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Journal of Hospitality,Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education

Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 14 (2014) 15–25

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Academic papers

How do Egyptian hotel management students feel aboutstudying alcohol service?

Mohamed Fawzi Afifi n

University of Sadat City, Faculty of Tourism and Hotels, Department of Hotel Studies, Sadat City, Menoufia Governorate, Egypt

a r t i c l e i n f o

Keywords:AlcoholHotel managementStudents0 perceptionsEducationReligionEgypt

76/$ - see front matter & 2013 Elsevier Ltd.x.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhlste.2013.12.004

þ20 1000 900 131.ail address: mf.afifi@aol.com

a b s t r a c t

Drinking and handling of alcohol are prohibited by Islam, therefore, hotel managementstudents in Egypt, mostly Muslims, are faced with a controversial issue. Students in threeEgyptian schools of tourism and hotels were surveyed to investigate their perceptions ofstudying alcoholic beverages service, focusing on issues of gender, religious affiliation,religiosity, and drinking history. The findings indicate that service classes were supportedby the majority while service laboratories, involving handling of alcohol, were opposed.Moreover, students0 preferences in training opportunities were associated with theirperceptions of the service laboratory. Religion and culture largely form the students0

perceptions of alcohol.& 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Moore (1995) observes that consuming alcohol is a salient element of tourism. The provision of alcoholic beveragesservice is important to ensure customer satisfaction and for operation profitability (Dahmr & Kahl, 2009). Walker (2011)mentions that selling alcoholic beverages is more profitable than selling food items. An estimated 25–30% of restaurant salescome from beverage sales (Walker, 2011). The ratio of profit yielded by beverages is between two and five times higher thanthat for food (Miller, Dopson, & Hayes, 2005). This amount can increase in different types of operations, where beveragesales account for approximately two-thirds of a club0s income. After all, this is their main product (Skinner, Moss, & Parfitt,2005).

The Arab Republic of Egypt is situated in the heart of the Middle East and North Africa region. As of July 2013, Egypt0spopulation is estimated at 85,294,388. The majority of the population are Muslims (mostly Sunni) (90%), while 10% areChristians (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013). Egyptian Christians are affiliated with three main churches: Coptic Orthodox,Anglican (Protestant), and Catholic (Ibrahim, Tadros, El-Fiki, & Soliman, 1996). However, Coptic Orthodox dominates with 9%,whereas the other denominations account for only 1% (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013).

The Egyptian economy depends on the tourism sector, among others. Tourism is considered as a vehicle of economicdevelopment for Egypt. According to the State Information Service of Egypt (n.d.), tourism and its related services accountfor 11.3% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP), while the sector generates 19.30% of foreign exchange. Egypt received 11.5million tourists in 2012. Most tourists are European, Arab, and American, in order of magnitude (Central Agency for PublicMobilization & Statistics, n.d.). However, the volatility of the political situation in Egypt has negatively affected its tourismand hospitality industry since 2011 (Mohammad, Jones, Dawood, & Sayed, 2012). Hotel occupancy is a relevant indicator of

All rights reserved.

M.F. Afifi / Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 14 (2014) 15–2516

the consequent turbulence in the Egyptian tourism sector which saw a drastic drop in the average occupancy rate for hotelsin Cairo: in 2011, the rate was 39.9%, while in 2010 it was 73.8% (Mohammad et al., 2012). Egypt offers tourists manyopportunities for activities and experiences, appealing to varied tastes and motivations. The cities of Cairo and Giza are wellknown for heritage tourism. Alexandria, Hurghada, and Sharm el-Sheikh are famous for beach and water sports, and theoases of the Western desert are niche destinations for eco-tourists. Luxor and Aswan, world renowned, are more like anopen museum of Egypt monuments dating back to antiquity (State Information Service, n.d.).

According to the Egyptian Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics in 2011, there were 1321 accommodationestablishments, e.g., hotels, tourist villages, floating hotels comprising 140,000 rooms (n.d.). A basic function of suchoperations is to provide food and beverage service to customers, which includes alcoholic beverages. Drinking alcohol ispermissible in Egypt, but consumption and provision are regulated by law. It proscribes alcohol consumption in public areasand designates places where it is allowed, for example, tourist hotels, restaurants, etc. In addition, it delineates punishmentfor violators (Egyptian Ministry of Tourism, n.d.). The law also forbids serving alcohol to Egyptians on certain Islamicreligious occasions—for example, the Holy month of Ramadan and Prophet Mohamed0s birthday (Kortam, 2012). Alcoholremains a sensitive matter in Egyptian society, a country with a majority Muslim population. In this climate, givenappropriate context, heated debates arise. Much of the time these tense debates relate to Egypt0s complex political ecology.Recently, Islam-based political parties (headed by the Muslim Brotherhood) managed to come to power. They subsequentlysuggested restrictions on the sale of alcohol. This caused worries as to the effect on tourism (Smith, 2013).

However, debate around alcohol is raised not only in Egypt; other countries in the Middle East and North Africa havesimilar disagreements. They also have their regulations with respect to alcohol. In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), non-Muslim residents and tourists alike are required to have a liquor license in order to buy and consume alcohol (Sherif, 2011).By law, Muslims in UAE cannot drink alcohol (Sherif, 2011). In nearby Bahrain, selling alcohol was restricted to five-starhotels (Battour, Ismail, & Battor, 2010). Restaurants close to schools, mosques, or residential zones are not to sell alcohol inBahrain (Battour et al., 2010). Some members of Parliament in Bahrain proposed banning Muslims from drinking alcohol inpublic. As the suggested ban covers hotels, restaurants, and clubs, hotel guests may drink only in their rooms (Sambidge,2009). However, this proposition did not materialize (Tougher penalties for gambling approved, 2013). That said, it worthmentioning that there is a growing trend of “Halal Tourism/Islamic Hospitality”—recognizing and adhering to Islamic laws—in other words, alcohol is absolutely not served. This principally addresses Muslim travelers, but it may draw non-Muslimsas well, who are interested in a “cultural experience” in societies where alcohol is not consumed (Battour et al., 2010).

Food and beverage service is a major part of the hotel management program (HM) in learning institutions in Egypt.Different courses deal with this area, for instance, food and beverage service, beverage management, restaurant manage-ment. Studying alcohol could be part of any of these or an individual course, e.g., alcoholic beverages management. Methodsof instruction involve normal classes where educators explain, for example, the different types of beverages and productionmethods. Because emphasis is placed on practical experiences, many institutions incorporate food and beverage servicelaboratories, a practice-oriented education where students can perform restaurant work, such as setting up a dining roomand preparing and serving drinks.

Moreover, as a requirement for graduation, students must undertake summer training in hospitality establishments.Students are expected to spend time in kitchens and restaurants, where handling alcohol could be involved. Such anexperience could be the first time many Egyptian students come close to alcohol. Because alcohol drinking is prohibited byIslam, Muslim students might encounter a clash between study demands and religious duties. Little is known about howEgyptian HM students, mostly Muslims, perceive studying alcohol service, particularly how religion plays a role in this.

2. Literature review

2.1. Alcohol in the class: A controversial subject

Prior research on hospitality students and alcohol focused on their consumption, e.g., Borchgrevink, Sciarini, andBorchgrevink (2010) and Larsen and Jørgensen (2003). Nevertheless, neither studying nor handling was of interest toscholars. Virtually no research has attempted to see how students feel about studying alcohol service. Culture shapes howpeople perceive alcohol (Kjærheim, Mykletun, Aasland, Haldorsen, & Andersen, 1995; Mandelbaum, 1965; Warren, 2009),and in some parts of the world, alcohol is not an issue. For example, it is part of the “national culture” of France (Michalak &Trocki, 2006). In a different cultural context, alcohol could become a sensitive matter, as this paper will explore.

Classes are not just walls that accommodate students, lecturers, and papers. A class is a theater to much more interactionand dynamism. One manifestation of this are the thorny topics that curricula can contain, educators will teach, and studentslearn and be expected to apply. Many disciplines have their own issues, such as abortion in medical education (Espey,Ogburn, Chavez, Qualls, & Leyba, 2005), where religion might contribute to formulating students0 attitudes (Heimer, 1976).Similarly, BouJaoude, Wiles, Asghar, and Alters (2011) provide an example in which students0 attitudes toward the theory ofevolution were influenced by their religious convictions. In hospitality education, alcohol, as contended herein, is acontroversial study subject for Muslims. Hospitality—for consumers and providers—might seem like a mine field from anIslamic angle, where one0s faith may be on the edge because hospitality incorporates activities that Islam deems unlawful,for instance, alcohol consumption and gambling (Battour et al., 2010). Cook (2006) calls for an ethical perspective whenalcohol is discussed where “the matters of production, distribution, and consumption of alcohol… present a variety of

M.F. Afifi / Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 14 (2014) 15–25 17

important ethical questions to both individuals and societies” (p. 4). As debated here, studying and working in alcoholservice, precisely for Muslim persons, can be added to the aforementioned issues. This may not be of concern to non-Muslims. As Ellison, Bradshaw, Rote, Storch, and Trevino (2008) observe, research on alcohol has been largely conducted inWestern communities, and as a result, more is known about Christians0 behavior toward alcohol than any other religionfollowers. Apparently, culture directs research endeavors.

Another stream of research on students and alcohol focused on their decisions to study or to work in fields related todrinking. Larsen (1994) was preoccupied with the “self-selection hypothesis,” where he assumed that students who likedrinking might work in hospitality because it provides a venue for their desires. Borchgrevink et al. (2010) investigatedalcohol consumption among hospitality students and staff and proposed that studying or working in hospitality anddrinking alcohol are functions of certain personality characteristics. Earlier, Kjærheim, Mykletun, and Haldorsen (1996)found that certain personality attributes are associated with heavy drinking, e.g., extraversion, where restaurant staff intheir study showed high degrees of the same quality. However, such research was conducted in a cultural milieu wherealcohol is tolerated. In a predominantly Muslim country like Egypt, religion plays a great role in students forming theirattitudes toward alcohol.

2.2. View on religion and alcohol

Religion is one of the main factors that shaped man0s perceptions of alcohol. It regulated the relationship between peopleand the drink. The three Abrahamic faiths—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—discuss alcohol, and each has its doctrine inthat regard. Ashour (1995) mentions that religion and culture affected drinking in ancient Egypt, which, as is argued here,remains true. It is necessary now to shed some light on how alcohol is seen by Islam and Christianity, the two main faithsin Egypt.

2.2.1. Islam and alcohol“Khamr” is a generic Arabic term for intoxicants, whether alcohol or drugs (Battour et al., 2010), and this is the word used

by the Qur0an, the Holy Book of Muslims. Names and tastes might change but the effect remains the issue. “Khamr is thatwhich befogs the mind” (Al-Qaradawi, 1997, p. 69). Islam has the most unequivocal statement regarding consumption ofintoxicants. Intoxicants are “haram,” or unlawful, as dictated in the Qur'an (Al-Qaradawi, 1997). This is commanded in theQur0an (The Holy Qur0an 2:219; 5:90–91, in Abdel Haleem, 2004) and in many prophetic narrations (for further details, seeAl-Qaradawi, 1997). The sanity of mind and body is a priority in Islam and prohibiting intoxicants is decreed for this(Robinson & Kenyon, 2009).

In normal conditions, alcohol has no place whatsoever in Islam, but “necessity dictates exceptions” (Nurdeng, 2009, p.475). If no other alternative exists and one would perish if not to consume an unlawful food or a drink, then it is permissibleto consume as much as to keep death away (Nurdeng, 2009). This is not to say that all Muslims always adhere to religiousstrictures regarding drink. Despite warnings against alcohol, some Muslims do use and abuse alcohol (AlMarri & Oei, 2009).Most important, however, all activities associated with alcohol are forbidden and the doers are cursed. This includes, forexample, producing, selling, buying, and serving intoxicants (Al-Qaradawi, 1997). Thus, the whole supply chain iscondemned, leaving no room for speculations.

2.2.2. Christianity and alcoholGeorge (2003, p. 7) states that wine is “inextricably linked with Christianity”; it is mentioned several times in the Bible

(Proverbs 31: 6–7; Numbers 6:20; Ephesians 5:18 King James Version). The New Testament refers to wine as a joyfulbeverage, medicine, symbol (Mandelbaum, 1965). Wine is needed for religious rituals. It is essential for the celebration ofthe “Eucharist” (a/k/a Thanksgiving)—although this does not grant it a sacred status per se—where wine represents theblood of Christ (Robinson & Kenyon, 2009). This religious symbolism is emphasized by the Catholic Church (Cunningham,2009). Similarly, the Coptic Church acknowledges the significance of wine (Gabra, 2009). Nonetheless, for some ProtestantChurches, alcohol is religiously despicable; hence, its mere figurative presence in the rituals of Communion is rejected(Mandelbaum, 1965).

In a general sense, Christianity allows the drinking of alcohol as long as it is done in moderation (Robinson & Kenyon,2009); drunkenness is a sin according to the New Testament (Cook, 2006). However, Protestantism has some differentpoints of view on drinking. Furthermore, Belcher (2006) observes that no consensus exists among the different Protestantdenominations on this. Opinions over its use diverge from denunciation to tolerance, while abuse is rejected. This variationemanates from the diverse exegeses of the scripture (Belcher, 2006). Self-restraint, highly emphasized in Protestantism,spurred the onset of temperance movements (Levine, 1992). Levine notes that most campaigns were associated withProtestant communities—e.g., UK and Sweden—representing “temperance culture.” Whereas, Catholic-majority countries—e.g., France and Italy—were classified as “non-temperance culture.”

M.F. Afifi / Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 14 (2014) 15–2518

3. Methodology

3.1. Materials and methods

A questionnaire was designed to elicit the students0 perceptions of the study of alcoholic beverages management/service.The questionnaire was divided into several sections. One dealt with demographics and another with studying alcoholicbeverages service. Other parts covered summer training, drinking history, work intentions, and religiosity. However, workintention is not discussed here. Religious affiliation was measured by asking respondents to choose from three givenanswers regarding their specific religion: Muslim, Christian, and Other. Attitudes toward studying alcohol service—class andlaboratory—were presented on a scale of six points, where one was “strongly support” and six was “strongly oppose.” Otherquestions asked about their summer training experience, for example, where and in what role. One important question wasabout their search behavior for training opportunities, i.e., if they avoided or did not avoid alcohol-serving places.An established test exists to measure drinking: Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT) (Larsen, 1994), but this wasnot used because the study does not aim to diagnose the drinking patterns of the students. However, it was important toknow something about this; thus, a threshold question was posed in regard to drinking history where possible answerswere “have never drunk alcohol,” “have drunk in the past but no longer,” and “drink now.” Another straightforward questionwas given to measure religiosity, where respondents were asked to rate their degree of religiosity on a scale of six points,where one was “absolutely nonreligious” and six was “absolutely religious.” The six-point scale was used to preventstudents from “fence-straddl[ing]” (VanderStoep & Johnston, 2009). The developed instrument was piloted to 40 students,which helped obtain feedback on the wording and design to improve the test instrument. Worthy of note is that thequestionnaire was administered in Arabic.

Out of eight government universities offering hospitality education, affiliated to the Egyptian Ministry of HigherEducation, three were included in this study. They are located in different governorates and regions: North, Middle (Delta),and South (Upper Egypt). These confer a Bachelor of Science degree after 4 years. The questionnaire was administered tostudents at the final year at Hotel Management departments. These students would have spent 3 years at the department,and they should have had summer training at least once. Permission to distribute the questionnaire was secured. Onadministration, the purpose of the study was explained and verbal directions were communicated. Anonymity andconfidentiality were assured, which is important with such delicate subject matter. 245 questionnaires were distributed atclassroom settings during regular university hours between April and May, 2012.

4. Results

Statistical analysis was performed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16. Of the 245 formsdistributed, 218 valid questionnaires were returned, giving a response rate of 89%, distributed as: University A (58; 26.6%),University B (84; 38.5%), and University C (76; 34.9%). This high response rate is mainly because the forms were distributedin one session. Refaat (2004) reported a 95% response rate in an Egyptian university.

4.1. Sample profile and general questions

The youngest respondents were 20 years old, and the oldest were 25 (range is 5) with a mean of 21.20, standarddeviation of 0.78, and mode of 21 years. Males dominated the sample (188; 86.2%) while females accounted for only 13.8%(n¼30). This imbalance was expected. From personal observation, as a hospitality student and lecturer, females in Egyptianuniversities prefer to join tourism rather than hotel management departments. 191 students (87.6%) identified themselves asMuslims, while 27 (12.4%) reported being Christians. This ratio is typical of Egypt demographics mentioned elsewhere.Notably, most of the Christians (24; 88.9%) were affiliated to one university (A) in Upper Egypt. Most of the respondents (98;45%) resided in the Delta region, 61 (28%) lived in Upper Egypt governorates, and 59 (27%) individuals dwelled in thenorthern region. The highest majority joined the program with a General Certificate (207; 95%) while 10 (4.6%) joined aftercompleting a hotel institute/technical school. Financially, the majority (156; 71.6%) were family dependent, which isexpected for students; another stratum was both family dependent and had another source of income (52; 23.8%), and theminority (10; 4.6%) were completely independent. 165 students, excluding those completely independent, reported anaverage monthly family income of 1880 Egyptian pounds (EGP) (USD 311), and the mode was EGP 1500 (USD 248) (1USD¼6.05 EGP, at the time of the study).

The majority (N¼218; 165; 75.6%); enjoyed full autonomy in making the decision to join the hotel department, while 35(16.1%) made it as a joint decision with others. Parents had the upper hand in that decision for 10 persons (4.6%), whereasother factors determined the selection for eight respondents (3.7%). Out of 218, 133 (61.0%) thought about alcohol beforejoining the hotel department, whilst 85 (39%) did not have such thoughts.

Students who did not study alcoholic beverages service/management numbered 126 (57.8%) versus 92 (42.2%) who didstudy it. Within those 92, 70 (76.1%) studied it as part of a training scheme organized by their faculty, and 22 (23.9%) studiedalcohol as part of another subject. None of the respondents reported studying alcoholic beverages service/management asan independent subject. Noteworthy, the entire sample was not given any kind of practical experience in alcohol service intheir courses.

M.F. Afifi / Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 14 (2014) 15–25 19

The number of students who reported having a discussion over alcohol and the moral or religious implication—whetherwith colleagues or academics—was 154 (N¼212; 72.6%). On the other hand, 58 students (N¼212; 27.4%) did not report suchoccurrence. However, 76.5% of Muslims (N¼187; 143) answered positively on this, while just 44% of Christians (N¼25; 11)did so.

4.2. Attitudes toward service class

Students who opposed a service class numbered 69 (32%) compared to 149 (68%) who supported it. The distribution ofstudents0 attitudes by gender and religious affiliation toward classes of alcohol service is displayed in Table 1. Regardinggender, 25 females (N¼30; 83%) reported support versus 124 males (N¼188; 66%). Five females (17%) declared themselvesto be somewhat opposed, compared to 64 males (34%). A Mann–Whitney U test was used to see if a difference existsbetween males and females in their attitudes toward service classes of alcohol where no statistically significant variance wasfound (U¼2778.5; p¼0.893). Overall, Christians who approved the service classes were 25 (N¼27; 92.6%) compared to 124Muslims (N¼191; 65%) who shared the same stance. Only two Christians (7.4%) had some degree of opposition versus 67Muslims (35%). Not a single Christian strongly opposed alcohol service classes, while 18.3% of Muslims did. Nevertheless, nostatistically significant difference was discovered between Muslims and Christians (U¼2189; p¼0.186).

4.3. Attitudes toward service laboratory

Exploring attitudes toward alcohol service laboratories gave a different story, as exhibited in Table 2. Largely, 145(N¼218; 66.5%) had some degree of objection compared to 73 (33.5%) who did not. Primarily, females who opposed thisnumbered 18 (N¼30; 60%), while 12 (40%) did not; 61 males (N¼188; 32%) showed support while 127 males (68%)expressed refusal. The difference between males and females in their perceptions of an alcohol service laboratory was notstatistically significant (U¼2485; p¼0.275). Cross-tabulating broad religious affiliations versus perceptions of servicelaboratories yielded the following information. Muslims who objected numbered 130 (N = 191; 68%) versus 61 (32%), whohad no such position. Christians who favored this type of study numbered 15 (N¼27; 55.6%), while 12 (44.4%) did not.

Table 1Students’ attitudes toward alcohol service classes, by gender and religious affiliations.

Strongly support Support Somewhat support Somewhat oppose Oppose Strongly oppose Total

GenderMale 79 27 18 16 17 31 188% 42 14.4 9.6 8.5 9.0 16.5 100.0%Female 10 8 7 0 1 4 30% 33.3 26.7 23.3 0 3.3 13.3 100.0%

Religious affiliationsMuslim 79 26 19 15 17 35 191% 41.4 13.6 9.9 7.9 8.9 18.3 100.0%Christian 10 9 6 1 1 0 27% 37.0 33.3 22.2 3.7 3.7 0 100.0%Total 89 35 25 16 18 35 218% 40.8 16.1 11.5 7.3 8.3 16.1 100.0%

Table 2Students’ attitudes toward alcohol service laboratories, by gender and religious affiliations.

Strongly support Support Somewhat support Somewhat oppose Oppose Strongly oppose Total

GenderMale 36 14 11 21 24 82 188% 19.1 7.4 5.9 11.2 12.8 43.6 100.0%Female 5 4 3 5 4 9 30% 16.7 13.3 10.0 16.7 13.3 30.0 100.0%

Religious affiliationsMuslim 35 15 11 18 23 89 191% 18.3 7.9 5.8 9.4 12.0 46.6 100.0%Christian 6 3 3 8 5 2 27% 22.2 11.1 11.1 29.6 18.5 7.4 100.0%

Total 41 18 14 26 28 91 218% 18.8 8.3 6.4 11.9 12.8 41.7 100.0%

Table 3Comparison of muslim and christian students regarding alcohol service laboratories.

Religious affiliation N Mean rank Sum of ranks Mann–Whitney U value

Muslim 191 114.08 21,788.50 1704.50Christian 27 77.13 2082.50Asym. sig. (2-tailed)¼0.003, p40.05

Table 4Correlation between religiosity and attitudes toward alcohol service classes and laboratories.

Religiosity

Spearman’s rho Attitudes toward service classes Correlation coefficient 0.109Sig. (2-tailed) 0.110N 218

Attitudes toward service laboratories Correlation coefficient 0.137n

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.044N 218

n Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

M.F. Afifi / Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 14 (2014) 15–2520

Employing a Mann–Whitney U test (Table 3) revealed a statistically significant difference between Muslims—having thehighest mean rank—and Christians in their perceptions of alcohol service laboratories (U¼1704.5; p¼0.003).

4.4. Religiosity

As for the self-perception of religiosity, 107 students (N¼218; 49%) perceived themselves as “somewhat religious,” and85 described themselves as “religious” (39.0%). The three labels “absolutely religious,” “somewhat nonreligious,” and“nonreligious” had equal weight (eight per label; 3.7% per label), and two students (0.9%) saw themselves as “absolutelynonreligious.” No breakdown of religiosity, neither by religious affiliation nor by gender, is given here because it is not thefocus of this particular research project. A Spearman0s Rank Order correlation was run to examine the possible relationshipbetween self-reported religiosity and attitudes toward service classes. As shown in Table 4, a weak positive correlation existsbetween both variables, which is not statistically significant (rs (218)¼0.109; p¼0.110). However, a weak positive correlationbetween religiosity and students0 attitudes toward alcohol service laboratory was found (Table 4), which proved statisticallysignificant (rs (218)¼0.137; p¼0.044).

4.5. Drinking history

Examining the drinking history of respondents showed that the majority have never consumed alcohol (N¼218; 189;86.7%). Of the participants, 18 (8.3%) have consumed alcohol in the past but no longer do, while 11 (5.0%) presently drink.Within the female group, 28 (N¼30; 93.3%) have never consumed alcohol, while only two females reported that they nowdrink (6.7%). None of the females reported that they have consumed alcohol in the past but no longer. As for males0

consumption of alcohol (N¼188), the majority have never consumed alcohol (161; 85.6%), while 18 (9.6%) have consumedalcohol in the past but not presently, while nine (4.8%) now drink. To see if there is an association between gender anddrinking, the three categories of drinking were collapsed into two new ones—have never consumed alcohol (n¼189) andhave consumed alcohol (n¼29)—and Fisher0s Exact test was run, yielding no statistically significant association betweengender and drinking (p¼0.385).

Scrutinizing religious affiliation against the drinking history revealed that 165 Muslim students out of 191 Muslims(86.4%) reported that they have never consumed alcohol, 17 (8.9%) have consumed in the past but not any more, and nine(4.7%) said they “drink now.” The majority of Christians (N¼27) have never consumed alcohol (24; 88.9%), 1 (3.7%) didconsume alcohol in the past and ceased, and 2 (7.4%) were drinking at the time of the study. Using the collapsed categories,mentioned above, and running Fisher0s Exact test gave no statistically significant association between religious affiliationand drinking (p¼1.00). Checking for variation in attitudes toward alcohol service classes among those who drink (n¼11)and those who do not (n¼207) proved not to be statistically significant (U¼817.50; p¼0.101). However, a statisticallysignificant difference (Table 5) was found between those who do not drink—having the highest mean rank—and drinkers, intheir attitudes toward alcohol service laboratories (U¼579.50; p¼0.004).

4.6. Reasons for abstention

Students had diverse reasons (534 responses) for alcohol abstention/stopping drinking. The most cited religion (197;36.9%), followed by moral reasons (129; 24.2%), health reasons (94; 17.6%), social reasons (70; 13.1%), economic reasons (42;7.9%), and other reasons (2; 0.4%). Examining the alcohol drinking abstention/stopping motives against the religion of

Table 5Comparison of students who drink and those who do not, according to their attitudes toward alcohol service laboratories.

Drinking N Mean rank Sum of ranks Mann–Whitney U value

Do not drink 207 112.20 23,225.50 579.50Drink 11 58.68 645.50Asym. sig. (2-tailed)¼0.004, p40.05

M.F. Afifi / Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 14 (2014) 15–25 21

respondents revealed some similarities among Muslims and Christians. “Religious reasons” was selected by the majorityof Muslims (N¼182; 97.3%) and Christians alike (N¼25; 80%). The second common reason selected by both Muslims(112; 61.5%) and Christians (17; 68.0%) was “moral reasons.”

4.7. Summer training

Students who had summer training numbered 123 (N¼218; 56.4%) versus 95 (43.6%) who did not. However, femalestudents were the least likely to be trained compared to their male counterparts. Out of the 30 females in the sample, 20(66.7%) had no training at all and the remaining 10 (33.3%) trained just one time. Males who had not trained numbered 75(40%), against 113 (60%) who had trained. Roles (N¼148) during training varied; being a “waiter/waitress/busboy” wasselected 107 times (72.3%), a “host/hostess” 22 times (14.9%), a “cashier” 10 times (6.8%), and a “bartender/bar boy” 7 (4.7%).Students0 search behavior for training opportunities varied; 70 (N¼123; 56.9%) tried to avoid places that serve alcoholicdrinks. Of these, 64 were Muslims (91.4%) and six were Christians (8.6%). Those who were not concerned about thisnumbered 53 (N¼123; 43.1%). A χ2 test for independence (with Yates Continuity Correction) indicated a non-significantassociation between attitudes toward service class (two categories: support-oppose) and training search behavior(χ2¼1.645; df¼1; p¼0.20). However, this was not the case with attitudes toward alcohol service laboratories, a statisticallysignificant association (χ2¼10.52; df¼1; p¼0.001).

4.8. Seeking advice

Students who solicited advice on the issue of alcohol—during study and/or summer training—numbered 133 (N¼218;61.0%), while 85 students (39.0%) did not. Males sought advice more than females did; 124 (93.2%) against nine (6.8%).Perhaps this is, in part, because males had summer training more than females did, and that brought the issue to the front.However, of those who sought advice (N¼133), 123 were Muslims (92.5%) and 10 were Christians (7.5%). Sources of advicevaried (250 selections): “man of religion” was most frequent (79; 31.6%), “family” came second (68; 27.2%), “friends” camethird (59; 23.6%), “classmate/colleague” came fourth (27; 10.8%), and “academics” lodged in the fifth place (16; 6.4%).However, Muslim students (N¼123) primarily turned to a “man of religion” (74; 60.2%), followed by “family” (60; 48.8%).Conversely, “family” was the main source of advice for Christians chosen by 80%, followed by “man of religion” (50%).

5. Discussion

This study explored the perceptions of Egyptian hotel management students toward studying alcoholic beverage service,focusing on issues of gender, religious affiliation, religiosity, and drinking history. It seems that alcohol was a concern for themajority of students even before joining the hotel department. However, this did not discourage them from joining.Students who did not have alcohol service classes outnumbered those who did. Studying alcohol service was mostly withina training scheme or as part of another subject but was never taken as a standalone course. This could be a sign of how thissubject is marginalized by academics or within institutions.

Research suggests that males and females differ in their preferences of study subjects (Evans, Schweingruber, &Stevenson, 2002) and their attitudes toward them and disciplines in general (Blickenstaff, 2005). However, males0 andfemales0 attitudes toward alcohol service classes did not statistically vary. Most students, regardless of religion, did not havea problem with alcohol service classes. Indeed, Christians were more receptive than Muslims were to this, but the statisticaldifference between the two factions was ultimately insignificant. Studying alcohol service is likely not seen as an openviolation of religious doctrines by Muslim students. Islam is very clear on handling alcohol while, arguably, there are nosimilar outspoken instructions on studying alcohol. However, the usefulness and the legitimacy of such knowledge—alcoholproduction, service etc.—remains debatable from an Islamic point of view. Not all knowledge is, necessarily, good (Rahman,1988). This may be understood reviewing Rahman0s (1988) observation that early Muslims translated Greek medicine, forinstance, but not Greek literature because it contained, quite heavily, myths on gods and goddesses, a theology contradictoryto the fundamentals of monotheistic Islam. By means of inference, the legitimacy of studying alcohol—although readilyaccepted by many Muslim students—is doubted.

Though “practical skill development” is valued in hospitality education (Alexander, Lynch, & Murray, 2009, p. 56), noalcohol service laboratory was given. Reasons behind this were not investigated. This may be attributed to the nature of theinvestigated bachelor’s degree awarding schools. Purcell and Quinn (1996) observe that, compared to diploma students,

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courses given to degree students in the UK tend to focus on managerial abilities more than practical skills. Shortage ofservice laboratories herein may in fact reflect a lack of resources or the shortage of these courses may also reflect theavoidance of contemplating this controversial issue. Limited resources is one of the obstacles to operating teachingrestaurants and kitchens in hospitality education in UK as mentioned by Alexander et al. (2009), Coleman, Jackson, Ritchie,Roberts, and Snelgrove (2002), and Baker, Cattet, and Riley (1995). Financial constraints are also recognized in a Chinese case(Penfold, Wei, & Ladkin, 2012). Nevertheless, there is no mention of cultural or religious issues related to providing sucheducational training facilities, which in this instance is the controversy of alcohol service. Thus, this article functions as oneof the first in a broad area of concern for the scholarly study of tourism and hospitality.

Extracting opinions over alcohol service laboratories, which are not actually delivered, brought up another dimension.The majority of students had some degree of objection. As for attitudes of females and males, it was revealed that both hadsimilar views, and any difference between them in that regard was statistically insignificant. The number of Muslims whoopposed service laboratories exceeded that of Christians, and statistics proved the difference to be significant. It seems thatthe explicit condemnation of alcohol handling by Islamic teachings is strongly present in the minds of Muslims surveyed.Furthermore, the role of religion in forming the students’ perceptions toward the study of alcohol is again confirmed.Religiosity, a high degree of subject religiousness, positively correlated with attitudes toward service laboratories, not withthose toward service classes. Most students reported experiencing a discussion of alcohol—whether initiated by them, acolleague, or an academic—related to religion and/or morals, where they participated or merely witnessed. However,Muslims had the greatest reporting rates reflecting their immense concern. Many students turned to a “man of religion” foradvice on alcohol. This practice among some of the students may impede delivering practical training sessions. Possiblerejection of practical sessions is not suggested in the work of Alexander et al. (2009), Coleman et al. (2002), Penfold et al.(2012), and Baker et al. (1995). This is because of the cultural setting of their research, being in societies where alcoholconsumption is accepted. This did not allow for this issue, from a perspective relevant to the Egyptian context, to come tosurface.

Food and beverage servers should possess solid knowledge of beverage service, for example, types of beverages andproper service methods (Dahmr & Kahl, 2009). Delivering proper education and professional training can achieve this.However, if academic institutions were to offer this practice-oriented education, they could face dissent. In this context, wedo not know students’ potential reactions to an alcohol service laboratory. We might find real examples from severalincidents. Recently, two Muslim students in separate institutions in Denmark endured a relevant situation. Both refused totaste foods containing wine or pork, both of which are prohibited in Islam. In both cases, they were challenged. One studentquit studying and later filed a legal case against the school and won, entitling her to monetary compensation (Cw, 2012). Theother dissenting student was later told, upon reflection, that he did not in fact have to taste such foods (Santos, 2012). Theseincidents illuminate the potential for collisions between religion and education, especially in a tourism and hospitalitycontext. Huntley and Barnes-Reid (2003) note that very few religious institutions offer hospitality education and trainingrelated to the religious teachings they adopt. This implies non-congruence between hospitality and religion. However,tourism and hospitality academics examined “ethical dilemmas” facing students in work (Hudson & Miller, 2006), thoughthese dilemmas may have been disregarded in the classroom context. Studying alcohol service is a sparsely researched issue.The study here identifies and questions whether teaching topics that are against some students’ religious beliefs is, in fact,ethical.

Examining the students’ drinking history shows that they drink much less than their Scandinavian (Larsen, 1994; Larsen& Jørgensen, 2003), and American counterparts (Borchgrevink et al., 2010). Indeed, most students were shown to have neverconsumed alcohol. The drinking history of the sample here does not suggest that hospitality education accommodatesdrinkers, negating the self-selection theory (Borchgrevink et al., 2010). Checking the difference in attitudes toward alcoholservice classes between drinkers and non-drinkers proved statistically insignificant. However, a statistically significantdifference was discovered between both groups in their attitude toward service laboratories.

Data credibility should be taken into consideration when understanding that the results with respect to self-reporting ofalcohol drinking may be underreported (Kjærheim et al., 1996; Larsen, 1994). Particularly, considering the percentages givenby Soueif et al. (1987) where 19.32% of their Egyptian female university student respondents (N¼2366) reported everdrinking and 38.51% of those continued to do so by then.Verifying recent figures of the World Health Organization (WHO)would scatter such doubts. Recent figures of WHO (2011) show that total adult (adult being over the age of 15) per capitaconsumption for Egypt (2003–2005) is 0.37 liters (0.27 recorded and 0.10 unrecorded) and “lifetime abstainers” in 2008 wasmoderately high at 60.2% for Egyptian men and extremely high at 90.5% for women. The percentage of abstainers—who didnot drink in the previous 12 months—was incredibly high at 98.9%. Taken as a whole, lifetime abstainers in the study hereinaccounted for 86.7% (N¼218) of the sample. Nevertheless, the current sample is not representative of the wider populationof Egypt.

An important contribution of this study is examining the drinking history of Muslim and Christian students. This is notthe main goal of the study but it adds to the general understanding of perceptions of alcohol and particularly the role ofculture and religion in this context. Figures given here did not yield significant statistical variance between adherents of thetwo faiths. This may be because 86.4% of Muslims and, surprisingly, 88.9% of Christians, reported never before drinking. Thisgives support to Ashour’s (1995) claim that variation in drinking manners among Muslims and Christians in Egypt is “little.”Nonetheless, figures on drinking among Christians are startling, given an absence of widely agreed doctrinal prohibition.Thus, Michalak and Trocki (2006) doubt the WHO statistics on abstainers in Egypt for 2000–2001 (99.5%), which make

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Egypt first on the list of abstaining countries. This, according to Michalak and Trocki, is highly exaggerated – taking thecrucial fact that half of Christians in the Middle East live in Egypt into consideration. Although only broad religious affiliationwas identified here and no denominations were investigated, Egypt is not Protestant-dominated, and a temperance culturecannot be confidently proclaimed. However, Michalak and Trocki’s doubts appear to be justified. Culture may provide a clue;Mandelbaum (1965) reminds that consuming alcohol is “part of a larger cultural configuration” (p. 281). In all probability,this is related, in part, to living among a Muslim majority. Ibrahim et al. (1996) mentions that when the EvangelicalChristians came to Egypt they realized that: “Coptic Orthodoxy … was not related to Christianity in any way… [discovering]a clear discrepancy between Western and Eastern Christianity, the latter having been influenced by Islam and Easterntraditions” (p. 14). After all, validation given by Christian students for abstention or ceasing to drink was mainly on religiousgrounds.

There is no documented data on the drinking behavior of Egyptian Christians and denominations therein with respect toquestions such as: purpose (e.g. recreation), regularity of consumption, quantities consumed etc., to affirm or negate thedata presented here. Studies on Egyptians—Hamdi et al. (2013), Refaat (2004), Soueif et al. (1987), Soueif et al. (1988) andSoueif et al. (1990)—did not distinguish between the drinking of Christians and Muslims, thus no comparison is possibleagainst data herein. Notably, the question posed here concerning the drinking history of the students did not differentiatebetween drinking for religious purposes and recreational drinking. Considering the sensitivity of the investigation topic andthe political tension in Egypt, it was thought it is better not to elaborate on questions of drinking and religion.

Religion was the principal reason against drinking for the majority of students, which sustains the role of religion inpractice as shaping attitudes toward drinking. However, Soueif et al. (1988) found that worries over their mental andphysical well-being were the prime motives for Egyptian workers to stop consuming alcohol, followed by personal financialtroubles, and religion. Laborers likely value their health and stamina as their capital, hence damaging it jeopardizesproductivity and potential earnings. However, this is probably not the case for students, given the low priority often given tohealth and personal sustainability in this stage of life. Another possible explanation of the retreat of religion to a back seat inSoueif et al.’s (1988) study is the education level of such workers, where illiteracy was present among 14.9% (N¼5108) anduniversity degree holders were almost absent, at 1.1%. Thus, religious awareness may have been underdeveloped and notreadily accessible as they cannot read religious texts, nor participate in written intellectual fora related to their respectivereligions. Hamdi et al. (2013) discovered an antithetical relationship between education and substance use. This mightexplain why drinking was not prevalent in the current study. In general, this demonstrates that alcohol consumption is acomplex issue, which can function under many different factors, such as, education, religious affiliation, age, income,culture, religiosity, etc.

It is striking that female students reported being trained less than did their male classmates. This seems to be aninteresting point worthy of further investigation to discover the reasons. As for training places, bars, nightclubs, pubs, andtaverns were the least reported. Moreover, among undertaken training roles, a “bartender/bar boy” came in the second lastposition. This is partial proof that the majority attempted to escape alcohol-serving operations. Of interest is the significantassociation between search behavior for training opportunities and attitudes toward service laboratories. As Chen, Hu,Wang, and Chen (2011) observe, internships influence students’ plans for prospective work. Hence, such information isimportant because it identifies how students might approach the work market.

6. Conclusions

Alcohol service, although not widely studied in the investigated institutions, is a controversial subject. While alcoholservice classes are mostly accepted, service laboratories are largely rejected. Attitudes toward service classes did not vary bygender, religious affiliation, or drinking history. However, the significant variation discovered was related to attitudestoward service laboratories. The subjects of different religious affiliations and drinking history patterns fluctuated in theirattitudes toward service laboratories. However, no difference was found between males and females in this regard.Moreover, religiosity correlated with attitudes toward alcohol service laboratories but not with those toward service classes.This indicates the importance of religion and its effect on tourism and hospitality education, especially in a cross-culturalglobal tourism market.

The perceptions of students seem to have some wide implications on their future careers. The search behavior fortraining opportunities is associated with their attitudes toward alcohol service laboratories but not with those towardservice classes. With most students rejecting alcohol service laboratories and some avoiding training in alcohol service, itseems that an inevitable decisionwill be made once such students begin their careers. That choice is to avoid alcohol-relatedhospitality operations. Apparently, religious and cultural beliefs where alcohol is associated with sin and guilt resonatedwith the students, specifically the Muslims among them.

Arguably, some of the attitudes students, particularly Muslims, expressed here toward studying alcohol service might beexperienced by other individuals in different parts of the world, in differing hospitality contexts. This relates to Islam’steachings and not to geographical locations, e.g., Egypt. As mentioned above, a similar situation occurred in Denmark.Hence, hospitality academic institutions, especially ones that have international students, need to be aware of the differentcultural and religious backgrounds affecting their student bodies. Students also need to understand responsibilities intrinsicto their future careers so that they can make decisions that are more informed and in line with their personal values. Finally,this is just an example of a contentious study subject from a religious angle; there could be other issues with alcohol service

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education and training based on different criteria. For instance, in secular North American culture there are “straight-edge”individuals and groups, who choose to abstain from all intoxicants (Haenfler, 2004). This provides a similar barrier to alcoholservice and consumption as in this case.

6.1. Limitations and avenues for future research

This study provided some insights on the perceptions of hotel management students regarding alcohol as a study subject.This had not been previously researched. The role of religion in the educational process was highlighted and gives newperspective on the interaction among religion, hospitality education, and forms of food and beverage, in this case alcohol.Moreover, it adds to knowledge on operating teaching restaurants in terms of possible obstacles to training. Furthermore, itprovided information on the drinking of hospitality students. This is conducted in a cultural context other than the usualwestern centric arena (Europe and the United States).

Nonetheless, limitations do exist. The study included only Egyptian students, so the generalizability of the findings toother countries may be limited. Furthermore, it was limited to students in some government universities and cannot beclaimed to represent all hotel management students in Egypt. For example, students in private universities might constitutea different segment in terms of socio-economic factors and this may affect their perceptions of alcohol in general and itsstudy in particular. Depending on self-reporting of drinking and religiosity is another limitation. Ellison et al. (2008) warnthat social desirability may affect responses where respondents may exaggerate their religiosity level and decrease theiralcohol consumption rates. Social desirability was not accounted for here. Moreover, investigating religiosity through asingle question may not fully capture the construct (Abdel-Khalek & Lester, 2010). “Faith neutral measures” (King &Crowther, 2004) could be a solution especially given the Muslim and Christian student population under study. Yet, Kingand Crowther question the use of such measures not being focused on particulars of a certain religion.

Based on the findings and limitations of the current study, there are some possible avenues for future research. First,replicating the study on Egyptian private university students, exploring their perceptions and comparing them to the publicuniversity results herein. Second, institutions conferring diplomas represent a different educational context in terms of theirorientation toward practical skills and students probably have different perceptions of alcohol service due to this. Third,research can explore the perceptions of hospitality educators toward teaching alcohol service, as educators are crucialcontributors to the educational experience. Fourth, investigating the same topic in other hospitality institutions withinternational students and academics might provide some insights on the role of different cultures in forming perceptions ofalcohol. As mentioned elsewhere, lack of data on drinking habits of Egyptian Christians may deem a future study necessary.

Acknowledgments

The researcher would like to thank the academic staff and students of the participating schools. Thanks also go toDr. Mohamed Abouel-Ela (University of Cairo, Egypt) for his comments on the paper, and two anonymous reviewers forhelping to clarify and improve this work.

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Dr. Mohamed Fawzi Afifi is currently a lecturer at the Department of Hotel Studies, Faculty of Tourism and Hotels, University of Sadat City, Egypt. Heobtained his B.Sc. and M.Sc. in hotel management from Helwan University, Egypt. Mohamed earned his Ph.D. in hospitality and food management in 2010from School of Management, University of Surrey, England. Prior to joining academia, he worked as a front desk clerk in resorts, Red sea, Egypt. Mohamed’sresearch interests include hospitality education, service quality, entrepreneurship, and cultural issues in tourism and hospitality.