Horticulture and Health in the Middle Ages: Imagesfrom the Tacuinum Sanitatis

Jules Janick1

Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, 625 Agriculture Mall Drive,West Lafayette, IN 47897-2010

Marie Christine DaunayINRA, UR1052 Unite de Genetique et d’Amelioration des Fruits et Legumes, F84140, Montfavet, France

Harry ParisDepartment of Vegetable Crops and Plant Genetics, Agricultural Research Organization, Newe,

Ya’ar Research Center, P.O. Box 1021, Ramat Yishay 30-095, Israel

Additional index words. Ibn Butlan, medieval horticulture, nutrition

Abstract. Lavishly illustrated late 14th century manuscripts known as the Tacuinum Sanitatis, a guide for healthy living,were based on an 11th century Arabic manuscript known as the Taqwim al-Sihha bi al-Ashab al-Sitta (Rectifying Health bySix Causes) written by the physician and philosopher Ibn Butlan (d. 1063). The expensive, illustrated Tacuinum Sanitatistomes portray a utopian feudal society in which nobles are engaged in play and romance while feudal laborers work theestate. Rich in horticultural imagery, they include vivid scenes of the harvest of vegetables, fruits, flowers, and culinary andmedicinal herbs. Each scene is accompanied by a brief summary of the health aspects of the subject. Although medievalmedicine was based on ancient philosophical concepts of Greek sciences, particularly Hippocrates and Galen, thesedocuments connect vegetables and fruits with human health and well-being, similar to modern medicine. Hence, thepresent-day focus on the connection between horticulture and health can be seen as an extension of ancient and medievalregimens for a healthy lifestyle.

The relationship between plants and hu-man health has been and continues to be ofgreat concern for humankind based on bothdiet and medicinal uses. In this article, wepresent and analyze images and associated textof an illustrated manuscript from the lateMiddle Ages, known as the Tacuinum Sani-tatis, that provides information on the interre-lationship of horticulture and health (Daunayet al., 2009; Janick et al., 2009; Paris et al.,2009). We further compare modern and me-dieval feelings about the role of horticulturalplants and health.

IBN BUTLAN AND MEDIEVALMEDICINE

The course of medieval medicine as itrelates to horticulture can be followed in thecareer of a Baghdad-born Nestorian Christianphysician and philosopher who died in 1068(Fig. 1). Ibn Butlan, full name Abu al-Hasan al-Mukhtar ibn al-Hasan ibn ‘Abdun Ibn Sa’dunibn Butlan, was born and educated in Baghdadbut traveled widely to localities that are todayin Iraq, Syria, Egypt, Israel, and Turkey(Elkhadem, 1990). In a fascinating footnote inthe history of medieval medicine, Ibn Butlan isremembered for a famous dispute with IbnRidwan, chief physician to the Caliph of Cairo,that delved around the question posed whether

a chicken is of a warmer nature than the chick.The issue concerned the philosophic questionof warmth and movement often discussed inAristotelian science as an exercise for expertsand a conundrum for students (Braziller andConrad, 1995). The controversy between theyoung, ambitious, and disputatious Ibn Butlanand the elder, temperamental, and mean-spirited Ibn Ridwan ended up as a bitter po-lemic. Ibn Ridwan took offense at anyonewho was not an Egyptian or did not strictlyadhere to classical orthodoxy. Ibn Butlan’sstrivings to make a name for himself in a newcity where egg production was an importantactivity turned into a disaster, resulting in a pro-fessional boycott. He left Cairo for Constanti-nople and ended his days in a cloister inAntioch.

Ibn Butlan, however, is best known for hiswork entitled the Taqwim al-Sihha bi al-Ashabal-Sitta (Rectifying Health by Six Causes),which became an influential treatise on hygieneand dietetics. The Taqwim was a synthesis ofthe long tradition of ancient Greek medicineand was essentially a guide for healthy living.It summarized in tabular form information onsome 280 health-related items, in particularfood and especially vegetables and fruits.Widely popular in the Arabic world, it stressedpreventive medicine. A French translation(Elkhadem, 1990) exists of the original Arabictext.

The Taqwim summarized informationconcerning food, and especially vegetablesand fruits, in a tabular form that was easy tounderstand and use. It emphasized that a bal-anced lifestyle was the prerequisite to preventdisorders and diseases. Ibn Butlan coordi-nated the doctrine of the six ‘‘non-naturals’’of Galen by detailing 280 health-related items,their names, their natures according to the four

elements, the degree, the best variety, theusefulness, the noxious effects and contrain-dications, the remedies to the noxiousness, thehumors produced, the proper temperaments,the season, the age, the country, the authoritiescited, and additional notes.

A Latin translation of the Taqwim commis-sioned by the Court of Sicily, and completed in1266, was to become known as the TacuinumSanitatis (Tables of Health). It was essentiallya medieval handbook on health and wellness.One hundred years later the first illuminatedcopies of the Tacuinum Sanitatis were commis-sioned by Giangaleazzo Visconti, the Count ofMilan in the Po Valley in northern Italy(Hoeniger, 2006), as expensive gift volumes.The lavishly illustrated volumes portray a uto-pian feudal society in which nobles are en-gaged in play and romance while feudallaborers work the estate (Bertiz, 2003; Bovey,2005; Cogliati Arano, 1976; Hoeniger, 2006;Mane, 2006; Opsomer-Halleux, 1991; SegreRutz, 2002; Witthoft, 1978). Rich in horticul-tural imagery, they include vivid scenes of theharvest of vegetables, fruits, flowers, andculinary and medicinal herbs. Each scene isaccompanied by a brief summary of the healthaspects of the subject that derives from theTaqwim of Ibn Butlan. These documentsconnect vegetables and fruits as well as thegarden itself with human health (Bertiz, 2003).Their advice was intended for the elite andintelligentsia of their epoch.

THE ILLUSTRATED TACUINUMSANITATIS MANSCRIPTS

A dozen Tacuinum Sanitatis manuscriptshave survived, of which six have full-pageillustrations (Table 1) and are consideredarchetypical (Paris et al., 2009). They are

Received for publication 14 July 2010. Acceptedfor publication 3 Sept. 2010.This paper was part of the workshop ‘‘Horticultureand Health: Historical Resources’’ held 26 July2009 at the ASHS Conference, St. Louis, MO, andsponsored by the History of Horticultural Science(HIST) Working Group.1To whom reprint requests should be addressed;email janick@purdue.edu.

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located in libraries in Austria, Belgium,France, Italy, and Spain. Four of them can beviewed online (http://mandragore.bnf.fr/html/accueil.html; http://bibliotheque.rouen.fr andhttp://www.casanatense.it) and a number offacsimile editions have been published. Thesesix copies provide a rich source of informationon agriculture and horticulture of the late me-dieval period containing vivid images of plantsbeing harvested in fields and gardens.

The images of the Tacuinum Sanitatisrecensions include some plants of the Taqwimsupplemented with those grown in northernItaly during the late 14th century. The plantimages depict harvest, emphasizing when thehorticultural product has reached the properstage for consumption. One manuscript (Cod.Ser. N. 2644) in the Osterreichische National-bibliothek contains the most accurate depic-tions and will be the source of most of the plantimages presented here. It includes 26 vegeta-bles, 33 fruits, three flowers, 21 culinary andmedicinal herbs, and one mushroom (truffles)in addition to nine cereals. Although botanicalinaccuracies and lack of detail obscure preciseidentification in some cases, the images—although in many cases idealized—are, overall,of far better quality than those of most medievalmanuscripts. In this article, we present illustra-tions of four vegetables, four fruits, and fourculinary herbs along with the associated healthinformation provided in the Latin text that isderived from the Taqwim.

VegetablesCucumber. Native to India, the first cu-

cumber reached Europe in the medieval period(Paris et al., 2009). In Figure 2A, a well-dressed couple examines yellow cylindricalfruit from a viney plant. Identification of theplant is based on the tuberculate (warty)surface of the fruit, a diagnostic feature ofcucumber. The bipartite label Cucumeres etcitruli can be traced back to Table 10, Line66 of the Taqwim, the Arabic being al-qitha(chate melon) wa (and) al-khiyar (cucumber),

indicating similarity of culinary use of thesetwo cucurbits. Although the illustration showsmature fruits that have turned yellow, the textadvises green ones as best to consume. Thetext indicates that these fruits reduce burningfevers as a result of their cold, moist nature,are diuretic, and produce watery blood butcause stomachaches.

Eggplant. Domesticated in the Indo-Burma area, eggplant has been an importantcrop in India as early as the third century BCE

and has also an important place in Ayurvedicmedicine (Daunay and Janick, 2007). It was

domesticated in China by the first centuryBCE (Wang et al., 2008) and reached Europe inthe medieval period (Daunay and Janick,2007). In Figure 2B, a dramatic scene labeledMelongiana displays a fondling, amorous cou-ple embracing in front of a row of eggplantswhile being severely admonished by an ele-gantly gowned lady. The illustration clearlysuggests that eggplant had aphrodisiac prop-erties. The plants bear a prolific crop of glob-ular, purple fruits that appear similar to thepresent-day ‘Black Beauty’ market type. Theundulate leaf laminae are depicted accurately,

Fig. 1. Ibn Butlan from the Vienna TacuinumSanitatis folio 4r.

Table 1. The six archetypical manuscripts of the Tacuinum Sanitatis.

Text reference Catalog no. Depository Datez

Paris 1673 Nouv. Acq. Lat. 1673 Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris 1380–1390Liege 1041 Ms. 1041 Bibliotheque de l’Universite de Liege 1380–1400Vienna 2644 Cod. Ser. N. 2644 Osterreichische Nationalbibliothek, Vienna 1390–1400Rome 4182 Ms. 4182 Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome 1390–1400Paris 9333 Latin 9333 Bibliotheque Nationale de France, Paris 1445–1451Rouen 3054 and

Liechtensteiny

Ms. 3054 (Leber 1088) Bibliotheque municipale, Rouen, andprivate collection

1450

zDates are according to Bovey (2005), Cogliati Arano (1976), Hoeniger (2006), Opsomer-Halleux (1991),and/or Segre Rutz (2002), and/or respective depository catalogs.yThe Rouen 3054 and Liechtenstein manuscripts are actually two parts of the same Tacuinum manuscriptseparated from one another in the 19th century (Bertiz, 2003; Bovey, 2005).

Fig. 2. Vegetables from the Vienna Tacuinum Sanitatis: (A) cucumber (Cucumis sativus) folio 23v; (B)eggplant/aubergine (Solanum melongena) folio 31v; (C) onion (Allium cepa) folio 25v; (D) chickpea(Cicer arietinum) folio 49r.

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but the attractive purple flowers are absent. IbnButlan wrote that the young, non-bitter, me-dium-sized Persian fruits are best and arebeneficial to blood vessels and for stomachweakness (Elkhadem, 1990).

Onion. Native to western Asia, onionswere known in Egypt as early as 3200 BCE

and were considered medicinal plants in Indiain the sixth century BCE (Simmonds, 1976).In Figure 2C, a laborer standing in a field ofonions with one hand outstretched expectingpayment offers a bunch of white bulbs to amiddle-aged lady whose head is covered, sug-gesting she is married, and who already holdsa bunch of purple bulbs. The illustration islabeled Cepe. The onions are neatly planted inrows in a garden that also contains two trees,one of which is a cherry. The text informs thatonions were considered to be a diuretic, sharpeneyesight, promote coitus, generate milk innursing mothers and semen in men, but causeheadaches.

Chickpea. Native to western Asia, pro-genitors of the present-day chickpea have beenknown in India from 2000 BCE (Simmonds,1976). Chickpea is now a traditional drylandcrop in the Mideast. In Figure 2D a well-dressed woman in a red gown protected by anapron is sampling pods in preparation for har-vesting to a basket in the foreground. The cropappears spaced and planted. The text indicatesthat chickpeas are warm and humid to the firstdegree and the best are large-seeded. Chick-peas were supposed to increase sperm but to benoxious for the kidney and bladder.

FruitsGrape. Old Word species of Vitis are

indigenous to the south Caspian belt, Turkey,and the Balkans and were widely distributed tothe Mediterranean basin (Janick, 2005) andwere very early used to make wine. Grape isillustrated three times in this Tacuinum man-uscript either listed as Uve, or for the produc-tion of verjuice (juice of immature grapes usedin ancient and medieval cuisine), or as a symbolof fall, the time of wine-making. Dependingon the images, the vines grow on trees or aretrellised and bear black, purple, light red, or goldgrapes. In Figure 3A, a man in red tights isgetting ready to cut a cluster of purple grapeswith a knife while a young woman in an apronedblue dress has just handed a basket of har-vested grapes to a third man in a large barrelwho is stomping them to extract their juicebeing collected in a wooden container belowthat will be used to prepare wine. Grapes wereconsidered to cause thirst and cleanse theintestine.

Apple. The large, sweet-smelling domesticapple originated in Kazakhstan, migrated toEurope in antiquity, and was widely plantedin the Roman era (Janick, 2005). In Figure 3B,labeled mala acetosa (sour apple), a courtierbrings down large apples with a stick while anelegant lady carrying a basket watches inamazement. The best sour apples are veryjuicy, alleviate fainting and hepatitis but ad-versely affect joint articulation. Sweet apple(mala dulcis), shown in another illustration,strengthens the heart.

Cherry. The origin of sweet and tartcherries is central Europe and areas surround-ing the Black Sea with sweet cherries occur-ring as far east as central Russia (Janick,2005). In Figure 3C, tart cherries, labeledcerosa acetosa, are being harvested by a childwho has climbed into the tree. A well-dressedlady opens her gown to catch fallen fruits andanother elegant lady carries off two full bas-kets balanced on a pole. The very sour oneswere considered best. The fruits were consid-ered to cure bilious attack and dry out andsettle upset stomachs. Cerosa dulcia, sweetcherry, which softens the stomach, is dis-played in a separate image.

Fig. The common fig is a classic fruit ofMediterranean climates, and signs of cultiva-tion are found in Neolithic sites (Zohary andSpiegel-Roy, 1975). Native to western Asia,figs were early introduced to India, where theyhave become a major fruit. In Figure 3D,a couple harvest figs; the young man in thetree throws down fruit to a lady companion ina red gown who catches the fruit in her skirt asshe daringly shows her white-stockinged legs.

The text indicates that figs are warm andhumid in the second degree and that white-peeled kinds are optimum; figs cleanse thekidneys but inflate and fatten.

HerbsSage. This aromatic spice is found orig-

inating in southern Europe and Asia Minor(Simon et al., 1984). In Figure 4A, two well-dressed ladies are shown picking a plantlabeled Salvia growing in an enormous bas-ket. Domestic sage was considered best andwas good for paralysis and for the nerves,although slow to be digested.

Marjoram. This is a spice originating innorthern Africa and southwestern Asia (Simonet al., 1984). Two elegantly gowned womentend marjoram (Marjorana) growing in a vaseresting on a bench (Fig. 4B). Very small,aromatic marjoram was considered optimum,good for cold and moist stomachs, and to purifythe blood. No noxious effects are described.

Dill. Native to southwestern Asia andIndia (Brickell and Cathey, 2008), this herbis well known in Ayurvedic medicine. The

Fig. 3. Fruits from the Vienna Tacuinum Sanitatis: (A) grape (Vitis vinifera) folio 85r; (B) apple (Malus·domestica) folio 9r; (C) tart cherry (Prunus cerasus) folio 12r; (D) fig (Ficus carica) folio 4v.

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image in Figure 4C, labeled Aneti, showsa woman and a child harvesting dill in a weedysetting. The herb was considered best whengreen, fresh, and tender and was recommen-ded for cold and flatulent stomachs, but washarmful to the kidneys and nausea-provoking.

Saffron. The saffron crocus, an ancientperennial herb, is known only in cultivation(Simon et al., 1984). Originating in south-western Asia and perhaps native to Crete, thesaffron crocus has long been cultivated inIndia. It is one of the most expensive spiceson a weight basis; it takes 210,000 stigmasfrom 70,000 flowers to make 1 lb of truesaffron. The dried red three-branched stigmasare used in cooking as a colorant and season-ing. In Figure 4D a blue-gowned womancarrying a basket harvests flowers from saf-fron crocus (Crochus) neatly planted in rows.The text advises that saffron is hot in thesecond degree and dry in the first degree. Thebest is freshly cut, strong in color, and witha delicate scent. Saffron helps hearing butmay induce vomiting.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The familiar 16 horticultural crops illus-trated in the Tacuinum manuscripts have littlechanged in their appearance over the centu-ries. The garden scenes resemble traditionalhorticulture practiced today in many parts ofthe world. Vegetables are shown harvested ingardens and fields from dense plantings,whereas fruit trees are pictured alone, sug-gesting that large orchards were uncommon.Aromatics such as sage and marjoram aregenerally depicted as growing in tendedconditions (beds or pots), indicating thatthese plants were prized, whereas dill andsaffron are shown in plantings. Peasants andfeudal laborers are frequently pictured withthe root and leafy vegetables, which weretheir basic food (Mane, 2006). Conversely,courtiers and nobles are more frequentlyfound next to fruit vegetables such as cucur-bits and eggplant, of relatively recent in-troduction in Europe (Daunay et al., 2008;Paris et al., 2009), which were probably

considered fit for the elite. The upper classis also pictured next to fruit trees, producereserved for the privileged (Mane, 2006). Themedieval idea that the garden was a placefor healing, relaxing, and physical and mentalwell-being was a premonition of modernhorticultural therapy. Interestingly, all ofthe horticultural crops presented in the illus-trated Tacuinum manuscripts were allocatedphysiological effects on the body and werefully part of the Western medieval pharma-copeia. Clearly, then as now, the populationwas concerned with general health and bodilyfunctions, including flatulence, incontinence,and kidney stones, ill health, and sexuality.The brief text that accompanies each illus-tration in the Tacuinum provides informationfor balancing the beneficial and noxiouseffects of each plant.

Although the basis of modern medicinehas completely changed from the ancientEuropean and Asian philosophical conceptsthat date to antiquity, our attitudes toward ourcommon horticultural crops are amazinglythe same. All cultures, ancient, medieval, andmodern, have come to the conclusion thathorticulture is basic to a healthy life. How-ever, modern knowledge of medicine andnutrition has changed our understanding offood through advances in biology, chemistry,and genetics and we now view foods in termsof calories, vitamins, antioxidants, polyphe-nols, anthocyanins, polysaccharides, proteins,and lipids (Goldman, 2003). However, it doesappear as if all the analyses, ancient andmodern, come to the same result: the horti-cultural crops we eat are sustaining, nutri-tious, healthy, and delicious. Although weno longer evaluate them on the basis of hot,cold, wet, or dry, or the effect on the ‘‘humors,’’some of the ancient feelings still persist. Westill say colloquially ‘‘cool as a cucumber,’’we refer to pungent chili peppers as ‘‘hot,’’ weassociate spicy foods with passionate temper-aments, and consider aroma and fragrance toaffect our well-being. The classic cures ofbloodletting and induced vomiting have beendiscarded, but purging is still being promotedby some under the guise of ‘‘clean colon.’’ Attimes it may seem, as we investigate thehealthful attributes of our food through chem-istry, that we merely seek accreditation forour preferences. Although we smile indul-gently at some extravagant claims of theancients, it appears that in a number of casestheir experience was prescient. For example,it turns out that horseradish does have a factorthat affects urinary health (Shehata et al.,2008), and we have confirmed the health-giving properties of the alliums (Desjardins,2008) and crucifers (Monteiro and Rosa,2008). Although not generally stated, somehorticultural crops need to be consideredcarefully for detrimental effects as in the caseof allergies (5% of the population is allergicto apples), excessive soluble fibers (such aspersimmon), and toxic substances such assolanine in potato.

It is clear that the present-day emphasison the connection between horticulture andhealth is an extension of ancient and medieval

Fig. 4. Culinary herbs from the Vienna Tacuinum Sanitatis: (A) sage (Salvia officinalis) folio 37v; (B)marjoram (Origanum marjorana) folio 33v; (C) dill (Anethum graveolens) folio 32r; (D) saffron(Crocus sativus) folio 40v.

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concerns. We suggest that our present un-derstanding of nutrition will probably be con-sidered naıve in the coming centuries andit may be that the approach for attributinghealth benefits to horticultural crops willlikely be different from the present one. Wepredict, however, that the conclusions will besimilar: horticultural crops are important forgood health!

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