and detailed vision in focus. In the surrounding zones, vision is rnuch less distinct; the signals which reach the brain are generic in nature. If something happens in the peripheral visual zone, the eye (which is in continual micro-movement every fraction of a second) carries the

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fixation point, i.e. the foveal vision, to the area uihcrlre corne the stimuli.

There are innumerable differences between the cine-televisual reproduction of reality and normal, ocular vision. Besides the two- dimensionality of the images, there is hardly ever a relationship between the overall visual field and the subjective choice of fixation points on which to concentrate attention from one moment to the next. In the cinema, it is the darkness which makes the spectator concentrate his vision on the screen; but if someone moves in the hall, the spectator perceives it. When looking at television, w e concentrate our fixation points inside the screen. But the surrounding environment is ever present.

When filming, w e must remember that the limit to the optical reproduction of reality which the camera makes -- i.e. offering only a part of the normal visual angle -- becomes a positive characteristic in the language of images. In fact we choose both (a) the visual area w e want to present to those who watch our audio-visual and, (b) within each area, the succession and duration of the details w e wish to have noticed.

In connection with this aspect of the selection of images and their syntactic conjugation, there is also the question of the point of view -- i.e. the position of the camera, the angle at which one shoots the scene or the object. If w e want to present an automobile, w e can choose to show it stationary or moving, and its surroundings: city streets, the country, by the sea or in a car showroom, or also from where and how -- from above, below, in front, on one side, nearby or at a distance. There are a number of possibilities with the camera's movements: pan or travelling, or with the optical system, zooming; lastly, and above all, by editing successive frames. It is our job to decide. Will the first frame be a long shot, in which the auto is inserted into the environment? Shall w e then go on to a frame which isolates the car from everything else, and then show debails in close- up? Or perhaps to stipulate the curiosity of the viewer (who does not know what w e are presenting him), w e begin with a close-up of an almost undecipherable detail, and then widen the field until the car can be recognised?

This is the outline of an elementary example, with which w e draw the reader's attention to the importance of linguistic and syntactical choices to be made while communicating through pictures. This corresponds exactly to how w e choose words and construct sentences when w e speak or write.

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There are useful indications and instruction the beginner can obtain from many texts on to express himself through visual takes, yet there seems to be a need to emphasize a certain nurnber O F considerations which refer particularly to a type of communication through pictures. This is a scientific subject and therefore requires clarity and rationality of expression.

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One needs to pay attention to the optical distortions and other changes produced by lenses and camera angles. The perspective- flattening of a telephoto lens make it impossible to estimate the distance between the object presented and what is behind it. A shot from below (upwards), or vice-versa, changes the r lor mal perspectives of our point of view at eye level. In the conventions created by the language of images, this assumes particularly expressive significance and values which could influence our perception of the objects and phenomena presented.

Building up a sequence of takes -- long and medium shots, close-ups, reverse-angle -- requires thought, preparation and the ability to identify elements and points of view expressed by such succession. It may seem difficult and complicated, but often such sequencing produces good, expressive results and thus effective communication. The beginner tends to use many camera and zoom movements, taking very long shots which almost always result in a confused, inexpressive idiom. It is therefore not coincidence which makes us appreciate the stylistic difficulties faced and solved by directors using long sequence-shots in their films. Rather, this is a question of truly expressive virtuosity.

In scientific communication, whether. for teaching or popular- ization, the use of descriptive sequences composed of a single shot with camera or optical movements, or moves by the objects being filmed within the camera range, are sometimes useful and effective to ensure the unity and compactness of visual expression. One must not forget, though, that sequence shots of this type do not lend themselves to manipulation in the post-production phase. It is difficult to cut, reduce, or insert other takes; the production's length becomes a conditioning element.

At the editing stage, a number of differently sized frames shot from various angles will offer many solutions, from which the best

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can be chosen. Durinq shooting, then, w e must remember to film many details, cut-ins and linking frames.

Another important feature of thz language of images cuririccted with shooting technique is the relationship between real tirne and film tirne. The editing of diFferent takes and the use of LectiniqiJes such as dissolves, fade-ins and fade-outs offer well-known possibilities for condensing real tirne into ideal cinematographic time. For particular actions, where every detail is to be shown, by editing a number of shots, one can IengLhen the duration of an event. Here w e are speaking exclusively about shooting at normal speed, not special high-speed or time-lapse filming. Such conventional techniques can be used quite safely in video programmes or films intended for popularization; but it should be rembered that these manipulations of real time should always be declared in the cases of research documentation or educational films.

When dealing with the human sciences (cultural anthropology in the widest sense of the word), the problem O F time is particularly delicale. When filming a folk dance or craftwork, the temporal factor is often no less irnportant than the spatial or movement factors. A n audio-visual documentation, if it is to have scientific interest and value, must resolve this problem, even by employing ways of reducing, though not ignoring, repetitive phases. For an event lasting too long to be filmed or recorded in its entirety in rea! time, it is often better to include whole sequences of significant moments during the event than a condensed synthesis of the whole event without reference to its precise temporal dynamic:.

For particularly difficult shooting, test shots are advisable before beginning the production. It is very useful if the most important takes are repeated. When using different lenses and shots, one can also make two versions to use while editing. If one is recording on magnetic tape or using more than one camera, then one can edit while shooting. Otherwise the same motives for cinema- tographic filming are valid: the creation of several alternatives for subsequent editing.

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We cannot give a general rule for the rehearsal of each scene or take. One must adopt what is considered the best method, case by case. Each scene or take must obviously be pre-planned. If people are taking part, then actions and movements must be arranged before- hand. In the case of interviews, there is a theory that the first takes

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are always the best -- whether they were prepared or agreed on previously 01' not -- because subsequent takes tend to betray the fact that there has been repetition. Rut, as we have said, no firm rules can be applied here.

It is always wise to remember to document photographically the most significant events. In certain cases, especially for science films, it is a good idea to try to keep a record of the filming itself, i.e. showing what set-up was used to arrange a particular take. At least two cameras are needed in such cases: one in the visual field, and one for filming. But the one within visual range can be replaced by a false (non-operative) one or by a still camera if the filming is only a demonstration and does not occur during the real, scientific, shooting.

If what w e have just said is valid for special cases, a fundamental rule never to be broken is numbering all takes and writing down all data concerning them. Use the clapperboard: whether a simple slate or the most sophisticated electronic systems. Then make, or have made, a written summary of all the takes. The more data that can be recorded, the easier it is to re-shoot or integrate necessary parts, and then deal with all post-production phases.

When shooting with cinematographic film, one must come to an agreement with the processing laboratory in order to be able to see the filmed material, the so-called rushes, as soon as possible. If you are some distance from the laboratory and taking difficult, expensive shots, it may be worth the expense to send someone carrying the negatives so that he or she can see the results immediately and then communicate them. Alternative procedures are to establish close contact with the laboratory's technical staff, or else shoot the sequences twice and send them separately to the laboratory.

When making sound films, it can be useful to record a few minutes of ambient sound, in addition to the recording synchronized with the takes. During the sound-editing phase, this may serve to harmonize background noises by mixing different takes or, in the case of voice commentations, to post-synchronize the production.

Of all the recommendations of a general nature, one can never emphasize enough the importance of very careful preparation of the takes, down to their smallest detail. Whether one is shooting in one's own laboratory or on location in a remote place, it is fundamental that a pin, a piece of coloured cardboard, or whatever else is

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necessary, should be on hand at the right moment. Forgetting cvcn a pin or a piece of cardboard may rnean paying a high price in the loss of time; the omission m a y also compromise the quality of the result.

The dream of many film-makers is to be able to use the camera as a pcn, depending on no one else or feeling free to express what they wish. But this is rarely achieved: it is extremely unusual for a film or video-recording to be made, from beginning to end, by one person -- except in a few experimcntal productions.

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The problem of collaborators, or film crew, should be resolved with a view of the specific production needs, keeping two considerations in mind: (a) It is useful to have the right collaborators at one's disposal for good results, but the smaller this number is the better and more smoothly work can proceed; (b) If this is not to be an isolated audio-visual production, it is fundamental to find a team who can work together. The quality and productivity of the effort will thus benefit enormously. The composition of a crew varies, depending on the types and quantity of shots to be filmed. A n efficient crew suitable for work requiring moves and on-location shooting m a y consist of:

director or producer-director; a person who, as the need arises, can carry out Lhe functions of script-girl/boy, producing organizer or director's assist ant; cameraman; assistant-cameraman (who can also film alone, with a second camera, under the guidance of the cameraman); sound engineer; lighting technician, who can also double as a stage-hand, resolving the small problems arising while preparinq a shot.

Obviously the crew's number can be reduced by concentrating the tasks. For example, the director m a y take on the tasks of no.!2): no.(4) can take on those of no.(6), or vice-versa; and no.!5) the Lasks of no.(2). One must not forget that, when filming is made on location, one of the crew usually acts as driver. In some cases one must also include the scientific advisor, either as an interviewer or inter- vievlee, or -- because he advises the director on the scientific aspects of the filming -- with the director solves the problems which arise.

The division of work and good professional qualities in specific, limited, technical roles are the basis for good results among the

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crew's activities. All w e need do is think of six specialists, with their equipment, shouting and bustling, who invade a small scicnce laboratory where delicate research is being carried out. Then we realize that thc smaller the crew, the better its work will be.

For professional cinema and television activities, a rninirnurn number for crews is established by low or through trade-union agreements to prevent over-exploitation of workers, guaranteeing a sub-division of technical tasks. An electrician cannot work as a stage hand (and vice-versa); a sound technician cannot deal with organization or script, and so on. Generally speaking everything is established scrupulously for commercial production, but in other types of production the principle of the exception which proves the rule must be recognized. Scientific film work is not usually carried out for financial ends, so that ten "outsiders" moving around an experiment, an animal or a microscope only cause problems. The least they can accomplish is make the scientists waste time, lowering the quality of their work. There are many examples of waste or damage we can cite as a result of the excessive sub-division of work, i.e. an excessive number of members of film crew.

When video-recording, the team can be reduced by one, perhaps by two (compared to film work) if one wishes to work effectively and obtain good results. If there is more than one television camera, then w e return to the size of crew required for film.

During shooting it is important to create and maintain a frank and open relationship with the scientists and technicians in the sector in which one is working, whether they are involved in giving scientific advice to the producer or not. There must be maximal collaboration to obtain the best results in both audio-visual and scientific expression. T o achieve this, each person must do well what he knows how to do, i.e. the scientist or expert should not assume the role of film director, or vice-versa. At the basis of this is clarity in relationships and comprehension of the work at hand. If the director knows what the scientists are doing and knows also what he wants to do, there is less probability that he will receive suggestions or interference -- creating problems.

In the production of a science film, there exists a large number of variables for each type of audio-visual which has to be made. For example, if special filming, trick shots, or animations are planned for the post-production phase, one must remember to shoot all the specific material which can be used in subsequent work. In the case of a research film, the basic problems aften consist of (a) difficulties

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in synchronizing the functioning of the cameras when unexpected phenomena occur or during experimental cases; and (b) the need to arrange chronographic and space indications which will appear on the picture being shot, and which will enable subsequent measurements and tests to be made.

7.2.3. - Post-production

The importance and complexity of the production phase occur- ring after the shooting of a scientific audio-visual are widely underestimated. This is partly because of a psychological fact: after the maximal tension and concentration during shooting, there is a general relaxation -- as though everything has been done. There is also a question of erroneous evaluations arising from the lack of a professional approach: editing a film is thought of m y amateurs as simply removing the unexposed frames left between one shooting and another -- removing the parts considered unsuccessful -- and the addition of the credits. Some think that when using a video-recorder, everything is done straight off and that at the end of the shooting the tape or video-cassette are ready.

In many cases, even for quite large-scale productions, the post- production phases may be simplified if the preparatory work is good and if the production itself proceeds to completion without complications. Errors and shortcomings occurring in the prc- production phase, or difficulties arising during the shooting, may create problems regarding how the work proceeds towards completion. This may imply changes in the original project, in order to be able to reach some of the objectives laid down.

Normally the main stages of post-production consist of: editing the pictures and synchronous sound tracks;

graphs, material from archives, etc).

- - preparing and inserting inserts (animation, graphics, photo-

- making and inserting special and optical effects and credits (dissolves, superimpressions, etc, if not made durinq filming).

- post-synchronisation, if necessary, of voices for commentary, voice-over translations of interviews if conducted in a foreign language, sound and musical effects to be added, mixing of various sound tracks; making a sample copy of the film (first trial print) and master- tape or cassette.

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Editing is much more than simple research and juxtaposing the succession of various takes and sequences. To edit means to search for and perfect the audio-visual expression begun with filming. Single shots are like words which are composed into a sentence (a sequence) through editing.

Editing techniques and styles differ for cinema and television. But the differences are not only attributable to technical reasons. The origin of the editing concept itself is different; in the cinema, it is one of the basic elements of the structure of discourse through images. Editing developed, in fact, during the silent period as a discovery of the significance emerging from placing two shots sequentially. In videomagnetic recording, edilirig techniques are a recent accomplishment and still not wholly available for small, semi- professional set-ups. What is more, in video shooting, sound is almost always present and synchronous; this influences editing style and techniques. But technological progress, which is extremely rapid in the specific techniques of editing equipment (both for cinema and television), is producing mutual interaction. Perhaps, in the near future, many things which today seem difficult, complicated or unobtainable for a producer of education audio-visuals, will become accessible.

From the point of view of the scientific educational or popular- izing film or video, the most important specific objective is the rhythrn with which to present the visual and sound material. Pictures, information and sound effects must express all their communicative potential to the audience for whom they are made. The styles of 'advocacy' programmes and educational film will obviously be different. In the first case, editing can use emotional effects to involve the audience in the subject; in the second case, there must be maximal clarity and effectiveness of exposition. In both cases, however, one must decide on the quantity and quality of the information to be broadcast, then adapt the length of the various sequences and possibly their repetition, as well as the dynamics of the entire ensemble. Slowness in the editing rhythm may bore, or not engage the attention, of the audience of a popularizing programme; but presenting visual and sound information with excessive speed may hinder comprehension and lose the audience's attention. In teaching films, rhythms vary: there is no need to be excessively concerned about repetition. In spite of this, excessively slowing the editing rhythm -- to allow numerous details of some pictures to be appreciated -- may tire the audience. For example, a teaching film on how a complicated machine works must have a balanced rhythrn of

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exposition. If therc is a detail of the machine's functioning or a sector of the command panel (perhaps even with animated film to provide explanations) requiring the attention of the viewer to be held for some time, one must reflect on how much time one can spend over the details. It m a y be better to present only the main information in a general film, shooting a separate suh-film: a single- concept film on the specific topic.

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Inserts and special and optical effects (including credits, graphics, explicatory captions, and animation superimposed on scenes already filmed) are important elements in an audio-visual idiom on a scientific subject. Some of these must be decided upon at the start, then prepared in the early production stages. Others may be made during shooting but, in many cases, these elements are added during the editing phase. Their characteristics and effectiveness can then be calculated exactly, because one knows precisely what filmed material is available and thus a first editing job has already been done.

W e can never insist too much on the importance that data offered visually, with a simple piece of animated graphic material, can have, in comparison with a phrase in the spoken commentary. Even though there may be objections that animation costs time and money (much more than merely lending words to a speaker), one must consider first the importance one wishes to give to particular information, and then assess the best way of presenting it. What is more, with modern electronic technology, the cost of graphics and animation -- especially the schematic type -- is rapidly diminishing.

For sound and first copies in the final production phases, there do not seem to be special aspects which must be pointed out, compared to the production of a normal non-scientific or non- educational audio-visual. One small point is the idea of leaving the original sound track, if an internationally famous scientist inter- viewed communicates in his own language (as happens more and more frequently). For popularizing broadcasts at a qualified level and educational films for high schools and universities, sub-titles or electronic moving captions can be added for those who do not know the language used -- instead of dubbing. Hearing the speaker's voice directly is extremely effective, and non-dubbing increases the reliability (and eliminates the possibility of manipulation) of the original message.

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Another stage in production is the validity test of the audio- visual made; this must be added to the traditional post-production phases of educational films and video programmes. Having made the first final copy, the copy must then be shown to target audiences of both the students and the teachers involved. Discussion and the compilation of evaluation forms could illustrate to the makers the results achieve, the weak points which can be overcome, and possibly the outright failure of the film/video. Even if the control test reveals failure, it will enable the makers to avoid the expense of making copies -- not to mention the money saved by the education system which, by putting the product in circulation, would have caused problems for further use of audio-visuals in teaching. This may appear to te a negative Consideration, but its validity cannot be stressed too strongly.

8 - FILM OR VIDEO?

This question has been asked in all the circles where audio- visuals are made or used. The general trend has been to increase video to the detrirncnt of film. The tendency is widespread, even in research, education and popularization. This use of visualization techniques has, however, special characteristics and requirements. It is not accidental that w e noted, in one of the early chapters, how it is precisely through scientific needs that the language of moving pictures was born and (from the start) developed special techniques of its own.

It is obvious that video-recording has the great advantage over filrn of allowing the makers to see the product immediately, to check each single shot, at no extra cost. This is undoubtedly a psychological help to the newcomer to audio-visuals. H e can improvise more easily as a director. He is under the impression of training himself and of being self-dependent when it comes to the success of the shooting. If something goes wrong, he realizes this immediately and can remedy the situation.

In some cases of documentary or scientific filming (e.g. ethno- graphic or sociological subjects), this characteristic of reproducing the filming immediately can be inconvenient or perhaps counter- productive. The subject or subjects who have been filmed may not accept the results when they see the recording and could demand that it be annulled or re-made. The product would then supper from a marked lack of spontaneity. In other cases, this characteristic of video might be valuable in stimulating discussion or new recordings after the shots have been viewed.

Without going into too much detail concerning individual cases, we shall give a schematic summary of the main elements (given the present state of current technology) for and against the use of video- recording, compared to traditional cinematographic filming.

- For:

The results are immediately visible;

The re-usability of the same tape several times, if the recording is not good or when an old one is no longer needed;

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The simplicity of the psychological attitude towards video- recording facilitates the technical approach and the creation of a small crew; the automatic devices of the equipment provide accessible solutions to technical problems in lightiny and sound;

Colour tele-cameras have become available at economical prices and provide satisfactory results for semi-professional portable equipment, to 0;

The tele-camera/video-recording set-up is becoming lighter in weight thanks to miniaturization and remarkable electronic components, so that soon the unit may become as manageable as a cine- c amer a;

The increasing ease in obtaining special, optical and graphic effects by electronic means;

- Against: The lack of international, technical standardization, a fact

which creates serious practical consequences. The incompatibility between video-recordings made with apparatus of different standards and even by different firms is a serious limitation;

The limited definition of a picture and the limits to qualitative results in terms of colour and contrast. The possibilities of projecting a video-recording onto a large screen are difficult and unsatisfactory, even though video-projectors are now becoming available at reasonable prices;

The technical difficulties of electronic editing, even though the new "generations" of equipment are partially overcoming them. A basic problem remains: electronic editing consists of copying individual shots from one tape onto another. There is then, in the editing phase, loss of quality at the start;

The problem of making a number of copies of a video-recording means a loss of quality compared to the original, the use of special apparatus and the need to use copies to obtain other copies to be able to safeguard the master. The copies are, therefore, third-generation ones with serious qualitative limits;

The maintenance problems of electronic equipment are much more complex than for traditional cinematographic technology based

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mainly on mcchariical and electrical principles. Trained electronic experts are not always available, especially in lightly industrialized or developing countries. The lack of standardization also makes it practically compulsory to depend on maintenance, repairs and spare parts from the organization serving the manufacturing firm -- which often only has a good sales network; usually the technical assistance is inadequate because it is far away, not well-equipped, overloaded with work or short of spare parts. Often one is virtually forced to change an entire piece of equipment, part by part, because it is much more "advantageous" to buy the new model and "inconvenient" (i.e. in practice, one is no longer able) to repair the old one;

The absolute or relative impossibility for normal equipment now on sale to accomplish electronically several fundamental techniques of scientific cinema, such as high speed or time-!apse.

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In this schematic outline w e have not dealt with costs. These vary from country to country and there are also counter-currents between the inflationary phenomena of currency and drops in cost resulting from technological progress. Another reason: it is difficult to make absolute comparisons between two structurally different techniques such as film and video. A complete video-recording set-up may cost more than a cine-camera but the film, and developing and printing it as well as the post-production processes of a film, cost more than a tape and its manipulation. Besides, tape can be re-used.

W e must now return to some of the points summarized above, to examine particular problems which can affect the types of production that interest us.

The problem of the definition of a picture is one of the most important. At the present state of their respective technologies, w e can roughly say that the picture of a 35 rnm film is (on an average) ten times richer in information than the picture taken by a tele- camera. In other words, there are 3,000,000 spots forming the 35 mm image; in the 16 mm cinematographic film there are about 700,000; about 300,000 in an electronic picture using the European standard of 625 lines --but even less with the American standard (cf. V. Pinel, Techniques du cingma, Paris, 1981). These data are partly conventional because the two types of image are obtained by different procedures, yet they do not refer to the reproduction factor. In fact, while the definition of a 35 mm or 16 mm film is very faithful -- even when projected onto a very large screen, the

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electronic picture is only acceptable if seen on the relatively small TV screen -- it yields a grainy effect when reproduced by a tele- projector screen with a base width of 1-2 m.

It is obvious that for scientific and teaching purposes a good definition of the image, in many cases, is a fundamental requirement for, precisely, the effectiveness and evidence of the phenomena one desires to present. (There are some subjects, and hence types of pictures, where a low video definition level is sufficient.)

Another handicapping qualitative element of video is the colour- and contrast-control system. The continuous need to adjust these factors in tele-cameras and video-recorders and on the monitors or TV sets make the final resulting image arbitrary. With film, all the elements comprising the picture can be checked first -- while shooting and later in the laboratory -- after one has defined their best level and fixed this in the copy or copies, as it is considered they should he seen, once projected.

To conclude on the problem of the quality and definition of pictures, w e quote a few words from a book on the use of video- recording (The Complete Handbook of Video, London, 1382, p.100): "Take no notice of the photographs, apparently showing what the camera can do, which appear in manufacturers' brochures: they are invariably shot on film, not videotape.'' And it adds that w e should not even expect, with semi-professional or amateur video set-ups, to be able to obtain the same quality of pictures that w e are used to receiving on TV --because the latter are produced and broadcast with very expensive equipment using highly qualified techniques.

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Another delicate point of video production is editing. In only a few years, great technological progress has been made and more will follow. But the basic problem remains: with small- and medium-size videornagnetic set-ups, editing still means re-recording one take after another on another tape. Everyone knows that each re- recording involves a loss of quality. But there is not only this. With film, editing also means creating a message, obtaining a rational, emotional or communicating effect through the succession, alternation, rhythm or repetition of various shots. Different solutions can be tried, and tried again, until one finds what one wants.

In theory, all this is possible with video too. But it takes much time, patience and technical skill in the handling of electronic

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gadgets; the effort also requires, above all, fairly sophisticated and still costly equipment. Some of this equipment, such as the TBC time base corrector, a computerized synchronization generator, still cannot be used with the majority of semi-professional video- recorders.

to its

The great disadvantage of cinema is that its film must be sent the developing and printing laboratory and then one must wait for return before seeing the results. In many non-industrialized

countries, such saboratories do not exist or do not have good professional standards; exposed films must therefore be sent abroad, sometimes thousands of kilometres away. This is a serious handicap. For small, straightforward productions, video offers more rapid and less expensive solutions.

If an audio-visual production is planned, to be distributed widely on many different occasions (in schools or among the population, a large number of copies are required. One must keep in mind the difficulties w e mentioned earlier about obtaining good copies of, for example, a videocassette. This problem does not exist with film. O n the contrary, the more copies one makes, the better one can control their quality.

Other elements which tend towards the preference for film over video are the scientific requirements in the use of special techniques, or of animation, which cannot be obtained with video. W e have said that, in future, there will be vast new possibilities in the field of computer graphics. Meanwhile, w e must keep our feet firmly on the ground. The Handbook of video mentioned earlier advises that animation, complex credits and other special effects --besides scientific filming in time-lapse and high speed -- should be shot with a cine-camera and the result transferred to tape.

For sound, too, one should not be led to believe that all the problems have been solved when advertisements claim that tape is the only base on which the tele-camera, with an incorporated microphone, can record synchronized pictures and sound. Specialists having some experience know that live sound-recording involves particular acoustical problems: a certain type of microphone is required for a certain type of environment and for the type of sound one wants to record --noise, voice, music, interviews. These problems must be solved case by case. And having the image and sound track on the same tape is not always an advantage. When the post- synchronization of a commentary must be edited, the process is almost always complicated.

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To sum up: The idea which sprcad at the beginning of the 1970s, that video was going to substitute for film, has turncd OUL to be an illusion. Video is still not the panacea for all audio-visual problems. In the field of productions dealing with science, whether for teaching 01' popularizing, one must keep in mind the various technical, expressive and distribution needs when choosing the best means one could use.

8.1. - Technical interaction between film and video

It is no secret that, because of its enormous economic interest all over the world, show business has a vast technical interest in developing and controlling the interaction between film and video, e.g. the use of films on TV, the new systems of cable distribution, the sale or hire of videocassettes, as well as the use of video techniques for film production.

At the level of language and expressive style -- from the communication of information to artistic crnotion -- the two techniques influence one another and continue to provide useful stimuli for one another.

One must also consider the immense audio-visual heritage of cinematographic archives of all types. There is almost a century of moving pictures, including thousands of works of art, millions if not billions of recorded documents bearing information, events and phenomena taken from all fields of social life and nature. Television and video productions, including educational and scientific ones, make wide use of this enormous cultural inheritance. It is in fact very easy to transcribe, or use directly, a film for use in a video production, giving excellent qualitative results. As the definition level of the film image is far superior to the televisual picture, transcription through the tele-camera produces an image which is not inferior to the best ones obtained via live tele-camera filming.

W e all know that the inverse procedure, transcribing videotape onto film, is still a prublem. The many solutions which have been attempted have given mediocre technical results, using videograph or other acceptable systems including laser beams. These are still not perfect. Satisfactory results, then, remain a delicate, expensive affair, not yet routine or accessible to everyone.

Being able to convert video-recorded audio-visual documents on film, when needed, is still an important requirement -- not only to enable those working with films to be able to draw on the huge store

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available of all types of TV pictures, accumulating day after day all over the world, but also to have the assurance of conserving the most irnporlant of these documents for the future. Clectronic systems are still at their early stages. The numerous successive transformations of technical standards, the persistent incompatibility of systems, our awareness of the duration and future loss in quality of video- recordings over the years: all these are elements favouring the need to perfect a simple, inexpensive technology for transcribing video pictures on film with results of good quality. It is cornmon knowledge, however, that (a) film-conservation techniques are objects of experi- mental research and (b) there is some hope that audio-visual documents can be conserved well beyond the short- or medium-term without loss of quality.

In the field of scientific docurnentation !i.e. of basic material for research, education and popularization), w e emphasize that the use of film is still far from obsolete. There are several reasons for this: the special techniques which are still documentation's exclusive domain, the qualitative level and definition of the pictures, and the universality, convertibility and conservability of its material. All these elements in favour of film will be valid until electronic techniques, or others, perhaps something entirely different, can ensure the same or better results.

It is obvious that this preference is valid for all cases where one is planning to make a visual documentation of something importanL and which one believes is worth conserving, re-using and dissemi- nating. The routine use of video-recording is, therefore, no longer in question and is increasingly widespread. One must not hesitate, whenever one has the good luck to record a scientific or a rare, important or unrepeatable natural event on video only, to ensure its conservation by reproducing it immediately (before any manipulation or deterioration can take place) on good quality video material. (One should also attempt to transcribe this tape on film at the highest level of fidelity.)

In the current consumption and distribution modes for scientific, teaching and popularizing purposes, videotape and especially the videocassette are gaining popularity, compared to traditional cinematographic production.

The limitations w e indicated earlier still remain, however. For years to come, in developing countries, it may be simpler and more advantageous to use the solid, proven 16 mm projector; this provides a screening of film in good conditions. And it is more acceptable to a

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large number of people than a delicate video player, difficult to repair on the spot and offering mediocre images on B small scrcen.

So much, then, for audio-visuals, destined for large audiences, such as in hygiene, health propaganda campaigns, science popularization, or the development of new agricultural techniques. In more restricted circles (such as universities), film will soon be substituted in teaching by video-recording, even starting from the transcription of a film. The existence of university audio-visual centres should also serve as a guarantee for technical maintenance and functionality in practical use of the technology.

9 - A PROSPECTIVE APPROACH

Here w e would like to cast a glance at future developments in optical and electronic systems for recording and reproducing pictures.

This is not an attempt at prophesy of a miraculous techno- logical future in the audio-visual field. This future is, on the contrary, possible from a scientific point of view and in consideration of practical applications. But the future is also costly, both in economic and in cultural terms. In economic terms, the resources of various countries, especially the less rich or less industrialized, will be insufficient to face the new, world-wide system of satellite broadcasting or new production and reproduction techniques in picture-making. In cultural terms, this future will signify new and more penetrating forms of dominance of production by the large and powerful countries; in terms of cultural policy and show business (entertainment and commercial advertising), this will be to the detriment of education and popularization, national culture and the spread locally of a rational, scientific awareness.

The final report of Unesco's International Symposium on the Education of the Public in Mass Media (held in Gflnwald, January 1982) points to the danger of a cultural invasion or imperialism of the image which may also not be deliberate, simply a reflection of the weakness of the infrastructures of developing countries. The report speaks of a possible loss, consequently, of 'cultural identify'.

This glance at the future is thus a warning. The less a country invests in new armaments and military forces, the more it can spend on culture and education so as to use new mass media techniques in the best way possible. Mass media may, in turn, be considered a dangerously offensive weapon if used solely to meet the ends of a consumer society in which the citizen --inert -- spends more and more time each day in front of a screen offering non-stop enter- tainment, where events in real life are mixed with evasive fiction. It is during such periods that advertizing, too, will eventually penetrate into education programmes.

9.1. - The future of optical and electronic systems Enthusiasts of electronic systems say that video is still in its

early stages, at the dawn of its history. They maintain that there will

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bc a decline of film. Others emphasize the gaps that video must still fill in order to reach the quality levels of film; they forecast biy improvements in the old techniques -- thanks to the introduction O F new plastic bases much finer than the present ones, instantaneous developing systems, increased sensitivity of emulsions and decrease in grain; they also foresee the introduction of holographic techniques which, through their projection in three-dimensional space, would revolutionize our present systems (including video) of two- dimensional reproduction on a screen.

In reply, the video fans say that micro-electronic chips will replace cathode tubes in tele-cameras, which will be miniaturized even further. Tcle-cameras and video-recorders wili become a single, small, light piece of equipment with a new 8 mm minitape. With these new systems, w e shall obtain: single pictures (photos) and recorded films from the same apparatus; immediate replay, also copies of frames on paper (like colour photographs) or on slides and broadcast via telephone or to a TV set. Graphic minicomputers will enable us to write, design and draw diagrams and animation, and to elabarate pictures filmed by a tele-camera or taken from film. The digital techniques of recording images and sounds should guarantee the highest qualitative fidelity, both for conservation and reproduction. This means that present installations must be changed, starting with transmitters and including the latest television receivers, because the low definition of today's video image is conditioned by prevailing technical standards.

The H D T V (high-definition TV) already exists at an experimental level, perfected in Japan and the United States. It promises a quality of image which approaches that of 35 mrn film. But the total renewal of television installations that this requires throughout the world has made some think-that probably, in the last years of this century, high-definition TV will be commercialized and used to produce entertainment films. These productions would be distributed by satellite via videotape or used in broadcasts on the traditional television channels.

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The recent technological development of mass media is replete with both apparent and real contradictions. Multinational industries which carry out experimental research costing millions of dollars, evidently do this, in the first place, for business success in rivalry with their competitors. Social and cultural progress comes about, if at all, as secondary fall-out from the success of their ventures.

This is how w e can explain happenings whereby some of the largest enterprises in the chemico-photo-cinematographic industry launched into vastly expensive research, made prototypes and cornrnercialized experimentally or put products on entire national or continental markets which they then abandoned slowly, stopped or even withdrew. The launching of the Super-8 cinematographic format, in its various types of technical presentation, is an example of tliis. This sub-sub-standard format, compared with 35 mm or 16 rnrn, seemed destined to go far beyond the already vast boundaries of the old 8 mm realm of amateur home movies. One could also have forecast that this represented a new frontier for education. The use of cartridges, cine-cassettes and completely automatic projectors could have revolutionized the use of audio-visuals in schools, as well as in everyday domestic life.

One need only think of a highly-perfected, sophisticated system such as EVR (electronic video recording) which, in the 1970s, offcred very highly-defined cinematographic-video pictures of 8.75 mm -- two audio tracks and reproduction on television through an clcctrnnic reader. The prototypes offered had exceptional characteristics. A series of small cassettes could constitute an audio-visual encyclopedia, since the recording could be that of either a normal film or TV programme, or else an infinite series of brief seqLiences or fixed images: 180,000 per cassette in all, easily recalled and selected through quick retrieval based on the coding of its frames.

The EVR system and others, which because of lack of space w e cannot discuss here, were never commercialized although they were backed by solid, intercontinental industries which had invested fortunes in them. All this because a video recording on tape was emerging and one could see the advent of the videodisc. Yet, some features of commercialized products for video reproduction have not reached the standards achieved in laboratory conditions twenty years ago.

The fact is that the much touted technological revolution which should have brought audio-visuals within everyone's reach (in all senses of the word) stands to achieve only partial success; it will depend on specific economic interests relating to market exploitation. The strong competition between various systems, the different standards and different makes can produce a boomerang effect, disorientating potential users. It is not only a question of choosing between video or film but between analogous yet incompatible techniques, each of which offers advantages and yet suffers limitations. The promotion campaigns of various firms to

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launch their systems, together with the current daily indigestion of television pictures endured by the inhabitants of Industrialized countries, have induced in the public the need to acquire such equipment for visual communication.

The next few decades will give rise to market responses serving as guidelines to producers, and the trends will not ~ecessarily be the best from the point of view of mankind's best socio-cultural interests.

Meanwhile there are still several countries in the world where there is not even Lhe smallest local industry for producing film, where there is no public television service, not even a television network. Such cokintries must rely on foreign experts and equipment for the production of even a sirnple political propaganda film.

Faced with the macroscopic contradictions experienced by society in our century, together with many considerations concerning its very survival, scientific cinema can and does play an active, positive role of its own. If, as we believe, scientific cinema means a rational, cultural use of the new language of images, favouring its birth and growth in developing countries means intervening to guide sanely and healthily the assimilation of this way of communicating and receiving information. This implies fighting the acritical, passive invasion of inconsequential audio-visuals which risk becoming escapist entertainment, a drug. We need, instead, to propose educational uses aimed at spreading literacy, raising the cultural level, and improving the quality of life everywhere.

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10 - GLOSSARY OF SELECTED TECHNICAL TERMS

This glossary is intended for non-specialist readers; it explains the more specialized terms used in the technical aspects of scientific cinematography and television.

ANIMATION (computer-based) By inserting the input data of a number of problems and the appropriate operational programme into the computer, it is possible to obtain on the computer's video-output a display of the various solutions, and thus to represent figures in movement, the various phases of a process, the evolution of a form, and so on.

BROADCAST In televisual language, this means a videotape or recording- reproduction apparatus with technical qualities for professional use, i.e. to be broadcast. Until just a few years ago, only 2-inch tapes were broadcast, very occasionally 1-inch ones. Now 1-inch tapes are used for the most part though some people make regular use of the 3/4 inch U-matic standard.

C A T V Originally: community antenna television, now generally used for cable television. The cable TV system, already widely used in several countries, is an endlessly expandable closed-circuit television in that only TV sets connected to the "cable" can receive its programmes. The distribution network consists of coaxial cables which, because of their internal and external insulation, can transport the video and audio signals of several, different programmes without loss, distortion or background noise over quite long distances, In some countries, the companies which own a cable television network are required to reserve at least one channel for transmitting only educational programmes.

CCTV Closed-circuit television. A small yet complete video system essentially consistiny of telc?camera(s) and monitor(s). Videorecorders can be inserted. It has had, and still has, many uses in scientific and

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teaching fields. There are also large CCTV systems, c.g. interactive links between universities and schools in the same city; in this case, it is perhaps more precise to speak of CATV (cable television, q.v.).

CHROMA-KEY A special video effect obtained by combining two electronic colour images, e.g. a presenter filmed against a neutral background (usually blue or green) appears in front of or is inserted into a scene which is reproduced from another source (tele-cine, videorecordcr, another telecamera). There are numerous applications for scientific and educational purposes.

CINEMACROGRAPHY Cinematographics shots taken with special optical systems (or with additional lenses) designed to attain or to exceed the 1:l relationship between the dimension of an object and its image recorded on film. During the projection phase, the larger the screen, the greater the enlargement will be with respect to the dimension of the frame. Permits the study and analysis of phenomena the scale of which is too small for normal lenses and too large for the microscope.

CINEMICROGRAPHY A shooting technique in which a camera is attached to a microscope. The optical devices of the microscope itself are used, not those of the cinecamera. Microcinematographic technology often includes alteration of the time factor (time-lapse, high-speed) and the use of particular lighting systems.

CINERADIOGRAPHY A cinecamera or television recording system connected to an X- radioscopy plant. By means of an image intensifier, it is possible to analyse dynamic phenomena, slowing them down considerably with high-speed shooting.

COAXIAL CABLE, see CATV

COMPUTER GRAPHICS A n advanced system compared to computer-based animation. With rapid technological developments in electronics, it is becoming easier and less expensive to insert into a srnall computer not only numerical data but also static and dynamic images, words and symbols and improvised designs --all of which can be continually modified in real time. Everything is processed digitally and provides interesting,

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effective results for scientific communication such as the processing and transformation of images, animated superimposition of words, graphs, numerical data and symbols.

FILM ANALYSIS Devices for obtaining qualitative and quantitative data from scientific films (and possibly comparisons with other recordings), concerning the research done (or recorded) by means of film. Special equipment is used and one proceeds frame by frame. Can be connected to a computer for storage and processing of the information obtained.

FRAME BY FRAME Technique of shooting a single frame at a time. Basic method used in making animated drawings or diagrams.

HIGH-SPEED MOTION PICTURES Among the various existing terms, this one is the most often used to describe accelerated shooting which permits the breaking down and analysis of rapid and ultra-rapid phenomena that are otherwise unobservable. Different techniques are used according to the degree of expansion of the time factor required. Special cine-cameras exist which can work at speeds of several hundred frames per second and still others take several thousands of frame per second; other shooting device allow the recording of the phases of a phenomenon at a ratio of millions of frames per second.

HOLOGRAPHY The hologram is the recorded image of an object observed by means of a monochromatic coherent light source (or radiation source), i.e. the laser. Projection of the hologram (using an analogous source) permits three-dimensional viewing of the object and its examination from various angles and points of view.

IMAGE INTENSIFIER Other names, such as brilliance amplifier, may also be used. This is an electronic device, based essentially on a cathodic tube and optical fibres, which "multiplies" a weak or extremely weak light signal until it attains a level high enough for recording on videotape or motion picture film. Used for night shots without artificial lighting, or in poorly illuminated places. In cineradiography, such devices are used both to reduce radiation intensity and to increase shooting speed when the analysis of a very rapid phenomenon is necessary.

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KINESCOPE R E C O R D E R This is thc exact opposite of thc telecine converter, q.v. It is used to record a T V broadcast on cinematographic film, and was the only way of conserving TV programmes before videorecording was invented. (Its technical results are not brilliant). There are complex pieces of equipment based on laser techniques or on the direct recording of the film by an zlectronic-beam recorder; these devices supply better transcriptions, but are very costly to use. A satifactory technical solution for transferring a videotape onto cinematographic film is still not available.

OPTICAL FIBRES Flexible, glass-like fibres, finer than a hair, which permit a light wave to travel from one end of the fibre to the other by a series of internal reflections, thus transmitting a light source or an image. Bands of optical fibres are used in some image intensifiers and they form the basis of modern endoscopic and endocinematographic devices, used in both the medical field and various technological sectors.

SCHLIEREN SHOTS, see STRIOSCOPY

SINGLE-CONCEPT FILM A short film, lasting a few minutes and generally silent, which presents a single phenomenon, experiment, or situation. As a general rule, for teaching purposes, these are made in loop-film cassettes so that they may be shown several times in succession and the image stopped at particular points. They are suitable for lessons commented by the teacher, but are also useful for self-teaching and programmed teaching. They are used more and more as videorecorded sequences.

SINGLE-FRAME E X P O S U R E , see FRAME BY FRAME and TIME LAPSE

S L O W - M O T I O N PICTURES The film is shot at a speed faster than the normal projection speed (24 frames per second), thus giving the effect of slowing down the action filmed when it is shown. Shooting at 48 and 72 frames per second is also often possible with normal commercial cine-cameras. (See also HIGH-SPEED MOTION PICTURES)

S O N O G R A P H Y Visualization of otherwise invisible phenomena by means of ultrasonic sources.

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SPECIAL EFFECTS GENERATOR A device whereby several audio and video signals can be used and edited simultaneously (signals from a tele-camera or tele-cinema), mixing and alternating them to obtain all kinds of special effects (split screen, "wipes", fades, superimpositions). In practice, it is the electronic directing table which realizes instantaneously those effects which, in the cinema, require expensive laboratory operations using an optical printer (or truka, w). "Digital Video Effects'' realizes the same type of task by storing the images in digital form, i.e. by inserting them as data into computer memory, and then processing all the lransformations required to yield the result desired as images.

S T A N D A R D In cinematography, shooting and projecting techniques are universally standardized so that 1 6 m m film with optical sound, for instance, can be projected anywhere in the world with any prejector. This is not true for video systems, either those used for regular television broadcasts or those for videorecording. There are different technical systems for colour reproduction and an even greater number of standards for recording and transmitting video and audio signals. These systems and standards are compatible one with another. This means that a simple TV set cannot be used outside the country or countries for which it was designed; but, above all, it means that a videorecording or a videocassette made with a certain brand of apparatus can be used only on apparatus of the same type -- and there are many parameters of diversification. This causes problems of conversion, i.e. transforming the signals of a videorecording into those of another standard. Conversion requires expensive, sophis- ticated electronic systems for (a) live broadcasts via satellite from one continent to another and (b) the simple use of a videocassette going from one university to another. If the standards used are not the same, the second university must have either an expensive multistandard videoreproducer, or transcribe the recording using two videorecorders with, two different standards and a special synchronic generator called a time-base corrector (TBC).

STRIOSCOPY A visualization method based essentially on the Schlieren effect, this is an optical technique making use of variations of the refractive index and interferential phenomena of different materials. It allows cinematographic recording of the dynamics of such a disturbance and of existing differences in fluids.

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STROBOSCOPY Cinematographic application of the stroboscopic effect. Through the use of extremely short light flashes, the recording and analysis of very rapid phenomena are made possible.

TELECINE CONVERTER A device for broadcasting or recording film. Basically, it consists of a cinema projector which functions synchronically with a telecamera placed in front on the same axis. This is how the optical images of a film are transformed into video signals.

THERMOGRAPHY Method of visualizing phenomena having, as a parameter, differences in temperature.

TIME LAPSE A shooting technique which makes very slow and otherwise imperceptible movements visible or which compresses the essential phases occuring in a phenomenon of long duration. It is the opposite of high-speed shooting and consists of filming at the speed of only a few frames per second or even per minute, at intervals pre- determined by special timers.

TRUKA or TRUCA A term used in cinema and television to define an optical printer and also a rostrum for frame-by-frame animation filming. The optical printer is a versatile piece of apparatus which provides a vast range of special effects; it is usually expensive to use.

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APPENDlX I

The need for soecialized trainino

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The question of specialized training in its various aspects arises in the use of audio-visual techniques in teaching at different levels, in scientific popularization as well as in research and documentation for the applications of special techniques.

Scientific popularization is one of the tasks of primary importance of mass media, though often (as in the case of many television, especially commercial television, networks) it is only allowed a marginal role and the quality of the communication is completely neglected. In developing countries where television services have recently been set up, the few scientific popularizing programmes are often of low quality, often purchased abroad and normally confined to off-peak viewing hours. In its final report, the Unesco Working Group on the Popularization of Science through Television (Luxembourg meeting, May 1978) stressed that Unesco should "offer training opportunities, involving both countries already presenting science and technology on television and others wishing to introduce these." The report states clearly that Unesco should not undertake direct action itself but help and encourage a number of existing organizations already active in this field. The same Working Group emphasized the importance of involving, also through training opportunities, countries just embarked on, or about to establish, television services so that they can learn something from the experience of others -- if only to avoid making some of the initial errors that existing television services have made.

A n important role in specialized training initiatives for scientific popularization through cinema and television can be played, much more effectively than before, by cinema schools and university courses in film and television. Cinema schools have traditionally emphasized the artistic aspects in the training of their students. University teaching, too, has almost always been oriented in this direction. But the impetuous development of television has robbed the cinema of its monopoly on the use of the language of moving images. In public cinemas, the main attraction was entertainment and only in the best cases did the medium have an artistic level. Though television still continues to give various types of feature film an

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important place in its progrnmminv, the emphasis has been rrloved io communication aiined at providing information, ClJltUre arid cducation. New university disciplines are therefore oriented in the direction of televisual journalism, though often tending towards highly subjectivized types of communication which attempts, Lhrough sensationalism and a search for effect, to reproduce a sort or "information-entertainment." There are not many who think that this is the best way to transmit and popularize scientific culture.

Many cinema schools have opened their doors to television, though they limit themselves to preparing professionals and technicians for entertainment and information activities. There are a number of exceptions, of course. Since many years now, in the VGIK State Cinema School in Moscow (set up in 1919), students can obtain a diploma in "scientific-popu1ar"film; the same thing happens in other eastern European countries. In Rome, at the Centro Sperimentale di Cinematografia, the second oldest cinema school in the world after the VGIK in MOSCOW, the specialized subject of scientific cinema and educational television has been taught for many years. A number of scientific film-makers are invited to give courses and seminars in various universities or cinema schools, in different countries, and some teach regularly even while carrying on their professional work.

O n the whole, w e must repeat that these institutions could and should do much - m o r e in the specific direction of professionals and technicians who will devote themselves of mass-media audio-visuals for scientific, educational spread informational ends.

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preparing to the use and wide-

Some of the more advanced TV networks (such as the BBC in Britain) have taken a few steps in the right direction: in 1982 a 14- week training course for foreign television producers from educational institutions was held at the new Open University Production Centre, in Milton Keynes. In the syllabus, technical knowledge and the skill of directing ranked equally with educational theory and production management. Other ventures of this kind have been planned for the future.

In the wider field of educational and teaching cinema and television, fundamental functions, including orientation and training ventures, can be carried out by the audio-visual centres existing within universities. Unfortunately, especially in developing countries but also in traditional universities in industrialized countries, these

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specialized AV centres have not yet come into existence or are still at the embryonic stage and need, themselves, opportunities to train and enlarge their staff.

The International Scientific Film Association has proposed that Unesco should encourage the creation of A V centres, either within universities or in close co-operation with them, in all countries where such centres do not exist.

Unesco had previously drawn up a project for post-graduate training of young scientists and technicians willing to specialize in the field of film and video technologies applied Lo scientific resqarch. The realizatiori of initiatives of this kind could provide a concrete contribution to the development of the use of audio-visuals in teaching and for educational and widespread popularizing aims as well as raising the level of the use of special visualization techniques in research and documentation.

The British University Film and Video Council holds periodic seminars and meetings to update already qualified personnel in the numerous AV centres which belong to it. In a number of Latin- American countries, the Italian-Latin American Institute, whose headquarters is in Rome, has organized several seminars and short courses on scientific and educational television cinema, with assistance from the Italian Association for Scientific Cinematography (AICS). Following these, some of the Latin American countries have set up or developed the initial structures for specialized centres for the use, production and distribution of A V products of a scientific nature. The training of specialized staff is one of the priority needs resulting from these ventures.

In this manual w e have emphasized that special preparation in the scientific, teaching and popularizing use of audio-visuals is not only appropriate but often necessary. Generic technical and cultural preparation organized for those who wisb to use cinema and video for entertainment purposes, fiction stories, advertising and other publicity may be insufficient and misleading.

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There are technical and cultural problems which become particularly important for those who deal exclusively with the use of audio-visuals in universities and for education in general. These are often the difficulties -- which are not merely psychological -- involved in having accepted a means of communication, still

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considered in some places as frivolous and out of harmony with teaching, because its stereotyped use is mostly amusement and adver tisiny.

There is also the need for thc director or rnedia experL of a university AV centre to know how to take on and rnaintain the technical and scientific role which enables him to work and interact, on an equal footing, with the teachers with w h o m he co-operales. Here the difficulties and misunderstandings which arise between teachers and audio-visual producers can be numerous, and disastrous, because of the consequences they produce. There are teachers who are afraid that the AV centre may insist on new teaching methods which can, in turn, give rise to resentmenl and the refusal to use film and television. We must know how to introduce to the audio-visually illiterate teacher the advantages an audio-visual can offer him in his work, without allowing this aid to interfere in his traditional teaching method. Through practice and experience, the same teacher can be induced to embrace new teaching theory based on the language of images.

W e must also keep in mind the trend which has taken root in thc British Open University: When training staff for the production of teaching audio-visuals, it is more effective to choose persons with a scientific background and cause them to specialize in the use of audio-visuals than the opposite, i.e. to start with AV specialists and technicians, and then qualify them in one or more scientific fields.

As for the use of special visualization techniques which film and video can offer in the field of scientific research, the problem of specialized training is more delicate. In Marey's time when this enquiry method was emerging, film and scientific research were so closely linked, so mutually dependent, that the researcher became a technician and completely mastered the techniques he developed. Scientific and technological research was carried out by teams making up a single structure. It may be said that the Marey Institute was, at the same time, a laboratory of experimental physiology and a scientific film centre.

W e have seen how this situation has totally changed. Who are today's science film-makers? O n the one hand, they are biologists, doctors, engineers who have applied cinematographic techniques to their own research, who have studied cinematographic methods in relation to their needs and have acquired equipment and familiarized themselves with its practical applications. O n the other hand, they are technicians who have developed skills in various cinematic

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disciplines and who, in the course of their professional experience, have picked up basic scientific knowledge. The difference between tihe training and lhe attitudes of the two categories constitutes an obstacle to the close collaboration which is indispensable if film is to be used rationally and efficiently as an investigatory tool.

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Scientists, once they have been initiated in the cinematographic Lechnique appropriate to their discipline and supplied with equipment adapted to their needs, hardly have the time (and are usually not prepared) to go into developments and new adaptations of technique. They tend to apply film methods in a routine way and to ignore possibilities which might bring new technologies to bear on their field. The situation is thus exactly the opposite of that which existed in the early days of cinematographic research.

As for the audio-visual specialists associated with scientific research teams, they have a tendency, owing to their training, to sacrifice objectivity and scientific rigour to formal considerations -- even more so, inasmuch as they are rarely integrated into the scientific team -- who consider them as merely operators.

Of course, there are exceptions. In certain specialized centres, such as the CYttingen Scientific Film Institute, the collaboration of film technicians and scientists poses no problems. NASA was able to exploit all the possibilities opened up by audio-visual methods, to recruit the most competent technicians and collaborate with them. But the latter case is exceptional, since money was no object and no effort was spared to achieve the required ends.

It is indisputable that the lack of specialized teaching in audio- visual technology, now so complex, has been the cause of great recruitment problems and forms an obstacle to the development of research cinematography.

The evolution of the meetings of International Scientific Film Association, which reflects the international situation in research cinema over the last thirty years, confirms this conclusion. After a long period during which scientists participated in the research-film section's meetings, reporting their experiments and cinematic results, a sort of withdrawal on their part was noted. A revival of interest has been noticed in recent years and certain research laboratories have shown interest in co-operating with specialists in cinematographic techniques.

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Demands of this kind will probably become more pressing in the future. The develppment of audio-visual techniques in all fields, the need to promote interdisciplinary relations, and the importance or thesc new tcchnologies for international co-operation demand the creation of specialized training SO as to permit close collaboration between scientists and audio-visual technologists in the field of scientific research.

This implies that, in the first place, scientists must (a) become aware of the possibilities which film (and all the visual techniques under consideration) opens up for them, (b) be introduced to visual analytic methods, and (c) acquire the elementary skills of cinematic technique. O n the other hand, technicians trained in one of the basic scientific disciplines in which cinematography is currently used must acquire specialization in the film techniques required for research in the discipline involved. Specialized high-level technological training should, moreover, be organized with the aim of preparing those who will be called upon to develop research methods using cinema- tography, and to teach these methods.

5

It is to be hoped that an appropriate teaching programme will be instituted at university level, within both the curricula of science students who intend to go into research and those of technical students who wish to specialize in the audio-visual technologies used for research. But if this goal is to be reached, the training of skilled teachers will be especially necessary, as well as the wide distribution of technical structures essential to a programme which cannot remain purely theoretical but which will become a sound practical and experimental one.

While setting the trend in this direction, we can proceed step by step, A first stage could be put into operation as follows:

Seminars to introduce to scientists the potentialities and applications of various film techniques forresearch.This training differsgreatly frornanaudio-visual training having an educational aim, in which the problem is that of adapting the audio-visual message for a better understanding of aphenomenonor process. Inscientific research, on the contrary, the aim is to analyse aphenomenon as it is visualized, so as to extract the maximal data from it.

Courses organized in those scientific institutions in which cinema- tographic techniques have been highly developed for the benefit of

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those who would like to specialize in the application of these techniques.

Training, to the highest level of specialization, those who intend to devote themselves to thedevelopment of researchf ilm methods and their tcaching.Such classes would, of course, appeal only to a limi ted number of candidates. Studies should be carried out on an inter- national level in order to discover the size of the demand, the contents and the level of the programmes.

The introductory seminars for scientists should serve to develop a form of audio-visual literacy and could take the form of rnulti- media packages, including films, slides, audio and video tapes, and printed materials. These packages should serve to shape and transmit basic knowledge, in order to encourage a deeper approach on the part of those interested and to lay the groundwork for further development. This type of activity could solve the problem of non- professional qualification, that is, the preparation needed by a researcher who does not intend to make professional use of cinema- tographic and audio-visual techniques in his work, but who wishes to know what useful possibilities he may have open to him, where and to whom to turn for competent advice.

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APPENDIX 2

Information on specialized organizations

a. International bodies

The point of reference most directly connected to the problems of scientific, teaching and popularizing cinema and television is the International Scientific Film Association (38 Avenue des Ternes, 75017 Paris, France), ISFA.

The aims of the Association arc to encourage international co- operation in all fields relaled to the scientific applications of film and video techniques, in particular, to encourage and promote an efficient use of film and other visualization systems in scientific and technical research, in teaching (mainly at the higher education level) and in popularizing comprehension and spreading knowledge of science.

ISFA was created in 1947 to provide a critical, scholarly apparatus which could categorize and evaluate existing scientific films and also establish suitable standards of production. In this connection, ISFA co-operates with Unesco as a consultative non- governmen tal international organization.

ISFA comprises members from almost thirty countries in Europe, Africa, the Middle East, East Asia and North and Latin America. Each year a congress is held where films and videolape from all over the world are screened. This is n unique opportcinity for professional dialogue and the exchange of ideas among all those producing and using such films. These congresses can be considered as the focus for the work of the three sections of ISFA: research, higher education, and popularization of science by film and TV.

ISFA organizes a congress and festival each year in one of its member countries. During this seven-day event, an average of one hundred films representing its three sections are screened. ISFA plans to have a congress dealing with a specific theme, every other year. In the years between, the congress and festival will be held in their traditional form, covering all scientific disciplines.

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The screening sessions are meant to be workshops for rcccrll film productions from all over the world. All films shown in the official programme are discussed and evaluated. The most out- standing ones receive an award. Films are also made available for private screenings. The films are listed in the catalogue of the congress. Their categories are specified, and technical data and summaries are included. The catalogue can be obtained from ISFA; it represents a valuable source of information, even for those who cannot participate in the congress.

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P.n organization dealing with audio-visuals in primary education is the International Council for Educational Media (ICEM, 29 rue d'Ulrn, 75230 Paris Cedex 05, France). The ICEM groups many governmental bodies responsible for educational technology in their respective countries; it organizes an international educational film week and promotes co-productions in this field.

The International Film and Television Council (IFTC, 2 rue Miollis, 75732 Paris Cedex 15, France) was created under the auspices of Unesco. IFTC is a liaison and consultative body grouping a number of international associations dealing mainly with the cultural aspects of film and television activities.

A specialized series of international congresses on high-speed photography and photonics are irregularly organized by a group of experts from various countries (contacts can be made through the laboratory of Prof H. E. Edgerton, Massachusetts Institute of Techno- logy, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA, or Prof L. J. Poldervaart, University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands).

b. National organizations

In the practical impossibility of giving a complete world picture of the institutions which are active in the scientific film and television field at the national level, w e shall offer here a panorama which presents a few typical situations, in various countries, at various stages of development. We shall give precise information on several institutions which, because of their importance, transcend local interest and (together with ISFA) can constitute points of reference for those who wish to develop initiatives in this sector.

Among the member countries of ISFA, some have a national centre engaged in producing science films or, in the majority of

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cases, a national association which promotes and co-ordinates activities in the field of scientific cinematography, fulfilling roles of information and liaison, and creating contacts and exchanges with other countries.

The People's Republic of China participates in the international activities of scientific cinematography through the Beijing Scientific and Educational Film Studio, set up in 1960 and employing about 600 staff. There is also a Preparatory Committee for the creation of a Chinese Association of Scientific Cinematography; this will unite production centres (such as the Shanghai Science and Educational Film Studio) with the scientific and technological institutes.

In the United States, the high level of the country's techno- logical and scientific development and the autonomy of the numerous research institutions, universities and educational film and television production centres have created a special situation, totally decentralized. There are literally thousands of university centres, science laboratories and television and cinema companies which produce and use audio-visual material for research, teaching and widely educational purposes. The language of moving images is now used daily by vast numbers of researchers, teachers and mass-media communicators. In 1976, for the Bicentenary of the founding of the country, the American Science Film Association hosted the 30th Congress of ISFA in Philadelphia. At Pennsylvania State University (Audio-visual Services, University Park, PA 16802), the International Science Film Collection houses and distributes thousands of audio- visual documents produced in North America, Europe and Japan.

In the USSR, there are several cinematographic studios producing scientific-popular films and at Moscow University a specialized institute of scientific photo-cinematography, set up many years ago, guarantees both (a) teaching for students in various faculties, research and experimentation in the field of special techniques, as well as (b) co-operation and practical assistance for the departments and scientists that must solve particular problems.

In other European countries, scientific cinema and television activities are generally widespread; the way they are organized varies from country to country. The examples given provide a picture of the innumerable decentralized or centralized structures which have one or more functions in the fields of research film, audio- visuals for teaching, and general popularization.

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2

The Institut TUr den Wissenschaf tlichen Film (Nonnenstiey 72, 3400 GBttingen, Federal Republic of Germany) is the most rcpreserit- ative example of a national centralized organiralion speciali red in the production of research and higher education films. Its success is due to a precise and well-defined orientation which is rigorously adhered to, ample financial resources, and the contributions of highly qualified personnel.

After the Second World War, the Reichsanstalt fur Film und Bild (which had been set up in the 1930s in Berlin) was split into two separate bodies: the Institut fUr Film und Bild situated at Munich was charged with making primary- and secondary-school teaching films, and the Institut fur den Wissenschaftlichcn Film (IWF), at present in GBttingen, is responsible for the application of film to scientific research and the production of university teaching films.

The status of this establishment is that of a not-for-profit organization with limited liability, comprising the ten member states of the Federal Republic of Germany. Fifty per cent of the budget is raised by its partners while the remaining fifty per cent is provided by the Federal Ministry for Research and Technology. Research projects often are financed by research foundations such as the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG).

The staff of the mttingen Institute consists of about one hundred, 19 of w h o m are specialists in those subjects which are most important from the point of view of research films: medicine, biology, physics, chemistry, engineering science, ethnography, ethology, history, mathematics and psychology. These specialists have not only a deep scientific background in one or other of these disciplines, they are also highly qualified in the domain of cinema- tography and capable of building efficient links between scientists with a research problem to be solved and technical personnel qualified to solve it. They fill a role similar to that of a specialized production director. In addition, there are 13 persons responsible for shooting, of whom four work in cinemicrography and the other nine in cinemacrography.

Since 1961, the IWF has been installed in a building especially designed to meet its particular needs. A central unit houses offices, film archives, projection rooms, work and meeting rooms; a wing of the building contains the shooting facilities: laboratories, film studios (one of which is devoted to biology and four to cinemicrography), a

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recording studio wiLh neighbouring rooms and laboratories for the operators. Plants for biological research filming are g o w n in a greenhouse. There is also a laboratory for high-speed filming, a mechanical workshop and a photographic laboratory with developing facilities.

The equipment comprises a very wide range of apparatus, permitting the filming of phenomena at rates ranging from one frame per hour to 2,000,000 frames per second, cinemicrography and cinemacrography, Schlieren shots and holography. These instruments are continuously undergoing modifications to adapt them to new demands and new problems. A professional video studio with broadcast-standard recording machines, for instance, was added in 1903. This technical research, carried out by the physicists, electronics experts and mechanical engineers of the Institute, can be carried out only in an organization of the size and importance O F the IWF. Furthermore, the analysis of results and the interpretation of data also require special equipment and skills in which the IWF has attained a very high level.

In practical terms, when a scientific body finds a need for film in its research, the following possibilities are open to it. Either it possesses the skills and equipment necessary to make the film on its own, or else it needs help from outside and can then call on the IWF which (depending on the case in question) will supply the scientific organization with the required equipment and personnel -- or else will make the film itself. If production costs are relatively low, the IWF covers them out of its o w n funds; in cases where costs are heavy, it may either ask for a special grant or seek financial assistance from an industrial body. Lastly, if the demand comes from an industrial group, then this group usually finances the project itself.

The result of this situation is, above all, the exceptional quality of the IWF's productions, thanks to the great competence of its staff and the constant improvements which its equipment undergoes. Furthermore, the m,aterial filmed is handled in the best possible way so as to be made available to others, and may be used either as basic documentation for demonstration purposes or as a teaching aid for university teachers.

The IWF-mediathek contains a total of more than 5,500 titles (in more than 24,000 copies for rental). All documents which illustrate the behaviour of human, animal, plant or inert matter are grouped together in a collection entitled Encyclopaedia Cinemat- ographica, which contains more than 2,700 entries. This remarkable

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collection is the fruit of collaboration between research film experts in 28 countries, and is available, in whole or in part, in 14 countries.

Each of the films deals with only one well-defined process or phenomenon, without any documentary preamble or any inter- pretation on thc part of the author. Each unit is accompanied by a text; it consists of an introduction stating the object of the research and all the filming data, but makes no reference whatsoever to personal interpretations by the author.

The criteria used to select films for admission to the Encyclopaedia Cinematographica are inherent in the phenomenon under study: the impossibility of observiriq iL otherwise than by mean: of film, the probability that-it will not be repeated or will disappear and the need for a comparison to be made.

The films of the Encyclopaedia -- all in 16mm format -- may be distinguished from scientific documents in the traditional sense of the term only in that they use the language of film. They may also be distinguished from single-concept film because they are not presented in a didactic form -- with the aid of animated sequences or the demonstration of experiments, for example. These are film documents presenting a phenomenon as it actually happens. Never- theless, although they are not aimed at teaching in the strict sense of the term, they may be integrated into a course by the teacher, allowing the student to participate in the unfolding process or phenomenon.

The Encyclopaedia Cinernatographica allows both horizontal consultation (the study of all manifestations of a given individual or material) and vertical consultation (the study of processes and phenomena as they occur in differing subjects).

Still in the Federal Republic of Germany, cinematographic activities for scientific popularization are carried out by private production companies, boards or industries which sponsor specialized films; television networks produce their own scientific programmes, at various levels of audience.

3

In Great Britain, as already mentioned, high-quality production of television programmes has been developed, both for general audiences and strictly educational aims, by the British Broadcasting Corporation and the Open University (OU). W e should point out here

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that the BBC uses not only a number of its production centres for scientific programmes but also two specialized centres: thc Natural History Film Unit (Bristol) and the BBC-Open University Production Centre, Walton Hall, at Milton Keynes (postal code: MK7 6BH).

The Open University was founded to provide higher education at university degree standard for working adults studying at horne in their spare time. "Open" means that entry is open to all, without requirement of academic qualifications. The Open University presented its first courses in 1971. Approximately 20,000 new students register each year, and the continuing total of students is about 65,000. The main teaching medium of the University is specially written texts, supported by collections of reprinted documents. Since experimental work is fundamental to the teaching of science, most science courses also include a home experimental kit -- apparatus and materials for the student to use at home.

The most public aspect of Open University teaching is its television and radio programmes. Television plays an essential part in science teaching at a distance, and in some ways television provides Open University students with experiences and insights that are not always available to students at a conventional university. Television has been used in OU science courses (1) to show experiments and demonstrations which the student could not do at home, including re-creation of classical experiments; (2) to show events and locations which the student could not normally easily see for himself: geological structures filmed from the air, experiments in progress at CERN (the European Laboratory for Particle Physics), human and animal behaviour, science applied in an industrial context; (3) to show events which can be seen only through the use of special video or cinematographic techniques: high-speed filming, cinemicrography, infra-red recordings, and so rorth;

(4) (5) to explain diific-di curicepts with the help of animated diagrams and models; (6) to present erninent scientists demonstrating and discussing their own work; and (7) to present a good teacher (the problem here is to decide who is the good teacher!) at work.

to show advanced research work in progress;

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The technique called radio-vision, where a radio speaker discusses something which the listener has in front of him -- geological specimens, reproductions of paintings, a mathematical problem, or n poem, has proved very useful in many OU courses. Because of a shortage of transmission time on the national networks, however, most audio programmes are now distributed in cassette form. (In many ways, this is educationally advantageous.) The possibility for the student of stopping, rewinding and restarting these programmes extends their usefulness, but a different didactic structure is necessary. In future, it is likely that many TV programmes will be supplemented or replaced by video cassettes or discs and, here too, this will have a considerable effect on their didactic structure and purpose.

All these TV, radio and cassette programmes are made by the BBC in partnership with the OU in a purposely built studio complex at the University campus. BBC producers with sound academic back- ground work closely with OU academics in planning and producing programmes relevant to each new course. At present, the rate of production is about 200 new 25-minute TV programmes per year.

The major disadvantage of teaching at a distance is the lack of interaction between student and teacher. To overcome this as much as possible, students can meet tutors at regional centres for evening seminars and weekend schools. Many courses also include a one-week, full-time summer school.

In the United Kingdom, much cinematographic and video activity in research and teaching takes place in audio-visual centres which can be found in practically all the universities and in other institutions and research laboratories. The British University Film and Video Council (55 Greek Street, London WIV 5LR) is the representative body for universities and other institutions of higher education. Its aims are to encourage the production, use and study of audio-visual media, materials and techniques for degree-level teaching and research, and to provide a forum for the exchange of information and opinions in this field. The Council's Information Service deals with enquiries relating to the production, availability and use of audio-visual materials in higher education. A small reference library, a major collection of film catalogues and a file of appraisals on audio-visual materials currently available in the UK are maintained. The Council's major publications include the catalogue, Audio-visual Materials for Higher Education, which lists appraised materials currently available from a number of sources in the country and The _-- %her - Educational Learning Programme Information Service

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(HELPIS) Catalogue, listing audio-visual materials made in British institutions of higher learning. Other publications include Computers for Imagemaking and the Researcher's Guide to British Film and Television Collections. The Council is responsible for the Higher Education Film and Video Library, which is intended to provide an outlet for degree-level films and videocassettes which might not otherwise be available to teachers.

4

In the Netherlands, university AV centres carry out valuable work in film and video production in the scientific and teaching field. The Erasmus University AV centre plays a leading role in the production activities under taken for other universities. There is also the Stichting Film en Wetenschaps (Science Film Foundation, Hengeveldstraat 29, Utrecht) whose functions include production, liaison and documentation.

In France, scientific films are produced by a number of organizations. The Centre National de Documentation Pedagogique produces, on the one hand, films intended for primary and secondary schools and educational television programmes (C.N.D.P., 31 rue de la Vanne, 92210 Montrouge) and, on the other hand, films intended for university teaching or scientific information, through its Service du Film de Recherche Scientif ique (96, boulevard Raspail, 75272 Paris Cedex 06). The Centre National de Recherche Scientifique has an audio-visual laboratory (CNRS-Audiovisuel, 27 rue Paul Bert, 34204 Ivry) at the disposal of French and foreign scientists for the production of res ear c h and sci en t i f i c i nf or m at i on f i 1 ms. A U d i 0- vi su a1 centres exist also in universities and in national organizations such as the ministry dealing with telecommunications, Soci6t6 Nationale des Chemins de Fer (national railways), Electricit6 de France (the state electrical board), Ministry of Agriculture, the Centre National pour I'Exploitation des OcGans, ORSTOM (the overseas development agency), etc. The large industrial companies (ELF, Total, Institut Fransais du PBtrole, pharmaceutical companies) usually rely on private production companies to produce films intended in most cases for the public at large. All these organizations publish their own film catalogue (nearly 650 only for French productions). In order to facilitate information and distribution of French films in foreign countries, the Ministere des Relations Extgrieures (Foreign Office) has created an organization whose aim is to answer requests from French representatives abroad or from foreign organizations. INTERMEDIA, as it is called, thus ensures the dissemination of scientific, medical and industrial films in connection with French

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ernbassics, in co-operation with the Service du Film de Recherche Scientifique (96 boulevard Raspail, 75272 Paris Cedex 06) and the Jnstitut de Cinematographie Scientifique (38 avenue des Terries, 75017 Paris). At the Institut National de Recherche en Inforrriatique et Automatique, at suburban Le Chesnay, there exists a National Index of Scientific and Technical Films and Videotapes (Fichier national des films et vid6ogrammes scientifiques et techniqlies) dealing with material related to computers, robotics and the like. This index is available to the public.

5

In relatively small European countries with limited resources, there are some specific, highly developed structures for the production and distribution of research and teaching audio-visuals. In Austria, scientific cinematography has closely followed the development of the Gdttingen Scientific Film Institute. A Federal Centre for Educational Photography and Cinematography, established in 1945, has played an important role in the development of educational films. A special department for scientific films was created in 1962. Ten years later, this department became autonomous. The Bundesstaatliche Hauptstelle fur Wissenschaftliche Kinematographie (Federal Centre for Scientific Film) is attached to the Ministry of Science and Research, and its main activities are: (a) producing and distributing films with scientific aims, whether in connection with research work, in the form of documents filmed for study purposes, or for science teaching; (b) running a film lending library, containing 3,189 films (in 1982), 2,578 of which are from the Encyclopaedia Cinematographica; (c) the promotion of contacts with foreign countries and international bodies so as to stimulate exchanges of film and information on research film methods.

In Hungary, the Academy of Science set up the National Research Film Centre (Kutato Film, P.0.Box 241, Budapest) whose functions are to aid the author of a research project by putting the necessary equipment and the technical assistance of a skilled team at his disposal, or simply making available to the institulions and industries concerned elements of specialized equipment. The Centre had first to solve the problem of training its own staff as a qualified working team, expert in the special techniques of scientific films. It achieved this by participating actively in the international events organized by ISFA, at high-speed photography congresses, translating

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specialized publications, and purchasing and studying the best foreign films.

Most of the investments in currency to purchase special technical equipment from abroad (often the only such in the country) are recuperated through the commissions the Centre receives from ministries, state industries, other research bodies, and by producing instructional and educational films. The 667 commissions the 17- member staff received in 1982, for example, included some handed on to them by State Television and the cinema. The Centre has a film lending library, with about 1,000 films, for higher education; it also organizes periodic international events (every two or three years), concentrating exclusively on research and technical films.

As in the other eastern European countries, in Hungary there is a State studio for the production of science popularization films. In some countries, as in Bulgaria for example, where national cinema- tographic activity began to develop only at the end of the Second World War, studios for popular-science films have also played a role in the parallel development of the use of scientific cinema for teaching and research. By centralizing the limited resources and specialized technicians, it has been possible to put the studios' facilities at the disposal of scientists for their needs and to use the scientists and their know-how for scientific counsel.

6

In Australia, there is an interesting production and distribution structure for science films within the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO). The Film and Video Centre (P.O.Dox 89, East Melbourne 3002) functions within the framework of the Science Communication Unit which, in turn, is part of CSIRO's Bureau of Scientific Services. The main function of the Bureau is to promote the transfer and use of technology and scientific information. The Film and Video Centre operates as a small in-house production and distribution unit, completing about a dozen projects each year. It has six production staff, some of w h o m have scientific qualifications, two distribution staff and one clerical support person. Where possible, the Centre uses professional free-lancers from outside to help in production. The objectives of the Film and Video Centre may be defined as follows:

(a) T o act as the centre of expertise in audio-visual upon its resources in

( i) the use of film or video as a research tool; and

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(ii) promoting the application of GIRO research through the use of the audio-visual communication media.

To use the audio-visual communication media to promote an awareness and understanding of CSIRO and of science in general among a variety of audiences, both technical and non-technical.

To conduct liaison with other bodies in Australia and overseas in matters related to the audio-visual communication of science.

Over the years, the Centre has collaborated on some 20 projects involving research filming using time-lapse, high-speed or cinemicrographic techniques. It has also undertaken many scientific film-record projects. While some of the footage was subsequently incorporated into films, in most cases the prime aim was to gain knowledge or to record unique or unusual events involving movement.

In its early years, the Centre put most of its effort into producing films for higher education. Many of those films have been entered in international scientific film festivals, and the Centre has won 30 major awards. Recently, the role of the Centre has been expanded to include the related media of video and slides/tape, so that it is now developing as a central group within CSIRO with expertise in a range of audio-visual communication media.

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Going on to examine the geographic areas of Asia, Africa and the American hemisphere where there are many evolving countries, in industrial and scientific terms --and which are still developing -- w e must unfortunately say that, in the field of scientific cinema and the use of audio-visuals for cultural and teaching purposes, the situation is precarious. Help and attention should be given, therefore, to every effort made to develop such resources.

In Asia, w e have already mentioned that the People's Republic of China has recently taken steps to improve international relations and exchanges, and so in future the qualitative and quantitative levels of its activity in this sector will rise.

In Japan, a highly industrialized and scientifically advanced country, there have been many important results in the development

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and spread of science films in research, teaching and in many uses with large audiences. In 1979, ISFA held its 33rd Congress and Festival in Tokyo. There is a very high qualitative level in private production cornpanies (one of which should be mentioned here: Tokyo Cinema Inc., at 19 Honmuracho, Ichigaya, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 102; for many years, this was directed by Sozo Okada, the pioneer of Japanese scientific cinema; his son, Kazuo, is now continuing his work). Such producers have united to form a specialized association. There is a foundation which guarantees the distribution in Japan of the complete film archives of the Encyclopaedia Cinematographica of Gelttingen, as well as the Japan Science Film Institution (17-1 Toranomon I-chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105).

In the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (Pyongyang) and in the Republic of Korea (Seoul), there are official structures which prornote the development of scientific cinematoqraphy. In Iran, an archive of the Ency.clopaedia Cinematographica has. been set up. In India, steps have been taken to use audio-visuals in facinq the gigantic task of improving the cultural and literacy levels oj the population. There are also local productions of science films, but international relations are not developed.

In Africa, the situation is not so advanced. ISFA has promoted and provided facilities for local initiatives on various occasions and twice has managed to organize two of its international congresses and festivals on the Black Continent: at Rabat in Morocco in 1961, and in Cairo (Egypt) in 1978. In spite of the success of these two events, the positive echoes in other African countries and the hopes that they might develop permanent basic structures, everything remains to be done if production and distribution are to have any impact on the socio-cultural reality of African countries -- including Egypt and Morocco.

O n the American continent, excluding the USA and Canada, promising moves and initiatives are being developed in countries such as Mexico, Costa Rica, Cuba, Argentina and Brazil. In Mexico, it is the Filmoteca of the Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico (UNAM, San Ildefonso 43, 06020 Mexico DF) which is setting up concrete bases for better use of audio-visuals in the scientific, teaching and general distribution areas. A n interesting project has been prepared by the Capricorn Interuniversity Consortium (comprising universities in the five Latin American countries in the southern tropics) for setting up a regional scientific-teaching video library in order to integrate the use of audio-visuals in teaching (Punter, Proyrama de Integrqao Universitaria e Teleduqao Capricornio, Universidade Estadual de Londrina, Brazil).

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In concluding, we would like to repeat that we have not attempted to cite all the initiatives being undertaken at present. W e have selected those which seemed the most interesting because of the different structures and their adaptability to differing local situations, and because w e wished to give specific information -- including addresses and guidelines -- which may be useful. I n many of the institutions noted, catalogues and files of existing scientific film and video can be consulted. Some organizations publish and revise the lists of AV material which they have produced and which are available.

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APPENDIX 3

Selected Bibliography

ALLEN, D., R Y A N , K., Microteachinq, Reading, Mass., and London, Addison-Wesley, 1969.

ARNHEIM, R., Film as Art, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1957; Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1965; Visual Thinkinq, Berkeley, University of California Press, 1969 (in various editions and translations).

ATIENZA, L.J., VTR Workshop: Small Format Video (Monographs on Communication Technoloqy and Utilization, NO.4) Paris, -. Unesco, 1977.

B A D D E L E Y , W. H., The Technique of Documentary Film Production , London and New York, Focal Press, 1975.

B A R N O U W , E., Documentary, A History of the Non-Fiction Film, New York, Oxford University Press, 1974.

BA R S A M , R.M. (ed.), Non-Fiction Film, Theory and Criticism, New York, Dutton, 1976.

BATES, A. W., The Use of Television and Other Audio-Visual Media in the Open University (paper NO.46) ,In: Tosi V. (ed.) Metodi ed esperienze etc. (see further on), A V Media Research Group, Institute of Educational Technology, Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom, 1976; Trends in the Use of A V Media in Distance Education Systems Around the World (paper NO.178) , AV Media Research Group, Institute of Educational Technology, Open University, Milton Keynes, 1981; The Planning and Management of Audio-visual Media in Distance Learning Institutions (paper NO.166, prepared for the International Institute of Educational Planning), 1900;

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Towards a Better Theoretical Framework for Studying Learniny from Education a1 Television (paper N0.167), 1980.

BATES, A.W., ROBINSON, J. (eds.), Evaluatinq Educational Television and Radio, Milton Keynes, The Open University Press, 1976.

BRANDT, H.M., The Photoqraphic Lens, London, Focal Press, n.d.

BRETZ, R., Techniques of Television Production, N e w York, McGraw-Hill, n.d.

B R O W N , D.H., Roles for Instructional Television (paper No .184), AV Media Research Group, Institute of Educational Technology, Open University, Milton Keynes, 1981.

BRYNMOR JONES, (ed.), Audio-visual Aids in Hiqher Scientific Education, London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1965.

BULL, L., La CinBmatographie, Paris, 1928.

BURDER, J., The Technique of Editing 16mm Films, London and N e w York, Focal Press, n.d.

- - - - - - - , The Work of the Industrial Film Maker, London and N e w York, Focal Press, n.d.

B U R T O N , A.L. (ed.), Cinematographic Techniques in Biology and Medicine, London and N e w York, Academic Press, 1971.

CAMPBELL, R., Photographic Theory for the Motion Picture Cameraman, London, The Tantivy Press, n.d.; Practical P4rlt:ion Picture Photography, London, The Tantivy Press, n.d.

Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, The Fourth Revolution: Instructional Technology in Higher Education, N e w York, McGraw-Hill, 1972.

CENTRO PER LA CINEMATOGRAFIA SCIENTIFICA DELLA UNIVERSITA'DI P A D O V A , Valutazione critica sulla efficienza didattica dei film biologici (Minutes of reports and discussion, International Seminar held with Italian Association for Scientific Cinematography; texts in Italian, French and English), 1968; The Role of the Film in Connection with New Teaching Methods

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in Higher Education (Minutes of discussions and reports, Seminar held with International Scientific Film Association; texts in English and French), 1973; Personnel in Charge of European University Organization for Scientific Cinema- tograpgy, Research and Audio-Visual Media (Minutes of reports and discussion of a seminar), 1975.

CERAM, C.W., Eine Archaologie des Kinos, Hamburg, Rowolt, 1965 (available in various translations).

C O M B E S , P., TIFFIN, G., Television Production for Education, London and N e w York, Focal Press, n.d.

CRITTENDEN, R., Film Editinq, London, Thames and Hudson, 1981.

DALE, E., Audio-visual Methods in Teaching , Hinsdale, III., Dryden Press, n.d.

D E N S H A M , D.H., The Construction of the Research Film , London, Pergamon Press, 1959.

DESLANDES, J., Histoire comparee du cin6ma (Vol.1, D e la cinematique au cin8matographe: 1826-1890), Tournai, Casterrnan, 1966.

DUBOVIK, A.S., Photographic Recording of High-speed Processes, London, Pergamon Press, 1966 (English translation of F o t ogr a f i c hes k ay a Regis t r a ts i y a €3 is t r opr o t e k a y us h c h i k h , Protsessov, Moscow, Nauka, 1964.

Encyclopedia of Film and Television Techniques, London and N e w York, Focal Press, 1975.

ENGEL, C.E., Photography for the Scientist, London and N e w York, Academic Press, 1968.

E N G L A N D E R , A.A., PETZOLD, P., Filminq for Television, London and N e w York, Focal Press, 1976.

ERICKSON, C.W.H., C U R L , D.H., Fundamentals of Teaching with Audio-visual Technoloqy, New York, Macmillan, 1972.

F A A S C H , W., Einfuhrung in die Wissenschaftliche Kinematographie, Halle, Knappe, 1951.

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FIELDING, R., The Technique of Special Effects Cinematoqraphy, London and New York, Focal Press, n.d.

F R A T E R , C., Sound Recording for Motion Pictures, Cranbury (N.J.) and London, A. S. Barnes, The Tantivy Press, n.d.

FRIZOT, M. (ed.), E. J. Marey, 1830/1904, La photographie du mouvement, Paris, Centre Pompidou, 1977.

G E R L A C H , V.S., ELY, D.P., Teachinq and Media, A Systematic Approach , Englewood Cliffs, N.J., Prentice-Hall, 1971.

GRIFFITH, R., The World of Robert Flaherty, N e w York, Duell, Sloan and Pierce, 1953.

G R U N D I N , H., Open University Boadcasting: Results of the 1978 Survey Results, 1974/78, Milton Keynes, Open University, 1979.

H A L A S , J., Film Animation: A Simplified Approach (Monographs on Communication Technology and Utilization, NO.21, Paris, Unesco, 1976.

------ , M A N V E L L , R., The Technique of Film Animation, London and N e w York, Focal Press, n.d.

HAPPE, B., Basic Motion Picture Technoloqy, London and New York, Focal Press, 1975.

H A R D Y , F. (ed.), Grierson on Documentary, London, Faber and Faber, 1979.

HAYWARD, S., Scriptwriting for Animation, London and N e w York, Focal Press, n.d.

HOPKINSON, P., Le r81e du film dans le dgveloppement (Etudes et documents d'information, NO.64) , Paris, Unesco, 1972.

H Y Z E R , W.G., Enqineerinq and Scientific Hiqh-Speed Photography, N e w York, Macmillan, 1962.

INSTITUT FUR DEN WISSENSCHAFTLICHEN FILM, Wissenschaf t- licher Film in Deutschland, IWF, Gottingen, 1981.

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IVENS, J., The Camera and I, Berlin, German Democratic Republic, 1969 (available in various translations).

LANGFORD, M.J., Basic Photoqraphy; Advanced Photography, London, Focal Press, n.d.

L A W S O N , D. F., Photomicrography, N e w York, Academic Press, 1972.

L E F R A N C , R., La Formation des enseignants ?I I'emploi d,es moyens -- audio-visuels, Conseil de I'Europe, 1974.

LIESEGANG, F.P., KIESER, K., POLIMANTI, O., Wissenschaf tliche Kinematographie, Leipzig, Liesegang, 1920.

LIPTON, L., Independent Film-Makinq, San Francisco, Straight Arrow Books, 1972.

M A C G O W A N , K., Behind the Screen: The History and Technique of Moving Pictures, N e w York, 1965.

M A R E Y , E. J., DBveloppement de la methode graphique par I'emploi de la photographie, Paris, 1985; L e vol des oiseaux, Paris, 1890; L e mouvement, Paris, 1894; La Chronophotographie, Paris, 1899.

M A R N E R , T. St. J., Directinq Motion Pictures, London, The Tantivy Press, n.d.; Film Design, London, The Tantivy Press, n.d.

MATUSZEWSKI, B., I jego pionierska mysl filmowa, Warsaw, Filmoteka Polska, 1980.

MICHAELIS, A.R., Research Films in Biology, Anthropology, Psychology and Medicine , N e w York, Academic Press, 1955.

MILLERSON, G., The Technique of Television Production, London and N e w York, Focal Press, 1979.

MITRY, J. (ed.), Cinema d'aujourd'hui, L e cinema des origines (theme), NO.9, 1976.

MOIR, G. (ed.), Teaching and Television, Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1967.

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M U R R A Y , M., The Videotape Book: A Basic Guide to Portable T V Production, N e w York, Bantam Books, 1975.

MUYBRIDGE, E., The Human Figure in Motion, N e w York, Dover Press, 1955 (reprint); Animals in Motion, N e w York, Dover Press, 1957 (reprint).

OPEN UNIVERSITY, Multi-Media Package on the Use of Television in Specific Faculty Areas . The A V Media Research Group has produced a set of multi-media packages providing examples of specific educational uses of television in various subject areas. These consist of extracts on videotape from Open University programmes, with a printed handbook analysing them. The Handbooks include:

BATES, A.W., Using Television in Mathematics. BROWN, D., Using Television in the Humanities DURBRIDGE, N., Usinq Television in Social Sciences and Educational Studies G R U N D I N , H., Using Television in Science and Technology.

------ , Abstracts of Institute of Educational Technoloqy Papers on Broadcasting, Milton Keynes, 1982.

O W E N , D., D U N T O N , M., The Complete Handbook of Video , Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1982.

P A R S O N , C., Makinq Wildlife Movies, Newton Abbot, David and Charles, 1973.

PETZOLD, P., The Photoguide to Moviemaking, London and N e w York, Focal Press, 1975.

PINEL, V., Techniques du CinBma, Paris, Presses Universi taires de France, 1981.

P O R C H E R , L. (ed.), Vers une pedaqoqie audio-visuelle, Paris, Bordas, 1975.

QUICK, J., WOLFF, H., Small-Studio Video Tape Production, Reading, Mass., Addison-Wesley, 1976.

REISZ, K., MILLAR, G., The Technique of Film Editinq, London and N e w York, Focal Press, n.d.

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RIECK, J., Technik der Wissenschaftlichen Kinematographie, Munich, Earth, 1968.

ROBINSON, J.F., Videotape Recordinq: Theory and Practice, London and N e w York, Focal Press, 1981.

ROSE, A., Vision: Human and Electronic, N e w York and London, Plenum Press, 1973.

ROSE, G.G. (ed.), Cinematography in Cell Biology, N e w York and London, 1963.

S A D O U L , G., Histoire gen6rale du cinema, L'invention du cinema: 1832-1897 (VoLl), Les pionniers du cinema: 1897-1909 (Vo1.2), Paris, Denoel, 1946, 1947 (available in various translations).

SAMUELSON, D.W., Motion Picture Camera and Lighting Equipment, London and N e w York, Focal Press, 1977.

SOUTO, H.M.R., The Technique of the Motion Picture Camera, London and N e w York, Focal Press, 1976.

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