holt mcdougal physics: teacherâ€™s edition 2012

Teacher Edition
Serway • Faughn
H O LT M c D O U G A L
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Teacher Edition New 4-Step Instructional Model
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Why It Matters Velocity and acceleration are involved in many aspects of everyday life, from riding a bicycle to driving a car to traveling on a high-speed train. The denitions and equations you will study in this chapter allow you to make predictions about these aspects of motion, given certain initial conditions.
Motion in One Dimension
Acceleration SECTION 3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
x
xfxi
ac e
Fr on
tie rs
/T ax
i/G et
ty Im
ag es
If an object is at rest (not moving), its position does not change with respect to a fixed frame of reference. For example, the benches on the platform of one subway station never move down the tracks to another station.
In physics, any frame of reference can be chosen as long as it is used consistently. If you are consistent, you will get the same results, no matter which frame of reference you choose. But some frames of reference can make explaining things easier than other frames of reference.
For example, when considering the motion of the gecko in Figure 1.2, it is useful to imagine a stick marked in centimeters placed under the gecko’s feet to define the frame of reference. The measuring stick serves as an x-axis. You can use it to identify the gecko’s initial position and its final position.
Displacement As any object moves from one position to another, the length of the straight line drawn from its initial position to the object’s final position is called the displacement of the object.
Displacement is a change in position. The gecko in Figure 1.2 moves from left to right along the x-axis from an initial position, xi , to a final position, xf . The gecko’s displacement is the difference between its final and initial coordinates, or xf − xi . In this case, the displacement is about 61 cm (85 cm − 24 cm). The Greek letter delta () before the x denotes a change in the position of an object.
Displacement x = xf − xi
displacement = change in position = final position − initial position
Measuring Displacement A gecko moving along the x-axis from xi to xf undergoes a displacement of x = xf − xi.
FIGURE 1.2
Space Shuttle A space shuttle takes off from Florida and circles Earth several times, finally landing in California. While the shuttle is in flight, a photographer flies from Florida to California to take pictures of the astronauts when they step off the shuttle. Who undergoes the greater displacement, the photographer or the astronauts?
Roundtrip What is the difference be tween the displacement of the photographer flying from Florida to California and the displacement of the astronauts flying from California back to Florida?
displacement the change in position of an object
Tips and Tricks When calculating displacement, always be sure to subtract the initial position from the final position so that your answer has the correct sign.
Motion in One Dimension 37
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Key Terms Chapter vocabulary
section.
Improved Readability Increased font size, updated style, and wider paragraph spacing make reading easier.
The Standard by which all Physics programs are compared
Online Labs Relevant labs are referenced at the
beginning of every chapter. Labs can also be accessed through the online
program at HMDScience.com.
Figure Titles Textbook figures now have titles for improved clarity and purpose.
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:
Velocity is not the same as speed. In everyday language, the terms speed and velocity are used interchange- ably. In physics, however, there is an important distinction between these two terms. As we have seen, velocity describes motion with both a direction and a numerical value (a magnitude) indicating how fast something moves. However, speed has no direction, only magnitude. An object’s average speed is equal to the distance traveled divided by the time interval for the motion.
average speed = distance traveled __ time of travel
Velocity can be interpreted graphically. e velocity of an object can be determined if the object’s position is known at specic times along its path. One way to determine this is to make a graph of the motion. Figure 1.6 represents such a graph. Notice that time is plotted on the horizontal axis and position is plotted on the vertical axis.
e object moves 4.0 m in the time interval between t = 0 s and t = 4.0 s. Likewise, the object moves an additional 4.0 m in the time interval between t = 4.0 s and t = 8.0 s. From these data, we see that the average velocity for each of these time intervals is +1.0 m/s (because vavg = x/t = 4.0 m/4.0 s). Because the average velocity does not change, the object is moving with a constant velocity of +1.0 m/s, and its motion is represented by a straight line on the position-time graph.
For any position-time graph, we can also determine the average velocity by drawing a straight line between any two points on the graph. e slope of this line indicates the average velocity between the positions and times represented by these points. To better understand this concept, compare the equation for the slope of the line with the equation for the average velocity.
Slope of a Line Average Velocity
slope = rise _ run = change in vertical coordinates
____ change in horizontal coordinates
= xf - xi
_ tf - ti
Book on a Table A book is moved once around the edge of a tabletop with dimensions 1.75 m × 2.25 m. If the book ends up at its initial position, what is its displacement? If it completes its motion in 23 s, what is its average velocity? What is its average speed?
Travel Car A travels from New York to Miami at a speed of 25 m/s. Car B travels from New York to Chicago, also at a speed of 25 m/s. Are the velocities of the cars equal? Explain.
Position-Time Graph The motion of an object moving with constant velocity will provide a straight-line graph of position versus time. The slope of this graph indicates the velocity.
FIGURE 1.6
Velocity Versus Speed
PH_CNL12ESE_SEC_ASP 41 3/29/11 8:07:44 AM
Final Velocity After Any Displacement
Sample Problem E A person pushing a stroller starts from rest, uniformly accelerating at a rate of 0.500 m/s2. What is the velocity of the stroller after it has traveled 4.75 m?
ANALYZE Given: vi = 0 m/s
a = 0.500 m/s2
x = 4.75 m
PH99PE 002-002-010 A
Choose a coordinate system. e most convenient one has an origin at the initial location of the stroller. e positive direction is to the right.
PLAN Choose an equation or situation: Because the initial velocity, acceleration, and displacement are known, the nal velocity can be found by using the following equation:
vf 2 = vi
2 + 2ax
Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown: Take the square root of both sides to isolate vf .
vf = ± √ (vi )
vf = ± √ (0 m/s)2 + 2(0.500 m/s2)(4.75 m)
vf = +2.18 m/s
CHECK YOUR WORK
e stroller’s velocity after accelerating for 4.75 m is 2.18 m/s to the right.
Continued
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SmartTutor HMDScience.com
Tips and Tricks Think about the physical situation to determine whether to keep the positive or negative answer from the square root. In this case, the stroller is speeding up because it starts from rest and ends with a speed of 2.18 m/s. An object that is speeding up and has a positive acceleration must have a positive velocity, as shown in Figure 2.3. So, the final velocity must be positive.
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Summary SECTION 1 Displacement and Velocity KEY TERMS
Displacement is a change of position in a certain direction, not the total • distance traveled.
The average velocity of an object during some time interval is equal to the • displacement of the object divided by the time interval. Like displacement, velocity has both a magnitude (called speed) and a direction.
The average velocity is equal to the slope of the straight line connecting the • initial and nal points on a graph of the position of the object versus time.
frame of reference
SECTION 2 Acceleration KEY TERMS
The average acceleration of an object during a certain time interval is equal • to the change in the object’s velocity divided by the time interval. Acceleration has both magnitude and direction.
The direction of the acceleration is not always the same as the direction of • the velocity. The direction of the acceleration depends on the direction of the motion and on whether the velocity is increasing or decreasing.
The average acceleration is equal to the slope of the straight line • connecting the initial and nal points on the graph of the velocity of the object versus time.
The equations in • Figure 2.6 are valid whenever acceleration is constant.
acceleration
SECTION 3 Falling Objects KEY TERMS
An object thrown or dropped in the presence of Earth’s gravity experiences a • constant acceleration directed toward the center of Earth. This acceleration is called the free-fall acceleration, or the acceleration due to gravity.
Free-fall acceleration is the same for all objects, regardless of mass.•
The value for free-fall acceleration on Earth’s surface used in this book • is ag = −g = −9.81 m/s2. The direction of the free-fall acceleration is considered to be negative because the object accelerates toward Earth.
free fall
VARIABLE SYMBOLS
Quantities Units
v velocity m/s meters per second
a acceleration m/s2 meters per second2
Problem Solving See Appendix D: Equations for a summary of the equations introduced in this chapter. If you need more problem-solving practice, see Appendix I: Additional Problems.
69Chapter Summary
CHAPTER 2
Reference line
r O
Light bulb
TAKE IT FURTHER
Angular Kinematics A point on an object that rotates about a fixed axis undergoes circular motion around that axis. The linear quantities introduced previously cannot be used for circular motion because we are considering the rotational motion of an extended object rather than the linear motion of a particle. For this reason, circular motion is described in terms of the change in angular position. All points on a rigid rotating object, except the points on the axis, move through the same angle during any time interval.
Measuring Angles with Radians Many of the equations that describe circular motion require that angles be measured in radians (rad) rather than in degrees. To see how radians are measured, consider Figure 1, which illustrates a light bulb on a rotating Ferris wheel. At t = 0, the bulb is on a xed reference line, as shown in Figure 1(a). After a time interval t, the bulb advances to a new position, as shown in Figure 1(b). In this time interval, the line from the center to the bulb (depicted with a red line in both diagrams) moved through the angle θ with respect to the reference line. Likewise, the bulb moved a distance s, measured along the circumference of the circle; s is the arc length.
In general, any angle θ measured in radians is defined by the following equation:
θ = arc length
= s _ r
Note that if the arc length, s, is equal to the length of the radius, r, the angle θ swept by r is equal to 1 rad. Because θ is the ratio of an arc length (a distance) to the length of the radius (also a distance), the units cancel and the abbreviation rad is substituted in their place. In other words, the radian is a pure number, with no dimensions.
When the bulb on the Ferris wheel moves through an angle of 360° (one revolution of the wheel), the arc length s is equal to the circumference of the circle, or 2πr. Substituting this value for s into the equation above gives the corresponding angle in radians.
θ = s _ r = 2πr _ r = 2π rad
Circular Motion A light bulb on a rotating Ferris wheel (a) begins at a point along a reference line and (b) moves through an arc length s and therefore through the angle θ.
Angular Motion Angular motion is measured in units of radians. Because there are 2π radians in a full circle, radians are often expressed as a multiple of π.
FIGURE 2
FIGURE 1
Chapter 262
Mirror
C02-EDG-001a-A
Special Relativity and Time Dilation
While learning about kinematics, you worked with equations that describe motion in terms of a time interval (t). Before Einstein developed the special theory of relativity, everyone assumed that t must be the same for any observer, whether that observer is at rest or in motion with respect to the event being measured. is idea is often expressed by the statement that time is absolute.
The Relativity of Time In 1905, Einstein challenged the assumption that time is absolute in a paper titled “e Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” which contained his special theory of relativity. e special theory of relativity applies to
observers and events that are moving with constant velocity (in uniform motion) with respect to one another. One of the consequences of this theory is that t does depend on the observer’s motion.
Consider a passenger in a train that is moving uniformly with respect to an observer standing beside the track, as shown in Figure 1. e passenger on the train shines a pulse of light toward a mirror directly above him and measures the amount of time it takes for the pulse to return. Because the passenger is moving along with the train, he sees the pulse of light travel directly up and then directly back down, as in Figure 1(a). e observer beside the track, however, sees the pulse hit the mirror at an angle, as in Figure 1(b), because the train is moving with respect to the track. us, the distance the light travels according to the observer is greater than the distance the light travels from the perspective of the passenger.
One of the postulates of Einstein’s theory of relativity, which follows from James Clerk Maxwell’s equations about light waves, is that the speed of light is the same for any observer, even when there is motion between the source of light and the observer. Light is dierent from all other phenomena in this respect. Although this postulate seems counterintuitive, it was strongly supported by an experiment performed in 1851 by Armand Fizeau. But if the speed of light is the same for both the passenger on the train and the
(a) A passenger on a train sends a pulse of light towards a mirror directly above.
(b) Relative to a stationary observer beside the track, the distance the light travels is greater than that measured by the passenger.
FIGURE 1
Chapter 266
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coNNEcTING To HIsToRy
The motion of objects has challenged scientists for millennia; early Greek philosophers such as Aristotle studied kinematics in the 4th century B.C. The ancient view of the universe may seem alien to us. Aristotle believed that there were five elements: four terrestrial (earth, water, air, and fire) and one heavenly (the quintessence). The motion of the terrestrial elements was always in straight lines, but the motion of the quintessence was circular. Aristotle posited
that each element had its natural place in the universe. Objects could be displaced from their natural place through violent motion, but would return to their natural space through natural motion. Throwing a rock into the air would be an example of violent motion on its way up, but natural motion would cause the rock to return to its natural place. These qualitative rules often sufficed, but scientists began to question Aristotle’s theories around 1350, when a group of philosophers began to analyze motion
quantitatively. Their analyses of acceleration and average speed questioned Aristotle’s simplified notions of motion and would inform Galileo’s work.
After briefly explaining this history to students, ask them to speculate about the kind of observations that may have caused scientists to question Aristotle’s ideas. How might they have analyzed this motion quantitatively in the 14th century?
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1 Assess
3 Reassess
2 Prescribe
Final Velocity After Any Displacement
Sample Problem E A person pushing a stroller starts from rest, uniformly accelerating at a rate of 0.500 m/s2. What is the velocity of the stroller after it has traveled 4.75 m?
ANALYZE Given: vi = 0 m/s
a = 0.500 m/s2
x = 4.75 m
PH99PE 002-002-010 A
Choose a coordinate system. The most convenient one has an origin at the initial location of the stroller. The positive direction is to the right.
PLAN Choose an equation or situation: Because the initial velocity, acceleration, and displacement are known, the final velocity can be found by using the following equation:
vf 2 = vi
2 + 2ax
Rearrange the equation to isolate the unknown: Take the square root of both sides to isolate vf .
vf = ± √ (vi )
vf = ± √ (0 m/s)2 + 2(0.500 m/s2)(4.75 m)
vf = +2.18 m/s
CHECK YOUR WORK
The stroller’s velocity after accelerating for 4.75 m is 2.18 m/s to the right.
Continued
+ x
Tips and Tricks Think about the physical situation to determine whether to keep the positive or negative answer from the square root. In this case, the stroller is speeding up because it starts from rest and ends with a speed of 2.18 m/s. An object that is speeding up and has a positive acceleration must have a positive velocity, as shown in Figure 2.3. So, the final velocity must be positive.
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Revised Sample Problems Major improvements have been made to the textbook sample problems to help boost student understanding. These include highlighting unknown variables, improved step references, and more.
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Pacing Guide Today’s physics classroom often requires a more flexible curriculum. Holt McDougal Physics can help you meet a variety of needs and challenges you and your students face in the classroom. The Pacing Guide below shows a number of ways to adapt the program to your teaching schedule.
This Guide can be further adapted, allowing you to mix and match or compress the material so you can spend more time on select topics, or to allow for special projects and activities.
• Basic gives more time for the foundations of physics, especially mathematical problem-solving, with less emphasis on some advanced topics introduced later in the course.
• General provides the recommended course of study as indicated in the Teacher’s Edition, found in the individual chapter guides preceding each chapter.
• Advanced moves quickly through foundations of physics for students who may be comfortable with the basics, to provide additional time for advanced topics.
• Heavy Lab/Activity indicates ways to streamline “lecture” time to provide hands-on experience for more than a third of the blocks in the school year. (Note: Even this approach does not cover all of the labs and activities that are avail able online with Holt McDougal Physics.)
Numbers indicate class periods recommended for the material within each chapter. Basic General advanced Heavy laB/ activity
CHAPTER 1 The Science of Physics 10 8 6 8 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1
Section 1.1 What Is Physics? 1 1 1 1 Section 1.2 Measurements in Experiments 3 2 2 2 Section 1.3 The Language of Physics 2 1 1 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 1 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1
CHAPTER 2 Motion in One Dimension 11 8 7 8 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1
Section 2.1 Displacement and Velocity 2 1 1 1 Section 2.2 Acceleration 3 2 3 2 Section 2.3 Falling Objects 2 1 1 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 1 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1
CHAPTER 3 Two-Dimensional Motion and Vectors 10 9 9 9 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1
Section 3.1 Introduction to Vectors 2 1 1 1 Section 3.2 Vector Operations 2 1 2 1 Section 3.3 Projectile Motion 2 2 2 2 Section 3.4 Relative Motion 0 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 1 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1
CHAPTER 4 Forces and the Laws of Motion 11 8 7 8 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1
Section 4.1 Changes in Motion 2 1 1 1 Section 4.2 Newton’s First Law 2 1 1 1 Section 4.3 Newton’s Second and Third Laws 2 1 1 1 Section 4.4 Everyday Forces 1 1 1 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 2 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1
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CHAPTER 5 Work and Energy 13 9 8 9 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1
Section 5.1 Work 2 1 1 1
Section 5.2 Energy 3 2 2 2 Section 5.3 Conservation of Energy 2 1 2 1 Section 5.4 Power 2 1 1 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 1 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1
CHAPTER 6 Momentum and Collisions 9 8 8 7 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1
Section 6.1 Momentum and Impulse 3 2 2 2 Section 6.2 Conservation of Momentum 2 1 2 1 Section 6.3 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 0 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 1 1 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1
CHAPTER 7 Circular Motion and Gravitation 8 8 8 9 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1
Section 7.1 Circular Motion 2 1 2 1 Section 7.2 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 2 1 1 1 Section 7.3 Motion in Space 1 1 1 2 Section 7.4 Torque and Simple Machines 0 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 0 1 1 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1
CHAPTER 8 Fluid Mechanics 0 6 7 5 Chapter Intro 0 1 0 1
Section 8.1 Fluids and Buoyant Force 0 1 2 1 Section 8.2 Fluid Pressure 0 1 2 1 Section 8.3 Fluids in Motion 0 1 2 1 Chapter Review and Assessment 0 2 1 1
CHAPTER 9 Heat 7 8 7 9 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1
Section 9.1 Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium 3 2 2 2 Section 9.2 Defining Heat 1 1 1 2 Section 9.3 Changes in Temperature and Phase 0 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 0 1 1 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1
CHAPTER 10 Thermodynamics 5 6 7 5 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1
Section 10.1 Relationships Between Heat and Work 2 1 2 1 Section 10.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics 0 1 2 1 Section 10.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 0 1 2 1 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1
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CHAPTER 11 Vibrations and Waves 12 9 10 9 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1 Section 11.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 2 1 1 1 Section 11.2 Measuring Simple Harmonic Motion 2 1 2 1 Section 11.3 Properties of Waves 3 2 3 2 Section 11.4 Wave Interactions 1 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 1 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1 CHAPTER 12 Sound 7 7 7 8 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1 Section 12.1 Sound Waves 2 1 1 1 Section 12.2 Sound Intensity and Resonance 1 1 2 1 Section 12.3 Harmonics 0 1 2 2 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 1 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1 CHAPTER 13 Light and Reflection 12 9 9 10 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1 Section 13.1 Characteristics of Light 2 1 1 1 Section 13.2 Flat Mirrors 2 1 1 1 Section 13.3 Curved Mirrors 3 2 2 3 Section 13.4 Color and Polarization 1 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 2 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1 CHAPTER 14 Refraction 9 8 8 9 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1 Section 14.1 Refraction 2 1 1 1 Section 14.2 Thin Lenses 3 2 2 3 Section 14.3 Optical Phenomena 0 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 2 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1 CHAPTER 15 Interference and Diffraction 7 8 8 7 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1 Section 15.1 Interference 1 1 2 1 Section 15.2 Diffraction 2 2 2 2 Section 15.3 Lasers 0 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 1 1 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1 CHAPTER 16 Electric Forces and Fields 8 8 7 8 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1 Section 16.1 Electric Charge 2 1 1 1 Section 16.2 Electric Force 2 2 2 2 Section 16.3 The Electric Field 0 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 1 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1
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CHAPTER 17 Electrical Energy and Current 12 9 9 9 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1 Section 17.1 Electric Potential 2 1 2 1 Section 17.2 Capacitance 1 1 1 1 Section 17.3 Current and Resistance 3 2 3 2 Section 17.4 Electric Power 2 1 1 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 1 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1 CHAPTER 18 Circuits and Circuit Elements 9 8 8 9 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1 Section 18.1 Schematic Diagrams and Circuits 2 1 1 2 Section 18.2 Resistors in Series or in Parallel 3 2 2 2 Section 18.3 Complex Resistor Combinations 0 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 2 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1 CHAPTER 19 Magnetism 9 8 8 8 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1 Section 19.1 Magnets and Magnetic Fields 2 1 1 1 Section 19.2 Magnetism from Electricity 1 1 2 1 Section 19.3 Magnetic Force 2 2 2 2 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 2 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1 CHAPTER 20 Electromagnetic Induction 7 9 11 9 Chapter Intro 1 1 0 1 Section 20.1 Electricity from Magnetism 2 2 2 2 Section 20.2 Generators, Motors, and Mutual Inductance 1 1 2 1 Section 20.3 AC Circuits and Transformers 0 1 2 1 Section 20.4 Electromagnetic Waves 0 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 1 1 2 2 Chapter Review and Assessment 2 2 1 1 CHAPTER 21 Atomic Physics 0 7 8 6 Chapter Intro 0 1 0 1 Section 21.1 Quantization of Energy 0 1 2 1 Section 21.2 Models of the Atom 0 1 2 1 Section 21.3 Quantum Mechanics 0 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 0 1 1 1 Chapter Review and Assessment 0 2 1 1 CHAPTER 22 Subatomic Physics 0 8 9 7 Chapter Intro 0 1 0 1 Section 22.1 The Nucleus 0 1 1 1 Section 22.2 Nuclear Decay 0 1 2 1 Section 22.3 Nuclear Reactions 0 1 2 1 Section 22.4 Particle Physics 0 1 2 1 Lab Experiment(s) 0 1 1 1 Chapter Review and Assessment 0 2 1 1 Total 176 176 176 176
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MAKING YOUR LABORATORY A SAFE PLACE TO WORK AND LEARN Concern for safety must begin before any activity in the classroom and before students enter the lab. A careful review of the facilities should be a basic part of preparation for each school term. You should investigate the physical environment, identify any safety risks, and inspect your work areas for compliance with safety regulations.
The review of the lab should be thorough, and all safety issues must be addressed immediately. Keep a file of your review, and add to the list each year. This will allow you to continue to raise the standard of safety in your lab and classroom.
Many classroom experiments, demonstrations, and other activities are classics that have been used for years. This familiarity may lead to a comfort that can obscure inherent safety concerns. Review all experiments, demonstrations, and activities for safety concerns before presenting them to the class. Identify and eliminate potential safety hazards.
1. Identify the Risks Before introducing any activity, demonstration, or experiment to the class, analyze it and consider what could possibly go wrong. Carefully review the list of materials to make sure they are safe. Inspect the equipment in your lab or classroom to make sure it is in good working order. Read the procedures to make sure they are safe. Record any hazards or concerns you identify.
2. Evaluate the Risks Minimize the risks you identified in the last step without sacrificing learning. Remember that no activity you perform in the lab or classroom is worth risking injury. Thus, extremely hazardous activities, or those that violate your school’s
policies, must be eliminated. For activities that present smaller risks, analyze each risk carefully to determine its likelihood. If the pedagogical value of the activity does not outweigh the risks, the activity must be eliminated.
3. Select Controls to Address Risks Even low-risk activities require controls to eliminate or minimize the risks. Make sure that in devising controls you do not substitute an equally or more hazardous alternative. Some control methods include the following:
Explicit verbal and written warnings may be • added or posted.
Equipment may be rebuilt or relocated, have • parts replaced, or be replaced entirely by safer alternatives.
Risky procedures may be eliminated.•
Activities may be changed from student • activities to teacher demonstrations.
4. Implement and Review Selected Controls Controls do not help if they are forgotten or not enforced. The implementation and review of controls should be as systematic and thorough as the initial analysis of safety concerns in the lab and laboratory activities.
SOME SAFETY RISKS AND PREVENTATIVE CONTROLS The following list describes several possible safety hazards and controls that can be implemented to resolve them. This list is not complete, but it can be used as a starting point to identify hazards in your laboratory.
Safety in Your Laboratory Direct your students to the “Safety in the Physics Laboratory” pages addressed to them in the Student Edition front matter, which appear after the Table of Contents.
Risk Assessment
IdentIfIed RIsk PReventatIve ContRol
Facilities and equipment Lab tables are in disrepair, room is poorly lighted and ventilated, faucets and electrical outlets do not work or are difficult to use because of their location.
Work surfaces should be level and stable. There should be adequate lighting and ventilation. Water supplies, drains, and electrical outlets should be in good working order. Any equipment in a dangerous location should not be used; it should be relocated or rendered inoperable.
Wiring, plumbing, and air circulation systems do not work or do not meet current specifications.
Specifications should be kept on file. Conduct a periodic review of all equipment, and document compliance. Damaged fixtures must be labeled as such and must be repaired as soon as possible.
Eyewash fountains and safety showers are present, but no one knows anything about their specifications.
Ensure that eyewash fountains and safety showers meet the requirements of the ANSI standard (Z358.1).
Eyewash fountains are checked and cleaned once at the beginning of the school year. No records are kept of routine checks and maintenance on the safety showers and eyewash fountains.
Flush eyewash fountains for 5 minutes every month to remove any bacteria or other organisms from the pipes. Test safety showers (measure flow in gallons per min.) and eyewash fountains every 6 months and keep records of the test results.
Labs are conducted in multipurpose rooms, and equipment from other courses remains accessible.
Only items necessary for a given activity should be available to students. All equipment should be locked away when not in use.
Students are permitted to enter or work in the lab without teacher supervision.
Lock all laboratory rooms whenever teacher is not present. Supervising teachers must be trained in lab safety and emergency procedures.
Safety equipment and emergency procedures Fire and other emergency drills are infrequent, and no records or measurements are made of the results of the drills.
Always carry out critical reviews of fire or other emergency drills. Be sure that plans include alternate routes. Don’t wait until an emergency to find the flaws in your plans.
Emergency evacuation plans do not include instructions for securing the lab in the event of an evacuation during a lab activity.
Plan actions in case of emergency: establish what devices should be turned off, which escape routes to use, and where to meet outside the building.
Fire extinguishers are in out-of-the-way locations, not on the escape route.
Place fire extinguishers near escape routes so that they will be of use during an emergency.
Fire extinguishers are not maintained. Teachers are not trained to use them.
Document regular maintenance of fire extinguishers. Train supervisory personnel in the proper use of extinguishers. Instruct students not to use an extinguisher but to call for a teacher.
T15
Safety equipment and emergency procedures (continued) Teachers in labs and neighboring classrooms are not trained in CPR or first aid.
Teachers should receive training. The American Red Cross and other groups offer training. Certifications should be kept current with frequent refresher courses.
Teachers are not aware of their legal responsibilities in case of an injury or accident.
Review your faculty handbook for your responsibilities regarding safety in the classroom and laboratory. Contact the legal counsel for your school district to find out the extent of their support and any rules, regulations, or procedures you must follow.
Emergency procedures are not posted. Emergency numbers are kept only at the switchboard or main office. Instructions are given verbally only at the beginning of the year.
Emergency procedures should be posted at all exits and near all safety equipment. Emergency numbers should be posted at all phones, and a script should be provided for the caller to use. Emergency procedures must be reviewed periodically, and students should be reminded of them at the beginning of each activity.
Spills are handled on a case-by-case basis and are cleaned up with whatever materials happen to be on hand.
Have the appropriate equipment and materials available for cleaning up; replace them before expiration dates. Make sure students know to alert you to spilled chemicals, blood, and broken glass.
Work habits and environment Safety wear is only used for activities involving chemicals or hot plates.
Aprons and goggles should be worn in the lab at all times. Long hair, loose clothing, and loose jewelry should be secured.
There is no dress code established for the laboratory; students are allowed to wear sandals or open-toed shoes.
Open-toed shoes should never be worn in the laboratory. Do not allow any footwear in the lab that does not cover feet completely.
Students are required to wear safety gear but teachers and visitors are not.
Always wear safety gear in the lab. Keep extra equipment on hand for visitors.
Safety is emphasized at the beginning of the term but is not mentioned later in the year.
Safety must be the first priority in all lab work. Students should be warned of risks and instructed in emergency procedures for each activity.
There is no assessment of students’ knowledge and attitudes regarding safety.
Conduct frequent safety quizzes. Only students with perfect scores should be allowed to work in the lab.
You work alone during your preparation period to organize the day’s labs.
Never work alone in a science laboratory or a storage area.
Safety inspections are conducted irregularly and are not documented. Teachers and administrators are unaware of what documentation will be necessary in case of a lawsuit.
Safety reviews should be frequent and regular. All reviews should be documented, and improvements must be implemented immediately. Contact legal counsel for your district to make sure your procedures will protect you in case of a lawsuit.
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IdentIfIed RIsk PReventatIve ContRol
Purchasing, storing, and using chemicals The storeroom is crowded, so you decide to keep some equipment on the lab benches.
Do not store reagents or equipment on lab benches. Keep shelves organized. Never place reactive chemicals (in bottles, beakers, flasks, wash bottles, etc.) near the edges of a lab bench.
You prepare solutions from concentrated stock to save money.
Reduce risks by ordering diluted instead of concentrated substances.
You purchase plenty of chemicals to be sure that you won’t run out or to save money.
Purchase chemicals in class-size quantities. Do not purchase or have on hand more than one year’s supply of each chemical.
You do not generally read labels on chemicals when preparing solutions for a lab because you already know about a chemical.
Read each label to be sure it states the hazards and describes the precautions and first aid procedures (when appropriate) that apply to the contents in case someone else has to deal with that chemical in an emergency.
You never read the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) that come with your chemicals.
Always read the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) for a chemical before using it and follow the precautions described. File and organize MSDSs for all chemicals where they can be found easily in case of an emergency.
The main stockroom contains chemicals that have not been used for years.
Do not leave bottles of chemicals unused on the shelves of the lab for more than one week or unused in the main stockroom for more than one year. Dispose of or use up any leftover chemicals.
No extra precautions are taken when flammable liquids are dispensed from their containers.
When transferring flammable liquids from bulk containers, ground the container, and before transferring to a smaller metal container, ground both containers.
Students are told to put their broken glass and solid chemical wastes in the trash can.
Have separate containers for trash, for broken glass, and for different categories of hazardous chemical wastes.
You store chemicals alphabetically instead of by hazard class. Chemicals are stored without consideration of possible emergencies (fire, earthquake, flood, etc.), which could compound the hazard.
Use MSDSs to determine which chemicals are incompatible. Store chemicals by the hazard class indicated on the MSDS. Store chemicals that are incompatible with common fire-fighting media like water (such as alkali metals) or carbon dioxide (such as alkali and alkaline-earth metals) under conditions that eliminate the possibility of a reaction with water or carbon dioxide in case it is necessary to fight a fire in the storage area.
Corrosives are kept above eye level, out of reach from any unauthorized person.
Always store corrosive chemicals on shelves below eye level. Remember, fumes from many corrosives can destroy metal cabinets and shelving.
Chemicals are kept on the stockroom floor on the days that they will be used so that they are easy to find.
Never store chemicals or other materials on floors or in the aisles of the laboratory or storeroom, even for a few minutes.
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Safety Symbols The following safety symbols appear in this text when students are asked to perform a procedure requiring extra precautions. The rules on the previous pages apply to all laboratory work.
Eye Protection • Wear safety goggles when working around chemi-
cals, acids, bases, flames or heating devices. Contents under pressure may become projectiles and cause serious injury.
• Never look directly at the sun through any optical device or use direct sunlight to illuminate a microscope.
• Avoid wearing contact lenses in the lab.
• If any substance gets into your eyes, notify your instructor immediately and flush your eyes with running water for at least 15 minutes.
Clothing Protection • Secure loose clothing and remove dangling jewelry.
Do not wear open-toed shoes or sandals in the lab.
• Wear an apron or lab coat to protect your clothing when you are working with chemicals.
• If a spill gets on your clothing, rinse it off immediately with water for at least 5 minutes while notify- ing your instructor.
Chemical Safety • Always use caution when working with chemicals.
• Always wear appropriate protective equipment. Always wear eye goggles, gloves, and a lab apron or lab coat when you are working with any chemical or chemical solution.
• Never mix chemicals unless your instructor directs you to do so.
• Never taste, touch, or smell chemicals unless your instructor directs you to do so.
• If a chemical gets on your skin, on your clothing, or in your eyes, rinse it immediately and alert your instructor.
• If a chemical is spilled on the floor or lab bench, alert your instructor, but do not clean it up yourself unless your instructor directs you to do so.
• Add an acid or base to water; never add water to an acid or base.
• Never return an unused chemical to its original container.
• Never transfer substances by sucking on a pipet or straw; use a suction bulb.
• Follow instructions for proper disposal.
• Do not allow radioactive materials to come into contact with your skin, hair, clothing, or personal belongings. Although the materials used in this lab are not hazardous when used properly, radioactive materials can cause serious illness and may have permanent effects.
Electrical Safety • Do not place electrical cords in walking areas or let
cords hang over a table edge in a way that could cause equipment to fall if the cord is accidentally pulled.
• Do not use equipment that has frayed electrical cords or loose plugs.
• Be sure that power switch on your equipment is in the “off” position before you plug it in.
• Never use an electrical appliance around water or with wet hands or clothing.
• Be sure to turn off and unplug electrical equipment when you are finished using it.
• Never close a circuit until it has been approved by your teacher. Never rewire or adjust any element of a closed circuit.
• If the pointer on any kind of meter moves off scale, open the circuit immediately by opening the switch.
• Do not work with any batteries, electrical devices, or magnets other than those provided by your teacher.
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Heating Safety • Avoid wearing hair spray or hair gel on lab days.
• Whenever possible, use an electric hot plate instead of an open flame as a heat source.
• When heating materials in a test tube, always angle the test tube away from yourself and others.
• Glass containers used for heating should be made of heat-resistant glass.
• Wire coils may heat up rapidly. If heating occurs, open the switch immediately, and handle the equipment with a heat-resistant glove.
• Know the location of laboratory fire extinguishers and fire-safety blankets.
• Know your school’s fire-evacuation routes.
Sharp Objects • Use knives and other sharp instruments with ex-
treme care.
• Never cut objects while holding them in your hands. Place objects on a suitable work surface for cutting.
• Never use a double-edged razor in the lab.
Hand Safety • To avoid burns, wear heat-resistant gloves whenever
instructed to do so.
• Always wear protective gloves when working with an open flame, chemicals, solutions, or wild or unknown plants.
• If you do not know whether an object is hot, do not touch it.
• Use tongs when heating test tubes. Never hold a test tube in your hand to heat the test tube.
• Perform the experiment in a clear area. Attach masses securely. Falling, dropped, or swinging objects can cause serious injury.
• Use a hot mitt to handle resistors, light sources, and other equipment that may be hot. Allow all equipment to cool before storing it.
Gas Safety • Do not inhale any gas or vapor unless your instructor
directs you to do so. Do not breathe pure gases.
• Handle materials prone to emit vapors or gases in a well-ventilated area. This work should be done in an approved chemical fume hood.
Glassware Safety • Check the condition of glassware before and after
using it. Inform your teacher of any broken, chipped, or cracked glassware, because it should not be used.
• Do not pick up broken glass with your bare hands. Place broken glass in a specially designated disposal container.
• If a bulb breaks, notify your teacher immediately. Do not remove broken bulbs from sockets.
Waste Disposal • Clean and decontaminate all work surfaces and
personal protective equipment as directed by your instructor.
• Dispose of all broken glass, contaminated sharp objects, and other contaminated materials (biological and chemical) in special containers as directed by your instructor.
Hygienic Care/Clean Hands • Keep your hands away from your face and mouth.
• Always wash your hands thoroughly when you have finished with an experiment.
T19
A Dual Approach to Physics: Balances conceptual study with problem solving Holt McDougal Physics is the only text that offers a conceptual foun- dation and a mathematically-based presentation of physics. Written by Raymond Serway and Jerry Faughn specifically for your college-bound high school students, Holt McDougal Physics covers the core physics content. Your students’ comprehension will be further extended with the application of print and technology resources.
Why we wrote this book:
As a high school teacher, you face challenges in preparing your students to
understand the world around them. You also want to make your class as
inviting, interesting, and inclusive as possible. We wanted to write the book
that was both “user friendly” and one that would help you and your students
achieve these goals.
Get the Physics Right First and foremost, we wanted to give you a book that was
technically correct and one that provided good preparation for college. Our previous
experience writing College Physics gave us the background we needed to write an
authoritative, accurate, and up-to-date text that is appropriate for today’s students.
Link Concepts and Problem-Solving Students need clear conceptual development
and plenty of practice working with both fundamental physical concepts and problem-
solving skills. We wanted this book to help students with both.
Focus on the Diagram Learning how to prepare an accurate and informative diagram
for a situation is a crucial step that identifies the connection between the concrete
world and the world of physics. We wanted to provide an abundance of support in
preparing and interpreting such diagrams to sharpen students’ skills.
Relate to the Student The best way to ensure learning that lasts is through practical
applications and concrete examples that students can relate to and appreciate.
Therefore, we wanted a book filled with examples—from the text presentation to
questions, problems, and other features.
Without a doubt, the most important elements in any learning environment are you,
the instructor, and effective communication between you and your students. If you are
excited, knowledgeable, and interested in what you teach, and convey this effectively,
you will be very successful in the classroom. We applaud your contributions to the
world and to our future, and we wish you and your students much success.
Regards,
Serway • Faughn
H O LT M c D o u g a l
Untitled-39 1 6/13/2011 8:29:15 AM
i
AUTHORS
James Madison University
Eastern Kentucky University
On the cover: A soap bubble sprays droplets as it bursts.
Cover Photo Credits: Bubble ©Don Farrall/Photodisc/Getty Images; luger ©Rolf Kosecki/ Corbis; laser beam ©Hank Morgan/UMass Amherst/Photo Researchers, Inc.; crash test dummies ©Corbis Wire/Corbis; carnival ride ©Corbis; cyclists ©David Madison/Corbis; plasma ball ©Brand X Pictures/Getty Images
Copyright © 2012 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying or recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner unless such copying is expressly permitted by federal copyright law.
Requests for permission to make copies of any part of the work should be addressed to Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company, Attn: Contracts, Copyrights, and Licensing, 9400 South Park Center Loop, Orlando, Florida 32819.
Printed in the U.S.A.
ISBN 978-0-547-58669-4
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4500000000 A B C D E F G
If you have received these materials as examination copies free of charge, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company retains title to the materials and they may not be resold. Resale of examination copies is strictly prohibited.
Possession of this publication in print format does not entitle users to convert this publication, or any portion of it, into electronic format.
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Trinity School Midland, Texas
David Bethel Science Writer
San Lorenzo, New Mexico
David Bradford Science Writer
California State Polytechnic University Pomona, California
Jim Metzner Seth Madej Pulse of the Planet radioseries
Jim Metzner Productions, Inc. Yorktown Heights, New York
John M. Stokes Science Writer
Socorro, New Mexico
Niles West High School Niles, Illinois
Mary L. Brake, Ph.D. Physics Teacher
Mercy High School Farmington Hills, Michigan
Gregory Puskar Laboratory Manager
Richard Sorensen Vernier Software & Technology
Beaverton, Oregon
Mercy High School Farmington Hills, Michigan
James C. Brown, Jr., Ph.D. Adjunct Assistant Professor of Physics
Austin Community College Austin, Texas
Anil R Chourasia, Ph.D. Associate Professor
Department of Physics Texas A&M University–Commerce Commerce, Texas
David S. Coco, Ph.D. Senior Research Physicist
Applied Research Laboratories The University of Texas at Austin Austin, Texas
Thomas Joseph Connolly, Ph.D. Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering and Biomechanics
The University of Texas at San Antonio San Antonio, Texas
Brad de Young Professor
Memorial University St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada
Bill Deutschmann, Ph.D. President
Arthur A. Few Professor of Space Physics and Environmental Science
Rice University Houston, Texas
Sugarland, Texas
Duquesne University Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Amherst College Amherst, Massachusetts
Texas A&M University College Station, Texas
Sally Hicks, Ph.D. Professor
Robert C. Hudson Associate Professor Emeritus
Physics Department Roanoke College Salem, Virginia
William Ingham, Ph.D. Professor of Physics
James Madison University Harrisonburg, Virginia
Karen B. Kwitter, Ph.D. Professor of Astronomy
Williams College Williamstown, Massachusetts
Helena College of Technology Helena, Montana
Joseph A. McClure, Ph.D. Associate Professor Emeritus
Department of Physics Georgetown University Washington, D.C.
Ralph McGrew Associate Professor
Clement J. Moses, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Physics
Utica College Utica, New York
Alvin M. Saperstein, Ph.D. Professor of Physics; Fellow of Center for Peace and Conflict Studies
Department of Physics and Astronomy Wayne State University Detroit, Michigan
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
iiiAcknowledgments
iii
Lock Haven University Lock Haven, Pennsylvania
H. Michael Sommermann, Ph.D. Professor of Physics
Westmont College Santa Barbara, California
Jack B. Swift, Ph.D. Professor
Department of Physics The University of Texas at Austin Austin, Texas
Thomas H. Troland, Ph.D. Physics Department
University of Kentucky Lexington, Kentucky
Mary L. White Coastal Ecology Institute Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, Louisiana
Jerome Williams, M.S. Professor Emeritus
Oceanography Department U.S. Naval Academy Annapolis, Maryland
Carol J. Zimmerman, Ph.D. Exxon Exploration Company Houston, Texas
Teacher Reviewers John Adamowski Chairperson of Science Department
Fenton High School Bensenville, Illinois
John Ahlquist, M.S. Anoka High School Anoka, Minnesota
Maurice Belanger Science Department Head
Nashua High School Nashua, New Hampshire
Larry G. Brown Morgan Park Academy Chicago, Illinois
William K. Conway, Ph.D. Lake Forest High School Lake Forest, Illinois
Jack Cooper Ennis High School Ennis, Texas
William D. Ellis Chairman of Science Department
Butler Senior High School Butler, Pennsylvania
Diego Enciso Troy, Michigan
Bruce Esser Marian High School Omaha, Nebraska
Curtis Goehring Palm Springs High School Palm Springs, California
Herbert H. Gottlieb Science Education Department City College of New York New York City, New York
David J. Hamilton, Ed.D. Benjamin Franklin High School Portland, Oregon
J. Philip Holden, Ph.D. Physics Education Consultant
Michigan Dept. of Education Lansing, Michigan
Joseph Hutchinson Wichita High School East Wichita, Kansas
Douglas C. Jenkins Chairman, Science Department
Warren Central High School Bowling Green, Kentucky
David S. Jones Miami Sunset Senior High School Miami, Florida
Roger Kassebaum Millard North High School Omaha, Nebraska
Mervin W. Koehlinger, M.S. Concordia Lutheran High School Fort Wayne, Indiana
Phillip LaRoe Central Community College Grand Island, Nebraska
William Lash Westwood High School Round Rock, Texas
Norman A. Mankins Science Curriculum Specialist
Canton City Schools Canton, Ohio
John McGehee Palos Verdes Peninsula High School Rolling Hills Estates, California
Debra Schell Austintown Fitch High School Austintown, Ohio
Edward Schweber Solomon Schechter Day School West Orange, New Jersey
Larry Stookey, P.E. Science Antigo High School Antigo, Wisconsin
Joseph A. Taylor Middletown Area High School Middletown, Pennsylvania
Leonard L. Thompson North Allegheny Senior High School Wexford, Pennsylvania
Keith C. Tipton Lubbock, Texas
John T. Vieira Science Department Head
B.M.C. Durfee High School Fall River, Massachusetts
Virginia Wood Richmond High School Richmond, Michigan
Tim Wright Stevens Point Area Senior High
School, Stevens Point, Wisconsin
Mary R. Yeomans Hopewell Valley Central High School Pennington, New Jersey
G. Patrick Zober Science Curriculum Coordinator
Yough Senior High School Herminie, Pennsylvania
Patricia J. Zober Ringgold High School Monongahela, Pennsylvania
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, continued
iv Acknowledgments
iv
H O LT M c D O U G A L
S t u d e n t O n e - S t o p
1426744
PHYSICSPHYSICSPHYSICS
PHYSICSPHYSICSPHYSICS
Textbook Explore the world around you with pages of colorful photos, helpful illustrations, and activities using everyday materials. Make connections between chapters, to online resources, and with your own life.
Online Physics Go online to access additional resources, including enhanced problem-solving help. Get your hands on interactive simulations, animations, and an extensive variety of lab activities.
Student One - Stop With this convenient DVD, you can carry your textbook in your pocket, along with printable copies of labs, study guides, and sample problem worksheets.
Yes, it’s educational. No, it’s not boring.
Holt McDougal
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Look for links throughout your book!
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Labs OnlineLabs OnlineLabs Online QuickLabs Encounter key concepts in your classroom with QuickLabs. They're right in your book!
Open Inquiry Labs Drive the lab activity—you make decisions about what to research and how to do it.
STEM Labs Explore technology and engineering through hands-on projects.
Core Skill Labs Practice hands-on skills and techniques.
Probeware Labs Integrate data-collection technology into your labs.
Forensics Labs Investigate practical applications of science, such as crime scene analysis.
Virtual Investigations Virtual Investigations Virtual Investigations Virtual Investigations Virtual Investigations Virtual Investigations CD-ROMCD-ROMCD-ROM
Strengthen your skills using these fun simulation
labs covering 6 major physics concepts.
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CHAPTER 1 THE SCIENCE OF PHYSICS 2 1 What Is Physics? 4 2 Measurements in Experiments 10 Why It Matters STEM The Mars Climate Orbiter Mission 13 3 The Language of Physics 21 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 26 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 32
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
The Circumference-Diameter Ratio of a Circle Metric Prefixes Physics and Measurement Graph Matching
HMDScience.com
Go online for the full complement of labs.
CHAPTER 2 MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION 34 1 Displacement and Velocity 36 2 Acceleration 44 3 Falling Objects 56 Why It Matters Sky Diving 60 Take It Further Angular Kinematics 62 Physics on the Edge Special Relativity and Time Dilation 66 Careers in Physics Science Writer 68 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 69 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 76
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
HMDScience.com
CHAPTER 3 TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION AND VECTORS 78
1 Introduction to Vectors 80 2 Vector Operations 84 3 Projectile Motion 93 4 Relative Motion 100 Physics on the Edge Special Relativity and Velocities 104 Careers in Physics Kinesiologist 106 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 107 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 114
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
HMDScience.com
1 2 Why It Matters 3 SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT
HMDScience.com
1 2 3 Why It Matters Take It Further Physics on the Edge Careers in Physics SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT
HMDScience.com
1 2 3 4 Physics on the Edge Careers in Physics SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT
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CHAPTER 4 FORCES AND THE LAWS OF MOTION 116 1 Changes in Motion 118 2 Newton’s First Law 123 Why It Matters Astronaut Workouts 126 3 Newton’s Second and Third Laws 128 4 Everyday Forces 133 Why It Matters STEM Driving and Friction 140 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 142 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 148
Timeline Physics and Its World: 1540–1690 150
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
Discovering Newton’s Laws Force and Acceleration Static and Kinetic Friction Air Resistance
HMDScience.com
CHAPTER 5 WORK AND ENERGY 152 1 Work 154 2 Energy 158 Why It Matters The Energy in Food 162 3 Conservation of Energy 167 4 Power 173 Physics on the Edge The Equivalence of Mass and Energy 176 Careers in Physics Roller Coaster Designer 178 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 179 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 186
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
Exploring Work and Energy Conservation of Mechanical Energy Loss of Mechanical Energy Power Programming
HMDScience.com
CHAPTER 6 MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS 188 1 Momentum and Impulse 190 2 Conservation of Momentum 197 Why It Matters STEM Surviving a Collision 199 3 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 204 Careers in Physics High School Physics Teacher 213 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 214 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 220
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
HMDScience.com
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CHAPTER 4 FORCES AND THE LAWS OF MOTION 116 1 Changes in Motion 118 2 Newton’s First Law 123 Why It Matters Astronaut Workouts 126 3 Newton’s Second and Third Laws 128 4 Everyday Forces 133 Why It Matters STEM Driving and Friction 140 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 142 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 148
Timeline Physics and Its World: 1540–1690 150
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
Discovering Newton’s Laws Force and Acceleration Static and Kinetic Friction Air Resistance
HMDScience.com
CHAPTER 5 WORK AND ENERGY 152 1 Work 154 2 Energy 158 Why It Matters The Energy in Food 162 3 Conservation of Energy 167 4 Power 173 Physics on the Edge The Equivalence of Mass and Energy 176 Careers in Physics Roller Coaster Designer 178 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 179 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 186
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
Exploring Work and Energy Conservation of Mechanical Energy Loss of Mechanical Energy Power Programming
HMDScience.com
CHAPTER 6 MOMENTUM AND COLLISIONS 188 1 Momentum and Impulse 190 2 Conservation of Momentum 197 Why It Matters STEM Surviving a Collision 199 3 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions 204 Careers in Physics High School Physics Teacher 213 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 214 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 220
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
HMDScience.com
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CHAPTER 7 CIRCULAR MOTION AND GRAVITATION 222 1 Circular Motion 224 2 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 230 Why It Matters Black Holes 233 3 Motion in Space 238 4 Torque and Simple Machines 244 Take It Further Tangential Speed and Acceleration 252 Take It Further Rotation and Inertia 254 Take It Further Rotational Dynamics 256 Physics on the Edge General Relativity 258 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 260 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 266
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
Circular Motion Torque and Center of Mass Centripetal Acceleration Machines and Efficiency
HMDScience.com
CHAPTER 8 FLUID MECHANICS 268 1 Fluids and Buoyant Force 270 2 Fluid Pressure 276 3 Fluids in Motion 280 Take It Further Properties of Gases 283 Take It Further Fluid Pressure 285 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 287 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 292 Timeline Physics and Its World: 1690–1785 294
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
Buoyant Vehicle Buoyancy
CHAPTER 9 HEAT 296 1 Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium 298 2 Defining Heat 305 Why It Matters Climate and Clothing 312 3 Changes in Temperature and Phase 313 Why It Matters STEM Earth-Coupled Heat Pumps 316 Careers in Physics HVAC Technician 320 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 321 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 326 STEM Engineering and Technology: Global Warming 328
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
Temperature and Internal Energy Thermal Conduction Newton’s Law of Cooling Specific Heat Capacity
HMDScience.com
1 2 Why It Matters 3 4 Take It Further Take It Further Take It Further Physics on the Edge SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT
HMDScience.com
1 2 3 Take It Further Take It Further SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT Timeline
HMDScience.com
1 2 Why It Matters 3 Why It Matters Careers in Physics SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT STEM
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CHAPTER 10 THERMODYNAMICS 330 1 Relationships Between Heat and Work 332 2 The First Law of Thermodynamics 338 Why It Matters STEM Gasoline Engines 344 Why It Matters STEM Refrigerators 346 3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 348 Why It Matters STEM Deep-Sea Air Conditioning 354 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 355 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 360
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
CHAPTER 11 VIBRATIONS AND WAVES 362 1 Simple Harmonic Motion 364 Why It Matters STEM Shock Absorbers 368 2 Measuring Simple Harmonic Motion 372 3 Properties of Waves 378 4 Wave Interactions 385 Physics on the Edge De Broglie Waves 391 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 393 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 398 Timeline Physics and Its World: 1785–1830 400
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
Pendulums and Spring Waves Simple Harmonic Motion of a Pendulum Pendulum Periods Pendulum Trials
HMDScience.com
CHAPTER 12 SOUND 402 1 Sound Waves 404 Why It Matters STEM Ultrasound Images 406 2 Sound Intensity and Resonance 410 Why It Matters Hearing Loss 417 3 Harmonics 418 Why It Matters Reverberation 425 Physics on the Edge The Doppler Effect and the Big Bang 428 Why It Matters Song of the Dunes 430 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 431 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 436 STEM Engineering and Technology: Noise Pollution 438
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
Resonance and the Nature of Sound Speed of Sound Sound Waves and Beats
HMDScience.com
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CHAPTER 10 THERMODYNAMICS 330 1 Relationships Between Heat and Work 332 2 The First Law of Thermodynamics 338 Why It Matters STEM Gasoline Engines 344 Why It Matters STEM Refrigerators 346 3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 348 Why It Matters STEM Deep-Sea Air Conditioning 354 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 355 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 360
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
CHAPTER 11 VIBRATIONS AND WAVES 362 1 Simple Harmonic Motion 364 Why It Matters STEM Shock Absorbers 368 2 Measuring Simple Harmonic Motion 372 3 Properties of Waves 378 4 Wave Interactions 385 Physics on the Edge De Broglie Waves 391 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 393 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 398 Timeline Physics and Its World: 1785–1830 400
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
Pendulums and Spring Waves Simple Harmonic Motion of a Pendulum Pendulum Periods Pendulum Trials
HMDScience.com
CHAPTER 12 SOUND 402 1 Sound Waves 404 Why It Matters STEM Ultrasound Images 406 2 Sound Intensity and Resonance 410 Why It Matters Hearing Loss 417 3 Harmonics 418 Why It Matters Reverberation 425 Physics on the Edge The Doppler Effect and the Big Bang 428 Why It Matters Song of the Dunes 430 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 431 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 436 STEM Engineering and Technology: Noise Pollution 438
CHAPTER LABS ONLINE
Resonance and the Nature of Sound Speed of Sound Sound Waves and Beats
HMDScience.com
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CHAPTER 13 LIGHT AND REFLECTION 440 1 Characteristics of Light 442 2 Flat Mirrors 447 3 Curved Mirrors 451 4 Color and Polarization 465 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 471 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 478
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CHAPTER 14 REFRACTION 480 1 Refraction 482 2 Thin Lenses 488 Why It Matters STEM Cameras 498 3 Optical Phenomena 500 Why It Matters STEM Fiber Optics 502 Careers in Physics Optometrist 506 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 507 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 514
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CHAPTER 15 INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION 516 1 Interference 518 2 Diffraction 524 3 Lasers 533 Why It Matters STEM Digital Video Players 536 Careers in Physics Laser Surgeon 538 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 539 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 544
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Diffraction Double-Slit Interference
1 2 3 4 SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT
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1 2 Why It Matters 3 Why It Matters Careers in Physics SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT
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1 2 3 Why It Matters Careers in Physics SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT
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CHAPTER 16 ELECTRIC FORCES AND FIELDS 546 1 Electric Charge 548 2 Electric Force 554 3 The Electric Field 562 Why It Matters STEM Microwave Ovens 569 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 570 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 576
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CHAPTER 17 ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND CURRENT 578 1 Electric Potential 580 2 Capacitance 588 3 Current and Resistance 594 Why It Matters STEM Superconductors 603 4 Electric Power 604 Why It Matters Household Appliance Power Usage 608 Physics on the Edge Electron Tunneling 610 Physics on the Edge Superconductors and BCS Theory 612 Careers in Physics Electrician 614 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 615 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 622 STEM Engineering and Technology: Hybrid Electric Vehicles 624
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CHAPTER 18 CIRCUITS AND CIRCUIT ELEMENTS 626 1 Schematic Diagrams and Circuits 628 Why It Matters CFLs and LEDs 631 Why It Matters STEM Transistors and Integrated Circuits 634 2 Resistors in Series or in Parallel 635 3 Complex Resistor Combinations 645 Why It Matters Decorative Lights and Bulbs 650 Careers in Physics Semiconductor Technician 652 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 653 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 660
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Exploring Circuit Elements Resistors in Series and in Parallel Series and Parallel Circuits
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CHAPTER 16 ELECTRIC FORCES AND FIELDS 546 1 Electric Charge 548 2 Electric Force 554 3 The Electric Field 562 Why It Matters STEM Microwave Ovens 569 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 570 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 576
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CHAPTER 17 ELECTRICAL ENERGY AND CURRENT 578 1 Electric Potential 580 2 Capacitance 588 3 Current and Resistance 594 Why It Matters STEM Superconductors 603 4 Electric Power 604 Why It Matters Household Appliance Power Usage 608 Physics on the Edge Electron Tunneling 610 Physics on the Edge Superconductors and BCS Theory 612 Careers in Physics Electrician 614 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 615 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 622 STEM Engineering and Technology: Hybrid Electric Vehicles 624
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CHAPTER 18 CIRCUITS AND CIRCUIT ELEMENTS 626 1 Schematic Diagrams and Circuits 628 Why It Matters CFLs and LEDs 631 Why It Matters STEM Transistors and Integrated Circuits 634 2 Resistors in Series or in Parallel 635 3 Complex Resistor Combinations 645 Why It Matters Decorative Lights and Bulbs 650 Careers in Physics Semiconductor Technician 652 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 653 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 660
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Exploring Circuit Elements Resistors in Series and in Parallel Series and Parallel Circuits
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xiiiContents
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CHAPTER 19 MAGNETISM 662 1 Magnets and Magnetic Fields 664 Why It Matters STEM Magnetic Resonance Imaging 669 2 Magnetism from Electricity 670 3 Magnetic Force 673 Why It Matters Auroras 674 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 680 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 686 STEM Engineering and Technology: Can Cell Phones Cause Cancer? 688
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Magnetism Magnetic Field of a Conducting Wire Magnetic Field Strength Magnetism from Electricity
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CHAPTER 20 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 690 1 Electricity from Magnetism 692 Why It Matters STEM Electric Guitar Pickups 699 2 Generators, Motors, and Mutual Inductance 700 Why It Matters STEM Avoiding Electrocution 706 3 AC Circuits and Transformers 707 4 Electromagnetic Waves 715 Why It Matters Radio and TV Broadcasts 718 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 722 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 728 Timeline Physics and Its World: 1830–1890 730
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CHAPTER 21 ATOMIC PHYSICS 732 1 Quantization of Energy 734 Why It Matters STEM Solar Cells 743 2 Models of the Atom 744 3 Quantum Mechanics 753 Physics on the Edge Semiconductor Doping 760 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 762 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 766 Timeline Physics and Its World: 1890–1950 768
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1 Why It Matters 2 3 Why It Matters SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT STEM
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1 Why It Matters 2 Why It Matters 3 4 Why It Matters SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT Timeline
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1 Why It Matters 2 3 Physics on the Edge SUMMARY AND REVIEW STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT Timeline
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CHAPTER 22 SUBATOMIC PHYSICS 770 1 The Nucleus 772 2 Nuclear Decay 779 3 Nuclear Reactions 789 4 Particle Physics 793 Physics on the Edge Antimatter 800 Careers in Physics Radiologist 802 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 803 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 808 STEM Engineering and Technology: Nuclear Waste 810 Timeline Physics and Its World: 1950–Present 812
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APPENDIX B THE SCIENTIFIC PROCESS R17
APPENDIX C SYMBOLS R20
APPENDIX D EQUATIONS R26
APPENDIX G PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS R44
APPENDIX H ABBREVIATED TABLE OF ISOTOPES AND ATOMIC MASSES R46
APPENDIX I ADDITIONAL PROBLEMS R52
SELECTED ANSWERS R69
REFERENCE
CHAPTER 22 SUBATOMIC PHYSICS 770 1 The Nucleus 772 2 Nuclear Decay 779 3 Nuclear Reactions 789 4 Particle Physics 793 Physics on the Edge Antimatter 800 Careers in Physics Radiologist 802 SUMMARY AND REVIEW 803 STANDARDS-BASED ASSESSMENT 808 STEM Engineering and Technology: Nuclear Waste 810 Timeline Physics and Its World: 1950–Present 812
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Science Writer 68 Kinesiologist 106 Roller Coaster Designer 178 High School Physics Teacher 213 HVAC Technician 320 Optometrist 506 Laser Surgeon 538 Electrician 614 Semiconductor Technician 652 Radiologist 802
Physics and Its World: 1540–1690 150 Physics and Its World: 1690–1785 294 Physics and Its World: 1785–1830 400 Physics and Its World: 1830–1890 730 Physics and Its World: 1890–1950 768 Physics and Its World: 1950–Present 812
Global Warming 328 Noise Pollution 438 Hybrid Electric Vehicles 624 Can Cell Phones Cause Cancer? 688 Nuclear Waste 810
Special Relativity and Time Dilation 66 Special Relativity and Velocities 104 The Equivalence of Mass and Energy 176 General Relativity 258 De Broglie Waves 391 The Doppler Effect and the Big Bang 428 Electron Tunneling 610 Superconductors and BCS Theory 612 Semiconductor Doping 760 Antimatter 800
Angular Kinematics 62 Tangential Speed and Acceleration 252 Rotation and Inertia 254 Rotational Dynamics 256 Properties of Gases 283 Fluid Pressure 285
The Mars Climate Orbiter Mission (STEM) 13 Sky Diving 60 Astronaut Workouts 126 Driving and Friction (STEM) 140 The Energy in Food 162 Surviving a Collision (STEM) 199 Black Holes 233 Climate and Clothing 312 Earth-Coupled Heat Pumps (STEM) 316 Gasoline Engines (STEM) 344 Refrigerators (STEM) 346 Deep-Sea Air Conditioning (STEM) 354 Shock Absorbers (STEM) 368 Ultrasound Images (STEM) 406 Hearing Loss 417 Reverberation 425 Song of the Dunes 430 Cameras (STEM) 498 Fiber Optics (STEM) 502 Digital Video Players (STEM) 536 Microwave Ovens (STEM) 569 Superconductors (STEM) 603 Household Appliance Power Usage 608 CFLs and LEDs 631 Transistors and Integrated Circuits (STEM) 634 Decorative Lights and Bulbs 650 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (STEM) 669 Auroras 674 Electric Guitar Pickups (STEM) 699 Avoiding Electrocution (STEM) 706 Radio and TV Broadcasts 718 Solar Cells (STEM) 743
FEATURES
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SAFETY SYMBOLS
EYE PROTECTION Wear safety goggles when working around chemicals, acids, bases, flames, or heating devices. Contents under pressure may become projectiles and cause serious injury.
Never look directly at the sun through any optical device or use direct sunlight to illuminate a microscope.
CLOTHING PROTECTION Secure loose clothing and remove dangling jewelry. Do not wear open-toed shoes or sandals in the lab.
Wear an apron or lab coat to protect your clothing when you are working with chemicals.
CHEMICAL SAFETY Always wear appropriate protective equipment. Always wear eye goggles, gloves, and a lab apron or lab coat when you are working with any chemical or chemical solution.
Never taste, touch, or smell chemicals unless your instructor directs you to do so.
Do not allow radioactive materials to come into contact with your skin, hair, clothing, or personal belongings. Although the materials used in this lab are not hazardous when used properly, radioactive materials can cause serious illness and may have permanent effects.
ELECTRICAL SAFETY Do not place electrical cords in walking areas or let cords hang over a table edge in a way that could cause equipment to fall if the cord is accidentally pulled.
Do not use equipment that has frayed electrical cords or loose plugs.
Be sure that equipment is in the “off” position before you plug it in.
Never use an electrical appliance around water or with wet hands or clothing.
Be sure to turn off and unplug electrical equipment when you are finished using it.
Never close a circuit until it has been approved by your teacher. Never rewire or adjust any element of a closed circuit.
If the pointer on any kind of meter moves off scale, open the circuit immediately by opening the switch.
Do not work with any batteries, electrical devices, or magnets other than those provided by your teacher.
HEATING SAFETY Avoid wearing hair spray or hair gel on lab days.
Whenever possible, use an electric hot plate instead of an open flame as a heat source.
When heating materials in a test tube, always angle the test tube away from yourself and others.
Glass containers used for heating should be made of heat-resistant glass.
SHARP OBJECT SAFETY Use knives and other sharp instruments with extreme care.
HAND SAFETY Perform this experiment in a clear area. Attach masses securely. Falling, dropped, or swinging objects can cause serious injury.
Use a hot mitt to handle resistors, light sources, and other equipment that may be hot. Allow all equipment to cool before storing it.
To avoid burns, wear heat-resistant gloves whenever instructed to do so.
Always wear protective gloves when working with an open flame, chemicals, solutions, or wild or unknown plants.
If you do not know whether an object is hot, do not touch it.
Use tongs when heating test tubes. Never hold a test tube in your hand to heat the test tube.
GLASSWARE SAFETY Check the condition of glassware before and after using it. Inform your teacher of any broken, chipped, or cracked glassware, because it should not be used.
Do not pick up broken glass with your bare hands. Place broken glass in a specially designated disposal container.
WASTE DISPOSAL Clean and decontaminate all work surfaces and personal protective equipment as directed by your instructor.
Dispose of all broken glass, contaminated sharp objects, and other contaminated materials (biological and chemical) in special containers as directed by your instructor.
EYE PROTECTION
CLOTHING PROTECTION
CHEMICAL SAFETY
HAND SAFETY
GLASSWARE SAFETY
WASTE DISPOSAL
Remember that the safety symbols shown here apply to a specific activity, but the numbered rules on the following pages apply to all laboratory work.
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SAFETY IN THE PHYSICS LABORATORY Systematic, careful lab work is an essential part of any science program because lab work is the key to progress in science. In this class, you will practice some of the same fundamental laboratory procedures and techniques that experimental physicists use to pursue new knowledge.
The equipment and apparatus you will use involve various safety hazards, just as they do for working physicists. You must be aware of these hazards. Your teacher will guide you in properly using the equipment and carrying out the experiments, but you must also take responsibility for your part in this process. With the active involvement of you and your teacher, these risks can be minimized so that working in the physics laboratory can be a safe, enjoyable process of discovery.
THESE SAFETY RULES ALWAYS APPLY IN THE LAB: 1. Always wear a lab apron and safety goggles.
Wear these safety devices whenever you are in the lab, not just when you are working on an experiment.
2. No contact lenses in the lab. Contact lenses should not be worn during any investigations using chemicals (even if you are wearing goggles). In the event of an accident, chemicals can get behind contact lenses and cause serious damage before the lenses can be removed. If your doctor requires that you wear contact lenses instead of glasses, you should wear eye-cup safety goggles in the lab. Ask your doctor or your teacher how to use this very important and special eye protection.
3. Personal apparel should be appropriate for laboratory work. On lab days avoid wearing long necklaces, dangling bracelets, bulky jewelry, and bulky or loose-fitting clothing. Loose, flopping, or dangling items may get caught in moving parts, accidentally contact electrical connections, or interfere with the investigation in some potentially hazardous manner. In addition, chemical fumes may react with some jewelry, such as pearl jewelry, and ruin them. Cotton clothing is preferable to clothes made of wool, nylon, or polyester.
Tie back long hair. Wear shoes that will protect your feet from chemical spills and falling objects. Do not wear open-toed shoes or sandals or shoes with woven leather straps.
4. NEVER work alone in the laboratory. Work in the lab only while under the supervision of your teacher. Do not leave equipment unattended while it is in operation.
5. Only books and notebooks needed for the experiment should be in the lab. Only the lab notebook and perhaps the textbook should be in the lab. Keep other books, backpacks, purses, and similar items in your desk, locker, or designated storage area.
6. Read the entire experiment before entering the lab. Your teacher will review any applicable safety precautions before the lab. If you are not sure of something, ask your teacher.
7. Heed all safety symbols and cautions written in the experimental investigations and handouts, posted in the room, and given verbally by your teacher. They are provided for a reason: YOUR SAFETY.
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8. Know the proper fire-drill procedures and the locations of fire exits and emergency equipment. Make sure you know the procedures to follow in case of a fire or emergency.
9. If your clothing catches on fire, do not run; WALK to the safety shower, stand under it, and turn it on. Call to your teacher while you do this.
10. Report all accidents to the teacher immediately, no matter how minor. In addition, if you get a headache, feel sick to your stomach, or feel dizzy, tell your teacher immediately.
11. Report all spills to your teacher immediately. Call your teacher rather than trying to clean a spill yourself. Your teacher will tell you if it is safe for you to clean up the spill; if not, your teacher will know how the spill should be cleaned up safely.
12. Student-designed inquiry investigations, such as Open Inquiry labs, must be approved by the teacher before being attempted by the student.
13. DO NOT perform unauthorized experiments or use equipment and apparatus in a manner for which they are not intended. Use only materials and equipment listed in the activity equipment list or authorized by your teacher. Steps in a procedure should only be performed as described in the book or lab manual or as approved by your teacher.
14. Stay alert in the lab, and proceed with caution. Be aware of others near you or your equipment when you are about to do something in the lab. If you are not sure of how to proceed, ask y

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