holt, rinehart and winston p sychology principles in practice 1 chapter 2 psychological methods...
TRANSCRIPT
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
1
Chapter 2PSYCHOLOGICAL METHODS
Section 1: Conducting Research
Section 2: Surveys, Samples, and Populations
Section 3: Methods of Observation
Section 4: The Experimental Method
Section 5: Ethical Issues
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
2
Chapter 2Chapter 2
Question: What steps do scientists follow in conducting scientific research?
STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Form a question (posing a question based on
experience, psychological theory or common knowledge)
Form a hypothesis (making an educated guess) Test the hypothesis (examining the evidence
through any of a variety of means)
Section 1: Conducting Research
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
3
Chapter 2Chapter 2
Question: What steps do scientists follow in conducting scientific research?
Analyze Results (looking for patterns or relationships in the evidence)
Draw a conclusion (determining whether the findings support the hypothesis and adjusting it if they do not)
Section 1: Conducting Research
STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH (continued)
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
4
Chapter 2Chapter 2
Question: Why are proper sampling techniques important?
IMPORTANCE OF PROPER SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Samples must be selected scientifically to ensure that the samples accurately represent the populations they are supposed to represent
Section 2: Surveys, Samples, and Populations
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Surveys
survey – people are asked to respond to a series of questions about a particular subject two methods:
1) fill out questionnaire or 2) interview
Not always accurate. Why?
5
Chapter 2Chapter 2
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Population & Samples Target Population – whole group you want to study or describe
Sample – only part of a target population
Select a sample – as similar to target as possible random – chance from target
E.g. selecting every 10th person from the phone book
stratified- subgroups are represented proportionally in comparison to the population
E.g. 2.5% of British are of Indian origin, so 2.5% of your sample should be of Indian origin… and so on
6
Chapter 2Chapter 2
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Volunteer Bias
A predisposition to a certain point of view• People who volunteer to participate in studies
often have a different outlook from people who do not and can skew the results• More willing to disclose personal info.• More spare time
7
Chapter 2Chapter 2
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
8
Chapter 2Chapter 2
Question: What are the various methods of observation, and how is correlation used in analyzing results?
METHODS OF OBSERVATION Testing Method – several types of tests
measure various elements of human behavior such as abilities, interests, and personality It is convenient but doesn’t always provide a
complete representation of a person’s true abilities or personality.
Section 3: Methods of Observation
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
9
Chapter 2Chapter 2
Longitudinal Method – a group of participants are observed at intervals over an extended period of time – same people/person
The pitfall of this method is that it is time consuming, expensive, risky because participants may not stay available
Section 3: Methods of Observation
METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued)
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Cross-Sectional Method – researchers compare the differences and similarities among people in different age groups at a given time
This is a less expensive/time consuming way to study questions that may be studied longitudinally, however, it is less reliable than longitudinal studies.
10
Chapter 2Chapter 2
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued)
Case-study Method – researchers conduct in-depth investigations of individuals or small groups, providing insight interview others who know them observe or speak with person find out about their backgrounds
PITFALLS – memory lapses, lie to impress, try to fulfill researchers expectations
11
Chapter 2Chapter 2
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
12
Chapter 2Chapter 2
Naturalistic-Observation Method – researchers observe the behavior of people or animals in their natural habitats – psychologists don’t interfere with the organisms
they are observing **Jane Goodall**She is responsible for findings in the science of
Evolutionary Psychology PITFALLS – people may become angry/defensive
if they feel they are being watched
Section 3: Methods of Observation
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
METHODS OF OBSERVATION (continued)
Laboratory-Observation Method – participants are observed in a laboratory setting, enabling researchers to precisely control certain aspects of the study. PITFALLS – can’t duplicate real life situations
13
Chapter 2Chapter 2
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
14
Chapter 2Chapter 2
CORRELATION Correlation measures how closely one thing is
related to another (not cause & effect) positive – between IQ and grades / both sets of data are
increasing or decreasing / as IQ increases, grades increase OR as IQ decreases, grades decrease
negative – as one set of data decreases, the other increases - between number of hours practicing tennis & dbl faults, as hours of practice increases, the number of dbl faults decrease
no correlation – after plotting there is relationship
Section 3: Methods of Observation
Analyzing Observations
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
15
Chapter 2Chapter 2
Question: What are the purposes and elements of experiments?
PURPOSES AND ELEMENTS OF EXPERIMENTS
Researchers conduct experiments to learn about cause and effect.
Elements of experiments include independent and dependent variables, experimental and control groups, and the placebo effect.
Section 4: The Experimental Method
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
QUESTION: Suppose the hypothesis is that warm temperatures cause aggression in humans
A variable is a factor that can change or vary
An independent variable is the factor that researchers can manipulate
So what in this “question” is the variable?
16
Chapter 2Chapter 2
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
The dependent variable is a factor that is dependent on something; what is measured.
So what is the dependent variable?
17
Chapter 2Chapter 2
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Controlled experiments – use both control & experimental groups
The experimental group are the participants in the experiment that receive the treatment
What is the treatment?
The control group are the participants that do NOT receive any treatment.
Who is included in that group?
18
Chapter 2Chapter 2
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
Steps experimenters take to avoid bias.
Placebos – administering placebos to a group within the study to eliminate the results being caused by an unknown factor
Single Blind Study – helps to eliminate expectation that the treatment will work
Double Blind Study – helps to keep those who are recording results from being influenced or biased
19
Chapter 2Chapter 2
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
20
Chapter 2Chapter 2
Question: How are ethical issues involved in psychological research?
ETHICAL ISSUES AND RESEARCH Protect study participants from harm Maintain the scientific integrity of the study Promote the dignity of the individual Foster human welfare Confidentiality Informed Consent
Section 5: Ethical Issues
HOLT, RINEHART AND WINSTON
PPSYCHOLOGYSYCHOLOGY PRINCIPLES IN PRACTICE
21
Chapter 2Chapter 2
Question:
How are research questions formed?
Sources for Research Questions
Daily Experience
Psychological Theory
Folklore and Common
Knowledge