history of books

8/13/2019 History of Books

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History of books 1

History of books

"Modern Book Printing" sculpture, showing a

pile of modern codex books.

The history of the book is an academic discipline that studies the

production, transmission, circulation and dissemination of text from

antiquity to the present day. The scope of the history of the book, or

book history as it is also known, includes the history of ideas, history

of religion, bibliography as well as practices of conservation and

curation.

Origins and antiquity

Writing is a system of linguistic symbols which permit one to transmit

and conserve information. Writing appears to have developed between

the 7th millennium BC and the 4th millennium BC, first in the form of

early mnemonic symbols which became a system of ideograms or

pictographs through simplification. The oldest known forms of writing

were thus primarily logographic in nature. Later syllabic and

alphabetic or segmental writing emerged.

The book is also linked to the desire of humans to create lasting

records. Stones could be the most ancient form of writing, but wood

would be the first medium to take the guise of a book. The words biblos and liber first meant "fibre inside of a tree".

In Chinese, the character that means book is an image of a tablet of bamboo. Wooden tablets (Rongorongo) were

also made on Easter Island.

Silk, in China, was also a base for writing. Writing was done with brushes. Many other materials were used as bases:

bone, bronze, pottery, shell, etc. In India, for example, dried palm tree leaves were used; in Mesoamerica anothertype of plant, Amate. Any material which will hold and transmit text is a candidate for use in bookmaking.

Clay tablets

Clay tablets were used in Mesopotamia in the 3rd millennium BC. The calamus, an instrument in the form of a

triangle, was used to make characters in moist clay. The tablets were fired to dry them out. At Nineveh, 22,000

tablets were found, dating from the 7th century BC; this was the archive and library of the kings of Assyria, who had

workshops of copyists and conservationists at their disposal. This presupposes a degree of organization with respect

to books, consideration given to conservation, classification, etc. Tablets were used right up until the 19th century in

various parts of the world, including Germany, Chile, and the Saharan Desert.
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History of books 2

Papyrus

Egyptian Papyrus

After extracting the marrow from the stems, a series of steps

(humidification, pressing, drying, gluing, and cutting), produced media

of variable quality, the best being used for sacred writing. In Ancient

Egypt, papyrus was used for writing maybe as early as from First

Dynasty, but first evidence is from the account books of KingNeferirkare Kakai of the Fifth Dynasty (about 2400 BC).[1] A calamus,

the stem of a reed sharpened to a point, or bird feathers were used for

writing. The script of Egyptian scribes was called hieratic, or

sacredotal writing; it is not hieroglyphic, but a simplified form more

adapted to manuscript writing (hieroglyphs usually being engraved or

painted).

Papyrus books were in the form of a scroll of several sheets pasted together, for a total length of up to 10 meters or

even more. Some books, such as the history of the reign of Ramses III, were over 40 meters long. Books rolled out

horizontally; the text occupied one side, and was divided into columns. The title was indicated by a label attached tothe cylinder containing the book. Many papyrus texts come from tombs, where prayers and sacred texts were

deposited (such as the Book of the Dead, from the early 2nd millennium BC).

These examples demonstrate that the development of the book, in its material makeup and external appearance,

depended on a content dictated by political (the histories of pharaohs) and religious (belief in an afterlife) values.

The particular influence afforded to writing and word perhaps motivated research into ways of conserving texts.

East Asia

A Chinese bamboo book

Writing on bone, shells, wood and silk existed in China long before the 2nd

century BC. Paper was invented in China around the 1st century AD. Thediscovery of the process using the bark of the blackberry bush is attributed to

Ts'ai Louen, but it may be older. Texts were reproduced by woodblock printing;

the diffusion of Buddhist texts was a main impetus to large-scale production. The

format of the book evolved with intermediate stages of scrolls folded

concertina-style, scrolls bound at one edge ("butterfly books") and so on.

The first printing of books started in China and was during the Tang Dynasty

(618907), but exactly when is not known. The oldest extant printed book is a

Tang Dynasty work of the Diamond Sutra and dates back to 868. When the

Italian Catholic missionary Matteo Ricci visited Ming China, he wrote that there

were "exceedingly large numbers of books in circulation" and noted that they

were sold at very low prices.
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History of books 3

Pre-columbian codices of the Americas

Dresden Codex (page 49)

The only currently deciphered complete writing system in the Americas is the

Maya scroll. The Maya, along with several other cultures in Mesoamerica,

constructed concertina-style books written on Amatl paper. Nearly all Mayan

texts were destroyed by the Spanish during colonization on cultural and religious

grounds. One of the few surviving examples is the Dresden Codex.

Although only the Maya have been shown to have a writing system capable of

conveying any concept that can be conveyed via speech (at about the same level

as the modern Japanese writing system), other Mesoamerican cultures had more

rudimentary ideographical writing systems which were contained in similar

concertina-style books, one such example being the Aztec codices.

Wax tablets

Woman holding wax tablets in the form of the

codex. Wall painting from Pompeii, before 79

AD.

Romans used wax-coated wooden tablets (pugillares) upon which they

could write and erase by using a stylus. One end of the stylus was

pointed, and the other was spherical. Usually these tablets were used

for everyday purposes (accounting, notes) and for teaching writing to

children, according to the methods discussed by Quintilian in his

Institutio Oratoria X Chapter 3. Several of these tablets could be

assembled in a form similar to a codex. Also the etymology of the

word codex (block of wood) suggest that it may have developed from

wooden wax tablets.[2]

Parchment

Parchment progressively replaced papyrus. Legend attributes its

invention to Eumenes II, the king of Pergamon, from which comes the

name "pergamineum," which became "parchment." Its production

began around the 3rd century BC. Made using the skins of animals

(sheep, cattle, donkey, antelope, etc.), parchment proved easier to conserve over time; it was more solid, and allowed

one to erase text. It was a very expensive medium because of the rarity of material and the time required to produce a

document. Vellum is the finest quality of parchment.
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History of books 4

Greece and Rome

The scroll of papyrus is called "volumen" in Latin, a word which signifies "circular movement," "roll," "spiral,"

"whirlpool," "revolution" (similar, perhaps, to the modern English interpretation of "swirl") and finally "a roll of

writing paper, a rolled manuscript, or a book." In the 7th century Isidore of Seville explains the relation between

codex, book and scroll in hisEtymologiae (VI.13) as this:

A codex is composed of many books (librorum); a book is of one scroll (voluminis). It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks

(caudex) of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches.

Description

The scroll is rolled around two vertical wooden axes. This design allows only sequential usage; one is obliged to

read the text in the order in which it is written, and it is impossible to place a marker in order to directly access a

precise point in the text. It is comparable to modern video cassettes. Moreover, the reader must use both hands to

hold on to the vertical wooden rolls and therefore cannot read and write at the same time. The only volumen in

common usage today is the Jewish Torah.

Book culture

The authors of Antiquity had no rights concerning their published works; there were neither authors' nor publishing

rights. Anyone could have a text recopied, and even alter its contents. Scribes earned money and authors earned

mostly glory, unless a patron provided cash; a book made its author famous. This followed the traditional conception

of the culture: an author stuck to several models, which he imitated and attempted to improve. The status of the

author was not regarded as absolutely personal.

From a political and religious point of view, books were censored very early: the works of Protagoras were burned

because he was a proponent of agnosticism and argued that one could not know whether or not the gods existed.

Generally, cultural conflicts led to important periods of book destruction: in 303, the emperor Diocletian ordered theburning of Christian texts. Some Christians later burned libraries, and especially heretical or non-canonical Christian

texts. These practices are found throughout human history but have ended in many nations today. A few nations

today still greatly censor and even burn books.

But there also exists a less visible but nonetheless effective form of censorship when books arereserved for the elite;

the book was not originally a medium for expressive liberty. It may serve to confirm the values of a political system,

as during the reign of the emperor Augustus, who skillfully surrounded himself with great authors. This is a good

ancient example of the control of the media by a political power. More importantly, private censorship of books has

occurred and continues today. What books one chooses to privately read, to destroy, to throw away, to not sell, and

what to pass along to one's children involves choosing some books over others. Private individuals can and do censor

themselves and others, with little or no support and approval from the governing bodies of their time.

Proliferation and conservation of books in Greece

Little information concerning books in Ancient Greece survives. Several vases (6th and 5th century BC) bear images

of volumina. There was undoubtedly no extensive trade in books, but there existed several sites devoted to the sale of

books.

The spread of books, and attention to their cataloging and conservation, as well as literary criticism developed during

the Hellenistic period with the creation of large libraries in response to the desire for knowledge exemplified by

Aristotle. These libraries were undoubtedly also built as demonstrations of political prestige:

The Library of Alexandria, a library created by Ptolemy Soter and set up by Demetrius Phalereus (Demetrius ofPhaleron). It contained 500,900 volumes (in theMuseion section) and 40,000 at the Serapis temple (Serapeion).
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History of books 5

All books in the luggage of visitors to Egypt were inspected, and could be held for copying. The Museion was

partially destroyed in 47 BC.

The Library at Pergamon, founded by Attalus I; it contained 200,000 volumes which were moved to the

Serapeion by Mark Antony and Cleopatra, after the destruction of the Museion. The Serapeion was partially

destroyed in 391, and the last books disappeared in 641 CE following the Arab conquest.

The Library at Athens, thePtolemaion, which gained importance following the destruction of the Library at

Alexandria ; the Library of Pantainos, around 100 CE; the library of Hadrian, in 132 CE.

The Library at Rhodes, a library that rivaled the Library of Alexandria.

The Library at Antioch, a public library of which Euphorion of Chalcis was the director near the end of the 3rd

century.

The libraries had copyist workshops, and the general organisation of books allowed for the following:

Conservation of an example of each text

Translation (the Septuagint Bible, for example)

Literary criticisms in order to establish reference texts for the copy (example : The Iliad and The Odyssey)

A catalog of books

The copy itself, which allowed books to be disseminated

Book production in Rome

Book production developed in Rome in the 1st century BC with Latin literature that had been influenced by the

Greek.

This diffusion primarily concerned circles of literary individuals. Atticus was the editor of his friend Cicero.

However, the book business progressively extended itself through the Roman Empire; for example, there were

bookstores in Lyon. The spread of the book was aided by the extension of the Empire, which implied the imposition

of the Latin tongue on a great number of people (in Spain, Africa, etc.).

Libraries were private or created at the behest of an individual. Julius Caesar, for example, wanted to establish one inRome, proving that libraries were signs of political prestige.

In the year 377, there were 28 libraries in Rome, and it is known that there were many smaller libraries in other

cities. Despite the great distribution of books, scientists do not have a complete picture as to the literary scene in

antiquity as thousands of books have been lost through time.

Paper

Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about AD 105, when Cai Lun, an official attached to the Imperial

court during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD), created a sheet of paper using mulberry and other bast fibres along

with fishnets, old rags, and hemp waste.While paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC,[] paper used as a writing

medium only became widespread by the 3rd century.[3] By the 6th century in China, sheets of paper were beginning

to be used for toilet paper as well.[4] During the Tang Dynasty (618907 AD) paper was folded and sewn into square

bags to preserve the flavor of tea. The Song Dynasty (9601279) that followed was the first government to issue

paper currency.

An important development was the mechanization of paper manufacture by medieval papermakers. The introduction

of water-powered paper mills, the first certain evidence of which dates to the 11th century in Crdoba, Spain, [5]

allowed for a massive expansion of production and replaced the laborious handcraft characteristic of both

Chinese[6][7] and Muslim[8] papermaking. Papermaking centres began to multiply in the late 13th century in Italy,

reducing the price of paper to one sixth of parchment and then falling further. [9]
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History of books 6

Middle Ages

The codex Manesse, a book from the Middle

Ages

By the end of antiquity, between the 2nd and 4th centuries, the codex

had replaced the scroll. The book was no longer a continuous roll, but a

collection of sheets attached at the back. It became possible to access a

precise point in the text directly. The codex is equally easy to rest on a

table, which permits the reader to take notes while he or she is reading.The codex form improved with the separation of words, capital letters,

and punctuation, which permitted silent reading. Tables of contents and

indices facilitated direct access to information. This form was so

effective that it is still the standard book form, over 1500 years after its

appearance.

Paper would progressively replace parchment. Cheaper to produce, it

allowed a greater diffusion of books.

Books in monasteries

A number of Christian books were destroyed at the order of Diocletian

in 304 AD. During the turbulent periods of the invasions, it was the

monasteries that conserved religious texts and certain works of

Antiquity for the West. But there would also be important copying

centers in Byzantium.

The role of monasteries in the conservation of books is not without some ambiguity:

Reading was an important activity in the lives of monks, which can be divided into prayer, intellectual work, and

manual labor (in the Benedictine order, for example). It was therefore necessary to make copies of certain works.

Accordingly, there existed scriptoria (the plural of scriptorium) in many monasteries, where monks copied anddecorated manuscripts that had been preserved.

However, the conservation of books was not exclusively in order to preserve ancient culture; it was especially

relevant to understanding religious texts with the aid of ancient knowledge. Some works were never recopied,

having been judged too dangerous for the monks. Morever, in need of blank media, the monks scraped off

manuscripts, thereby destroying ancient works. The transmission of knowledge was centered primarily on sacred

texts.

Copying and conserving books

An author portrait of Jean Milot writing his

compilation of theMiracles of Our Lady, one of

his many popular works.

Despite this ambiguity, monasteries in the West and the EasternEmpire permitted the conservation of a certain number of secular texts,

and several libraries were created: for example, Cassiodorus ('Vivarum'

in Calabro, around 550), or Constantine I in Constantinople. There

were several libraries, but the survival of books often depended on

political battles and ideologies, which sometimes entailed massive

destruction of books or difficulties in production (for example, the

distribution of books during the Iconoclasm between 730 and 842). A

long list of very old and surviving libraries that now form part of the

Vatican Archives can be found in the Catholic Encyclopedia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catholic_Encyclopediahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iconoclasmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantinoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_I_%28emperor%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cassiodorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AEscribano.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean_Mi%C3%A9lothttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benedictinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Byzantiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diocletianhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scrollhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Codexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ACodex_Manesse_Ulrich_von_Singenberg.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Codex_Manesse


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History of books 7

The scriptorium

The scriptorium was the workroom of monk copyists; here, books were copied, decorated, rebound, and conserved.

The armarius directed the work and played the role of librarian.

The role of the copyist was multifaceted: for example, thanks to their work, texts circulated from one monastery to

another. Copies also allowed monks to learn texts and to perfect their religious education. The relationship with the

book thus defined itself according to an intellectual relationship with God. But if these copies were sometimes madefor the monks themselves, there were also copies made on demand.

The task of copying itself had several phases: the preparation of the manuscript in the form of notebooks once the

work was complete, the presentation of pages, the copying itself, revision, correction of errors, decoration, and

binding. The book therefore required a variety of competencies, which often made a manuscript a collective effort.

Transformation from the literary edition in the 12th century

The revival of cities in Europe would change the conditions of book production and extend its influence, and the

monastic period of the book would come to an end. This revival accompanied the intellectual renaissance of the

period. The Manuscript culture outside of the monastery developed in these university-cities in Europe in this time. Itis around the first universities that new structures of production developed: reference manuscripts were used by

students and professors for teaching theology and liberal arts. The development of commerce and of the bourgeoisie

brought with it a demand for specialized and general texts (law, history, novels, etc.). It is in this period that writing

in the common vernacular developed (courtly poetry, novels, etc.). Commercial scriptoria became common, and the

profession of book seller came into being, sometimes dealing internationally.

There is also the creation of royal libraries as in the case of Saint Louis and Charles V. Books were also collected in

private libraries, which became more common in the 14th and 15th centuries.

The use of paper diffused through Europe in the 14th century. This material, less expensive than parchment, came

from China via the Arabs in Spain in the 11th and 12th centuries. It was used in particular for ordinary copies, while

parchment was used for luxury editions.

Printing press

The invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440 marks the entry of the book into the

industrial age. The Western book was no longer a single object, written or reproduced by request. The publication of

a book became an enterprise, requiring capital for its realization and a market for its distribution. The cost of each

individual book (in a large edition) was lowered enormously, which in turn increased the distribution of books. The

book in codex form and printed on paper, as we know it today, dates from the 15th century. Books printed before

January 1, 1501, are called incunables. The spreading of book printing all over Europe occurred relatively quickly,

but most books were still printed in Latin. The spreading of the concept of printing books in the vernacular was asomewhat slower process.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vernacularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Incunablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Gutenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Printing_presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parchmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arabshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parchmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Charles_V_of_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louis_IX_of_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Librarieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Manuscript_culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bookbindinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=God


8/14

History of books 8

List of notable modern innovations

Handwritten notes by Christopher Columbus on

the Latin edition of Marco Polo'sLe livre des

merveilles.

First printed book in Georgian was published in

Rome, in 1629 by Niceforo Irbachi.

1377:Jikji or Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon

Masters, the earliest known book printed with movable type

1455: The Gutenberg Bible was the first major book printed in

Europe with movable metal type by Johannes Gutenberg.

1461:Der Ackermann aus Bohmen printed by Albrecht Pfister, thefirst printed book in German, and also the first book illustrated with

woodcuts.

1470:Il Canzoniere by Francesco Petrarca, the first book printed in

the Italian language.

1472: Sinodal de Aguilafuente was the first book printed in Spain

(at Segovia) and in Spanish language.

1474: Obres e trobes en llaor de la Verge Santa Maria was the first

book printed in Catalan language, at Valencia.

c. 1475:Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye was the first book

printed in the English language.

1476:La lgende dore printed by Guillaume LeRoy, the first book

printed in the French language.

1476: Grammatica Graeca, sive compendium octo orationis

partium, probably the first book entirely in Greek by Constantine

Lascaris.

1477: The first printed edition of the Geographia, probably in 1477

in Bologna, was also the first printed book with engraved

illustrations.

1477: The Delft Bible, the first book printed in the Dutch language. 1485:De Re Aedificatoria, the first printed book on architecture

1494: Oktoih was the first printed Slavic Cyrillic book.

1495: The first printed book in the Danish language.

1495: The first printed book in the Swedish language.

1499: Catholicon, Breton-French-Latin dictionary, first printed

trilingual dictionary, first Breton book, first French dictionary

1501:Harmonice Musices Odhecaton, printed by Ottaviano Petrucci, is the first book of sheet music printed from

movable type.

1501: "Aldus Manutius" printed the first portable Octavos, also inventing and using italic type.

1511: Hieromonk Makarije printed the first books in Wallachia (in Slavonic) 1512: Hakob Meghapart printed the first book in Armenian - Urbatagirk.

1513:Hortulus Animae, polonice believed to be the first book printed in the Polish language.

1516: A reprint of the Lisbon edition of the Sefer Aburdraham is printed in Morocco, the first book printed in

Africa.[10]

1517:Psalter, first book printed in the Old Belarusian language by Francysk Skaryna on 6 August 1517

1539:La escala espiritual de San Juan Clmaco, first book printed in North America - Mexico

1541:Bovo-Bukh was the first non-religious book to be printed in Yiddish

1544:Rucouskiria by Mikael Agricola, the first book printed in the Finnish language.

1545:Linguae Vasconum Primitiae was the first book printed in Basque

1547: Martynas Mavydas compiled and published the first printed Lithuanian book The Simple Words of

Catechism
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lithuanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martynas_Ma%C5%BEvydashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Basque_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Finnish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mikael_Agricolahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yiddishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bovo-Bukhhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francysk_Skarynahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Belarusian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abudarham%23Contents_of_Sefer_Abudrahamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hortulus_Animae%2C_polonicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urbatagirkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Armenian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hakob_Meghaparthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wallachiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hieromonk_Makarijehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aldus_Manutiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sheet_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ottaviano_Petruccihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harmonice_Musices_Odhecatonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Breton_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swedish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Danish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cyrillichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oktoihhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delfthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geographiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_Lascarishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_Lascarishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Recuyell_of_the_Historyes_of_Troyehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valencia%2C_Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Catalan_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Segoviahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Italian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Francesco_Petrarcahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Il_Canzonierehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Woodcuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Albrecht_Pfisterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Johannes_Gutenberghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gutenberg_Biblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jikjihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ADittionario_Giorgiano_e_Italiano.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikoloz_Cholokashvilihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georgian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AColombusNotesToMarcoPolo.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marco_Polohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christopher_Columbus


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History of books 9

1550:Abecedarium was the first printed book in the Slovene language, printed by Primo Trubar.

1561: The first printed books in the Romanian language, Tetraevanghelul andntrebare cretineasc (also known

as Catehismul) are printed by Coresi in Braov.

1564: the first book in Irish was printed in Edinburgh, a translation of John Knox's 'Liturgy' by John Carswell,

Bishop of the Hebrides.

1564: the first dated Russian book,Apostol, printed by Ivan Fyodorov

1568: the first book in Irish to be printed in Ireland was a Protestant catechism, containing a guide to spelling and

sounds in Irish.

1577:Lekah Tov, a commentary on the Book of Esther, was the first book printed in the land of Israel

1581: Ostrog Bible, first complete printed edition of the Bible in Old Church Slavonic

1584: first book printed in South America - Lima, Peru

1593:Doctrina Christiana was the first book printed in the Philippines

1629: Nikoloz Cholokashvili helped to publish a Georgian dictionary, the first printed book in Georgian

1640: TheBay Psalm Book, the first book printed in British North America

1651:Abagar - Filip Stanislavov, first printed book in modern Bulgarian

1678-1703:Hortus Malabaricus included the first instance of Malayalam types being used for printing 1798: The first printed book in Ossetic

1802:New South Wales General Standing Orders was the first book printed in Australia, comprising Government

and General Orders issued between 1791 and 1802

1909: Nisthananda Bajracharya authored and printed the first printed book in Nepal Bhasa calledEk Binshati

Pragyaparmita.[11]

Aurora Australis, the first book published in Antarctica.

See alsoEditio princeps, Spread of the printing press

Contemporary era

The demands of the British and Foreign Bible Society (founded 1804), the American Bible Society (founded 1816),

and other non-denominational publishers for enormously large and impossibly inexpensive runs of texts led to

numerous innovations. The introduction of steam printing presses a little before 1820, closely followed by new

steam paper mills, constituted the two most major innovations. Together, they caused book prices to drop and the

number of books to increase considerably. Numerous bibliographic features, like the positioning and formulation of

titles and subtitles, were also affected by this new production method. New types of documents appeared later in the

19th century: photography, sound recording and film.

Typewriters and eventually computer based word processors and printers let people print and put together their own

documents.

Among a series of developments that occurred in the 1990s, the spread of digital multimedia, which encodes texts,images, animations, and sounds in a unique and simple form was notable for the book publishing industry. Hypertext

further improved access to information. Finally, the internet lowered production and distribution costs.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Internethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hypertexthttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Typewriterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Filmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sound_recordinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Photographyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Bible_Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=British_and_Foreign_Bible_Societyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spread_of_the_printing_presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Editio_princepshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aurora_Australis_%28book%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nepal_Bhasahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New_South_Wales_General_Standing_Ordershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ossetic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hortus_Malabaricushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bulgarian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Filip_Stanislavovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abagarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bay_Psalm_Bookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Georgian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikoloz_Cholokashvilihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Old_Church_Slavonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ostrog_Biblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ivan_Fyodorov_%28printer%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acts_and_Epistles_of_the_Apostleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Irish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bra%C5%9Fovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coresihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Romanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Primo%C5%BE_Trubarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slovene_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abecedarium_%28Trubar%29


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History of books 10

E-Resources

It is difficult to predict the future of the book.[12] A good deal of reference material, designed for direct access

instead of sequential reading, as for example encyclopedias, exists less and less in for the form of books and

increasingly on the web. Leisure reading materials are increasingly published in e-reader formats.

Although electronic books, or e-books, had limited success in the early years, and readers were resistant at the outset,

the demand for books in this format has grown dramatically, primarily because of the popularity of e-reader devicesand as the number of available titles in this format has increased. Another important factor in the increasing

popularity of the e-reader is its continuous diversification. Many e-readers now support basic operating systems,

which facilitate email and other simple functions. The iPad is the most obvious example of this trend, but even

mobile phones can host e-reading software.

E-book readers such as the Sony Reader, Barnes & Noble's Nook, and the Amazon Kindle have increased in

popularity each time a new upgraded version is released. The Kindle in particular has captured public attention not

only for the quality of the reading experience but also because users can access books (as well as periodicals and

newspapers) wirelessly online (a feature now available in all other e-reader devices). Apple has also entered this

arena with applications for the iPhone and iPad which enable e-book reading.

Gallery

European output of manuscripts

5001500

European output of printed books c.

14501800

European output of books 5001800

Academic programs

Drew University, Department of Modern History and Literature [13] MA, PhD in one of three streams including

Book History.

Mainz Gutenberg University [14] Mainzer Institut fur Buchwissenschaft

Texas Tech University, Department of English [15]. MA, PhD emphasis in History of the Book

University of Edinburgh[16]

Postgraduate Degree (MA) in The History of the Book School of Book Science [17] at University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. BA and MA program with specialisation in the

history of the Book

University of London, Institute of English Studies [18] Postgraduate MA in the History of the Book.

University of Mnster, Germany [19] MA Program Book Studies

University of Toronto [20]. MA, PhD Program in Book History / Print Culture.

University of Amsterdam, Department of cultural studies [21]. BA and MA program with specialisation in the

history of the Book

Curtin University [22]. Master of Information Management - Librarianship stream.
http://handbook.curtin.edu.au/units/31/312761.htmlhttp://www.uva.nl/http://bookhistory.fis.utoronto.ca/http://www.uni-muenster.de/Buchwiss/Studieren/master_of_arts.htmlhttp://ies.sas.ac.uk/study/MAHOB/index.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Erlangen-Nuremberghttp://www.buchwiss.uni-erlangen.de/http://www.hss.ed.ac.uk/chb/postgraduatestudy.htmhttp://www.english.ttu.edu/grad_degrees/BH_default.asphttp://www.buchwissenschaft.uni-mainz.de/http://www.drew.edu/grad-content.aspx?id=2352http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AEuropean_Output_of_Books_500%E2%80%931800.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AEuropean_Output_of_Printed_Books_ca._1450%E2%80%931800.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AEuropean_Output_of_Manuscripts_500%E2%80%931500.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amazon_Kindlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barnes_%26_Noble_nookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IPadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia


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History of books 11

Selected Resources

Books

The Cambridge history of the book in Britain. Cambridge UK ; New York: Cambridge University Press.

1998-2002. ISBN 0-521-57346-7 (v. 3), ISBN 0-521-66182-X (v. 4) Check |isbn= value (help). Contents: v. 1

ed. Richard Gameson (publication forthcoming 2008), v. 2 eds. Nigel Morgan and Rod Thomson (publicationforthcoming 2007), v. 3 1400-1557 eds. Lotte Hellinga and J.B. Trapp, v. 4 1557-1695 eds. John Barnard and

D.F. McKenzie, with the assistance of Maureen Bell.

Histoire de l'dition franaise. Paris: Fayard : Cercle de la Librairie. 1989-. ISBN 2-213-02399-9 (v. 1) Check

|isbn= value (help). v. 1-4 ; eds. Roger Chartier and Henri-Jean Martin.

Histoire des bibliothques franaises. Paris: Promodis-d. du Cercle de la Librairie. 1988-. ISBN 2-903181-72-1

(v. 1) Check |isbn= value (help). v. 1-4 ; eds. Andr Vernet, Claude Jolly, Dominique Varry, Martine Poulain.

Blair, Ann (2010). Too Much to Know: Managing Scholarly Information before the Modern Age. Yale University

Press. ISBN 978-0300165395.

Chartier, Roger (c. 2005).Inscrire et effacer : culture crite et littrature (XIe-XVIIIe sicle). Paris: Gallimard :Le Seuil. ISBN 2-02-081580-X.

Chow, Kai-Wing (2004).Publishing, Culture, and Power in Early Modern China. Stanford: Stanford University

Press. ISBN 0-8047-3368-6.

Craughwell, Thomas J., and Damon Smith (2004). Q.P.B. Short History of the Paperback, and Other Milestones

in Publishing. New and updated ed. New York: Quality Paperback Book Club. ISBN 1-58288-104-9

Dane, Joseph (2003). The Myth of Print Culture: Essays on Evidence, Textuality, and Bibliographical Method.

Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-8775-2 9780802087751 Check |isbn= value (help).

Darnton, Robert (1985, c1984). The great cat massacre and other episodes in French cultural history.

Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-055089-5. Diringer, David (1982). The book before printing : ancient, medieval, and oriental. New York: Dover.

ISBN 0-486-24243-9.

Eisenstein, Elizabeth (2005). The printing revolution in early modern Europe. Cambridge UK ; New York:

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84543-2, ISBN 0-521-60774-4 Check |isbn= value (help).

Febvre, Lucien; and Henri-Jean Martin (1997). The coming of the book : the impact of printing 1450-1800.

London: Verso. ISBN 1-85984-108-2. tr. by David Gerard ; ed. by Geoffrey Nowell-Smith and David Wootton ;

Note : reprint, other reprints by this publisher 1990 & 1984, originally published (London : N.L.B., 1976) ;

Translation of L'apparition du livre.

Finkelstein, David (2005).An introduction to book history. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31442-9, ISBN

0-415-31443-7 Check |isbn= value (help).

Hall, David (1996). Cultures of Print: Essays in the History of the Book. Amherst: University of Massachusetts

Press. ISBN 0585142076 9780585142074 Check |isbn= value (help).

History of the book in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. 2004-2007. ISBN 0-8020-8943-7 (v. 1),

ISBN 0-8020-8012-X (v. 2), ISBN 978-0-8020-9047-8 (v. 3) Check |isbn= value (help). Contents: v. 1 eds.

Patricia Fleming and Fiona Black (2004), v. 2 eds. Patricia Fleming, Yvan Lamonde, and Fiona Black (2005), v. 3

eds. Carole Gerson and Jacques Michon (2007).

Howsam, Leslie (2006). Old Books and New Histories: An orientation to studies in book and print culture.

Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9438-4.

Johns, Adrian (1998). The Nature of the Book: Print and Knowledge in the Making. Chicago: The University of

Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-40122-5.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-226-40122-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9438-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:CS1_errors%23bad_isbnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-8020-8943-7_%28v._1%29%2C_ISBN_0-8020-8012-X_%28v._2%29%2C_ISBN_978-0-8020-9047-8_%28v._3%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-8020-8943-7_%28v._1%29%2C_ISBN_0-8020-8012-X_%28v._2%29%2C_ISBN_978-0-8020-9047-8_%28v._3%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:CS1_errors%23bad_isbnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0585142076_9780585142074http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Massachusetts_Presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Massachusetts_Presshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:CS1_errors%23bad_isbnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-415-31442-9%2C_ISBN_0-415-31443-7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-415-31442-9%2C_ISBN_0-415-31443-7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/1-85984-108-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henri-Jean_Martinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lucien_Febvrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:CS1_errors%23bad_isbnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-521-84543-2%2C_ISBN_0-521-60774-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elizabeth_Eisensteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-486-24243-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=David_Diringerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-14-055089-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Darntonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:CS1_errors%23bad_isbnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-8020-8775-2_9780802087751http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-8047-3368-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/2-02-081580-Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ann_M._Blairhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:CS1_errors%23bad_isbnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/2-903181-72-1_%28v._1%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/2-903181-72-1_%28v._1%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henri-Jean_Martinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:CS1_errors%23bad_isbnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/2-213-02399-9_%28v._1%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:CS1_errors%23bad_isbnhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-521-57346-7_%28v._3%29%2C_ISBN_0-521-66182-X_%28v._4%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Number


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History of books 12

Katz, Bill (1998). Cuneiform to computer : a history of reference sources. Lanham Md.: Scarecrow Press.

ISBN 0-8108-3290-9. Series : History of the book, no. 4.

Martin, Henri-Jean (c. 2004).Les mtamorphoses du livre. Paris: Albin Michel. ISBN 2-226-14237-1. Series :

Itinraires du savoir.

McKitterick, David (2003).Print, Manuscript and the Search for Order, 1450-1830. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. ISBN 0-521-82690-X. Price, Leah (2012).How to Do Things with Books in Victorian Britain. Princeton University Press. ISBN

978-0691114170.

Thiollet, Jean-Pierre (2005).Je m'appelle Byblos, H & D, Paris. ISBN 2-914266-04-9

Warner, Michael (1990). The Letters of the Republic: Publication and the Public Sphere in Eighteenth-Century

America. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-52785-2.

Periodicals

The Library: Transactions of The Bibliographical Society. London: Bibliographical Society. 1889-. ISSN

0024-2160. The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America. New York: Bibliographical Society of America. 1899-.

ISSN 0006-128X.

The Papers of the Bibliographical Society of Canada. Toronto, Canada: The Bibliographical Society of Canada.

1962-. ISSN 0067-6896.

Studies in Bibliography. Charlottesville, VA: The Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia. 1948-.

ISSN 0081-7600.

Archiv fr Geschichte des Buchwesens. Frankfurt am Main: Buchhndler-Vereinigung. 1956-. ISSN 0066-6327.

Annual bibliography of the history of the printed book and libraries. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. 1970-. ISSN

0303-5964. Script & Print. Australia: Bibliographical Society of Australia and New Zealand. 1970-. ISSN 1834-9013. Note:

previouslyBulletin of the Bibliographical Society of Australia and New Zealand.

Quaerendo. Amsterdam: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Ltd. 1971-. ISSN 0014-9527. Note "A quarterly journal from

the low countries devoted to manuscripts and printed books."

Revue franaise d'histoire du livre. Bordeaux: Socit des bibliophiles de Guyenne. 1971-. ISSN

0037-92120048-8070.

Book History. United States of America: Society for the History of Authorship, Reading & Printing. 1998-. ISSN

1098-7371.

References

[1] Leila Avrin. Scribes, Script and Books. The Book Arts from Antiquity to the Renaissance. American Library Association / The British Library

1991, p. 83.

[2] Bernhard Bischoff.Latin Palaeography: Antiquity and the Middle Ages, Cambridge University Press 2003 [reprint], p. 11.

[3][3] Needham, V 1

[4][4] Needham, V 1, p. 123

[5] Burns, Robert I.: "Paper comes to the West, 8001400", in: Lindgren, Uta:Europische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und

Innovation, 4th ed., Gebr. Mann Verlag, Berlin 1996, ISBN 3-7861-1748-9, pp. 413422 (418)

[6] Thompson, Susan: "Paper Manufacturing and Early Books",Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol. 314 (1978), pp. 167176

(169)

[7] Lucas, Adam Robert: "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in

Medieval Europe", Technology and Culture, Vol. 46, No. 1 (2005), pp. 130 (28, fn. 70)
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Technology_and_Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quaerendohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-674-52785-2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jean-Pierre_Thiollethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Leah_Pricehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-521-82690-Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/2-226-14237-1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henri-Jean_Martinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:BookSources/0-8108-3290-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Standard_Book_Number


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[10] Judaic Treasures of the Library of Congress: First Book in Africa (http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/loc/Africa.html)

[11] Nepal Bhasa Manka Khala (http://guthi.net/mankakhala/learn_famouswriter.html)

[12] Robert Darnton, The Case for Books: Past, Present and Future , New York, Public Affairs, 2009. ISBN 978-1-58648-826-0.

[13] http://www.drew.edu/grad-content.aspx?id=2352[14] http://www.buchwissenschaft.uni-mainz.de

[15] http://www.english.ttu.edu/grad_degrees/BH_default.asp

[16] http://www.hss.ed.ac.uk/chb/postgraduatestudy.htm

[17] http://www.buchwiss.uni-erlangen.de/

[18] http://ies.sas.ac. uk/study/MAHOB/index. htm

[19] http://www.uni-muenster.de/Buchwiss/Studieren/master_of_arts.html

[20] http://bookhistory.fis.utoronto.ca/

[21] http://www.uva. nl

[22] http://handbook.curtin.edu.au/units/31/312761. html

External links

Society for the History of Authorship, Reading and Publishing (http://www.sharpweb.org/)

History of the Book at the American Antiquarian Society (http://www.americanantiquarian.org/hob.htm)

Toronto Centre for the Book (http://bookhistory.fis. utoronto.ca/TCB.html)

Development of the Printed Page (http://www.sc.edu/library/digital/collections/printedpage.html) at the

University of South Carolina Library's Digital Collections Page

Consortium of European Research Libraries (http://www.cerl.org)

12 - 17th century manuscripts, including Vulgates, Books of Hours, Wills, Legal Contracts and Medicinal Texts,

Center for Digital Initiatives, University of Vermont Libraries (http://cdi.uvm.edu/collections/getCollection.

xql?pid=manuscripts&title=Medieval and Renaissance Manuscripts)

Fischer, Ernst: The Book Market(http:/

/

nbn-resolving.de/

urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921223), European HistoryOnline, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2010, retrieved: June 14, 2012.

The Atlas of Early Printing (http://atlas.lib.uiowa.edu/)

The European Society for Textual Scholarship. (http://www.textualscholarship.eu/index.html)

Society for Textual Scholarship. (http://textualsociety.org/)
http://textualsociety.org/http://www.textualscholarship.eu/index.htmlhttp://atlas.lib.uiowa.edu/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Institute_of_European_Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_History_Onlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=European_History_Onlinehttp://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921223http://cdi.uvm.edu/collections/getCollection.xql?pid=manuscripts&title=Medieval%20and%20Renaissance%20Manuscriptshttp://cdi.uvm.edu/collections/getCollection.xql?pid=manuscripts&title=Medieval%20and%20Renaissance%20Manuscriptshttp://www.cerl.org/http://www.sc.edu/library/digital/collections/printedpage.htmlhttp://bookhistory.fis.utoronto.ca/TCB.htmlhttp://www.americanantiquarian.org/hob.htmhttp://www.sharpweb.org/http://handbook.curtin.edu.au/units/31/312761.htmlhttp://www.uva.nl/http://bookhistory.fis.utoronto.ca/http://www.uni-muenster.de/Buchwiss/Studieren/master_of_arts.htmlhttp://ies.sas.ac.uk/study/MAHOB/index.htmhttp://www.buchwiss.uni-erlangen.de/http://www.hss.ed.ac.uk/chb/postgraduatestudy.htmhttp://www.english.ttu.edu/grad_degrees/BH_default.asphttp://www.buchwissenschaft.uni-mainz.de/http://www.drew.edu/grad-content.aspx?id=2352http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Darntonhttp://guthi.net/mankakhala/learn_famouswriter.htmlhttp://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/loc/Africa.html


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Article Sources and Contributors 14

Article Sources and ContributorsHistory of books Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=588515515 Contributors: Aethralis, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Alcmaeonid, Ananda01, Angrysockhop, Angusmclellan,Antandrus, Anthony Appleyard, Apparition11, Arnaud Bourgeois, Aweedon, BD2412, Being blunt, Bgochuico, Bobblewik, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Bookcentreuk, Borisblue, Brendanfredwards,Canterbury Tail, Capricorn42, Carturo222, Celefin, Charles Matthews, CharlesMartel, Cherubinirules, Cmdrjameson, Coelacan, Cold Season, CommonsDelinker, CultureDrone, CyrilB,DavidLeighEllis, Dobie80, Dodger67, Donner60, Download, Dp462090, Dpzuberbier, Dr.K., Drmies, Dthomsen8, Dukemeiser, Ekotkie, Eleassar, Erhudy, Faye.thompson12, Federico Tortorelli,Fluffernutter, Flyer22, GUllman, Gaius Cornelius, GenQuest, Gilgamesh, Godardesque, Gun Powder Ma, Harburg, Hasan toha, Herr Lennartz, Hillbillyholiday, Hmains, Hopeandreason, I dreamof horses, I'm not human, Ian.thomson, Iimimform, J Crow, J.delanoy, JBVaughan, JLCA, Jamescbehrens, Jaqeli, Jeff3000, Jen.cooper, Jfurr1981, John, Johnbod, Josephprymak, JrChurchXtrM,

Juliana 8, Juliancolton, Kessler, Kevinalewis, Klnasy, KnowledgeOfSelf, KolyaFrankovich, Ktr101, LSpinks, Langbein Rise, Lawilkin, Lawrencekhoo, Leo Hicks, Lpress, MCTales,Madkayaker, MakeRocketGoNow, Man vyi, Mandarax, MarcK, Marechal Ney, Materialscientist, Mens.E11, Michael93555, Mild Bill Hiccup, Monterey Bay, Mytwosense, Mywiiman,Nedrutland, Neko-chan, Neurolysis, Ninj, Ntsimp, Olaf Simons, Ombudswiki, PZFUN, Palaeography Room, Paularblaster, Pegship, Pepper, Petrvs, Philippe, Pnm, Polylerus, Pompilos,Pontificalibus, Prm 1302, Pustelnik, Pwiener, Quadalpha, Qxz, Rbellin, Redlentil, RicardoSignes, Rich Farmbrough, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Riventree, SDC, Saddhiyama, Samsara,SandyWambold, SarahStierch, Scholargipsy, SchreiberBike, Shape84, ShelfSkewed, Shii, SimonTrew, Sonjaaa, Spedding, StephenBuxton, Stephenb, Sxhpb, The Thing That Should Not Be,TheStripdOne, Trace.murphy, TwistOfCain, Twthmoses, Ubach, Ulrich68, Uvmcdi, VMS Mosaic, Vald, Vegaswikian, Wayne Slam, WereSpielChequers, Wicoloser, Xymox12, , 224anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Printing3 Walk of Ideas Berlin.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Printing3_Walk_of_Ideas_Berlin.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported Contributors: Lienhard Schulz

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Contributors: vlasta2, bluefootedbooby on flickr.comFile:Dresden codex, page 2.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dresden_codex,_page_2.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Hydrargyrum, Kilom691, Linear77,Odder, Pimlottc

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