historicism and relativism in nursing

7/25/2019 Historicism and Relativism in Nursing

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Running Head: RELATIVISM AND HISTORICISM IN NURSING

Relativist and Historicist Perspectives in Nursing Science

Joshua Capps, BSN, RN, PhD Student

University of Louisville


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RELATIVISM AND HISTORICISM IN NURSING

Introduction

Nursing scholarship and no!ledge develop"ent are fir"ly rooted in a variety of

philosophical traditions# $ccording to Polifroni and %elch, &Philosophy of science in nursing

sees to understand truth, to provide a description of nursing, to propose an understanding of

e'planation, to e'a"ine prediction, causality and la!, to critically relate theories, "odels and

scientific syste"s( )*+++, p# -# Rodgers further asserts that &Philosophy offers a !ide array of

vie!points and argu"ents fro" !hich nurses can re.evaluate the no!ledge /ase of nursing and

perhaps construct even strong and "ore useful characteri0ations( )122, p# *3-# Rodgers

contends that understanding no!ledge develop"ent in nursing encourages discipline gro!th

and pro"otes a foundation of solid pra'is )Rodgers, 122-# By e'a"ining these philosophical

underpinnings of nursing and their role in theory develop"ent for research and practice, nurses

stand to diversify their "ethods of in4uiry and understanding of nursing#

Historically, nursing scholars have adopted a "ultitude of philosophical approaches to

nursing# Jean %atson )*++- detailed a post."odern paradig" of the nursing discipline,

advocating for a shift in no!ledge and practice and reconstruction of the discipline# Si"ilarly,

Laura D0urec discussed a post.structural, "ultiparadig"atic approach to nursing, !hich goes

/eyond the si"ple li"its of in4uiry to allo! nurse researchers to focus on &5he "etaphysical and

political assu"ptions that structure and li"it the content of nursing( )*+6+, p# 78-# 9e! nurse

scholars have e'a"ined the discipline of nursing through a historicist or relativist lens#

Relativis" is a /elief that all no!ledge, clai"s, and truths are products of differing

conventions and are dependent upon the conte't !hich gave rise to the" )Baghra"ian : Carter,

12*-# 5his assertion is corro/orated fro" the historicist perspective, !hich stresses the

i"portance of understanding relative to a historical conte't, that no!ledge clai"s are a


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reflection of local culture, and not representative of an independent reality );atheson :

Dall"ann, 12*< Reynolds, *+++-# 5he purpose of this paper is to descri/e the philosophical

approaches of historicis" and relativis", present three significant philosophers !ith si"ilar

approaches, and discuss ho! these vie!s are relevant to the theory of Culture Care Diversity and

Universality of ;adeleine Leininger#

Historicism and Relativism

Historicis" e"phasi0es a particular and conte'tual vie! over a universal truth )Reynolds,

*+++-# 5!o i"portant tenets of historicis" are &5o /e understood properly things "ust /e

considered !ithin their historical conte'ts( )Reynolds, *+++, p# *- and &Standards of rationality

are not fi'ed and eternal, /ut change over ti"e( )Reynolds, *+++, p# 1-# 5hese discussions first

arose fro" the !ors of =ia"/attista >ico and Johann Herder in the "id.*722s, as an opposition

to the ?nlighten"ent ideal of an ahistorical and universal rationality )Reynolds, *+++-# 5his

?nlighten"ent concept !as /uilt upon the assu"ption that a universal rationality can /e applied

to all people and cultures and that hu"an history is a linear process )Reynolds, *+++-# 5his idea

!as strongly refuted /y >ico and Herder, !ho /elieved that each historical epoch and cultural

unit !as uni4ue )Reynolds, *+++-#

Historicis" !as later revived /y =eorg %ilhel" 9riedrich Hegel in the *622s !ith his

discussions of the history of philosophy );astin, 1226-# Later coined as Hegelian Historicis",

this school of thought contended that all societies and activities are defined /y their history

);astin, 1226-# Hegel further suggested that in order to understand a person, you "ust first

understand their society, and to fully understand their society, you "ust understand that society@s

history );astin, 1226-# Hegel posited significantly i"portant attitudes to!ards rationality,

e"phasi0ing the i"portance of a relativist approach to understand a person and their culture#


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Historicis" upholds that societies and cultures are products of the historic succession of events

and local occurrences )Reynolds, *+++-#

5he later historicists, including Auhn, 5oul"in, Hanson, Laatos, and Laudan, sought to

understand science in ter"s of /road, glo/al units, such as research traditions, paradig"s,

research progra""es, and disciplines, in opposition to the ada"ant adherents of logical

positivis" )Cull.%il/y : Pepin, *+67< Silva : Roth/art, *+6-# Silva and Roth/art define the

historicist research tradition as &$ /roadly /ased foundation of "any theories and is an accepted

!ay of vie!ing the funda"ental pheno"ena !ithin a discipline( )*+6, p# 3-# 5he historicists

sa! science as &$ process of hu"an /ehavior and thought e'hi/ited /y practicing scientists( )p#

-, !hich !as a star contrast to the vie!s of logical e"piricists !ho evaluated science relative

to its product )Silva : Roth/art, *+6-# Historicis" per"itted a sense of su/ectivity in science,

positing a "ore holistic and hu"anistic approach to theory construction )Silva : Roth/art,

*+6-# Research traditions or disciplines are grounded in colla/oration /et!een scientists,

allo!ing for no!ledge integration across disciplines )Silva : Roth/art, *+6-# 5his integration,

as discerned /y Larry Laudan, pro"otes a "ultidi"ensional approach to understanding

pheno"ena )Cull.%il/y : Pepin, *+67-#

$ si"ilar episte"ological approach, relativis", further e"phasi0es evaluating scientific

progress relative to a specific fra"e!or of assess"ent )Baghra"ian : Carter, 12*-# 5his

fra"e!or "ay /e constituted of a specific culture, social nor"s, or individual standards

)Baghra"ian : Carter, 12*-# Relativis" can /e e"ployed in a variety of settings, including

"oral, cultural, and episte"ic applications )Baghra"ian : Carter, 12*-# $n i"portant aspect of

relativis" is its covariance definition# 5his concept suggests that any o/ect is dependent upon

and co.varies !ith its do"ain or fra"e of reference )Baghra"ian : Carter, 12*-# $s the


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approach of relativis" can /e /roadly applied, defined, and used in a "ultitude of disciplines, it

!ill only /e narro!ly used in this paper for its covariance definition# n order to "ore /roadly

understand these philosophical approaches, this paper !ill discuss three authors !ith si"ilar

vie!points

Philosophers

$ "ultitude of philosophers and scholars have contri/uted to the episte"ological

approaches of relativis" and historicis"# 5he follo!ing section !ill discuss Stephen 5oul"in,

"re Laatos, and Larry Laudan, and their e'pansions to the historicist and relativist

perspectives#

Stephen Toulmin (1922-2009)

Stephen 5oul"in, !ho earned a PhD in ?thics fro" the University of Ca"/ridge in *+6,

!as a se"inal scholar in the field of /ioethics )Johnson, 122+-# Upon arriving in the United

States, 5oul"in served as a faculty "e"/er at a plethora of top.tier acade"ic institutions,

including Dart"outh, Colu"/ia, Stanford, and the University of Chicago )Johnson, 122+-#

5oul"in@s historicist and relativist roots lie in his evolutionary vie!s of scientific change and his

case./ased approach to reasoning and rationality )$rras, 12*2-#

n the *+72s, 5oul"in !as selected to serve as the staff philosopher for the Bel"ont

Report, a govern"ent co""ission concerned !ith /ioethical issues in "edical research and

practice )Jonsen, 12*2-# %hile serving in this role, 5oul"in developed strong interests in

casuistry, a "ethod of "oral reasoning originally used /y the "edieval Catholic Church

)Cavalier, 1221-# 5oul"in@s casuistry applies a case./ased approach to reasoning that is anti.

theoretical in nature and reected the top.do!n approach to pro/le" solving )5oul"in, *+87-#


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5oul"in felt that all rationality and certitude in decision."aing are conte'tual, and cannot /e

solved !ith universal la!s, thus his refutation of theoretical approaches )5oul"in, *+87-# 5hese

/eliefs resonate !ith historicist and relativist vie!s, as they iterate the i"portance of situation.

/ased reasoning and the conte'tuality of understanding#

5oul"in further inti"ated his historicist vie!s in his discussions of the evolutionary

account of scientific change )5oul"in, *+87-# 5oul"in, !ho preferred the ter" scientific

research discipline, felt that these disciplines should /e vie!ed as &$ developing su/ect having

a continuity through ti"e, and characteri0ed as "uch /y its process of gro!th as /y the content

of anyone one historical cross.section( )*+87, p# 88-# 5oul"in asserted this evolutionary

transfor"ation of scientific disciplines, as they transition fro" one historical cross.section to the

ne't )5oul"in, *+87-# 5his idea is captivated /y 5oul"in@s state"ent that &%henever one turns to

consider the develop"ent of science in any particular culture, nation, or epoch, one fruitful first

4uestions can /e, @En !hose /ac !as Science riding at this stageF@( )*+87, p# 8*-# 5his allo!s

for further appreciation of 5oul"in@s relativist vie!s, as he continually asserts that scientific

progress &Has al!ays /een contingent on other activities or institutions, !hichGinadvertently or

/y designG have provided occasions for "en to pursue scientific investigations( )*+87, p# 8*-#

9ro" 5oul"in@s discourse, the covariance definition of relativis" and historicist i"plications for

scientific evaluation /eco"e "uch clearer# 5his critical evaluation of the societal, cultural, and

political influences on scientific activity provides a "ore concise, accurate portrayal of the

specific pheno"ena and its relevance to that ti"e period#

Imre Laatos (1922-19!")

Laatos !as /orn in Hungary to a pro"inent Je!ish fa"ily )=odfrey.S"ith, 1223-# $fter

!eathering the Na0i invasion and rise of Hitler, Laatos studied "athe"atics, physics, and


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philosophy, eventually receiving a PhD in Philosophy fro" the University of Ca"/ridge

)EConnor : Ro/ertson, 1223-# Ence co"pleting doctoral education, Laatos !ould spend the

re"ainder of his unfortunately a//reviated life as a professor in the London School of

?cono"ics )EConnor : Ro/ertson, 1223-#

$ "aor portion of Laatos@s pu/lished discourse e'a"ined his idea of research

progra""es and their role in no!ledge develop"ent# Laatos@s description of these research

progra""es is si"ilar to Auhn@s discussions of research paradig"s# Laatos !rote &$ccording

to "y "ethodology the great scientific achieve"ents are research progra""es !hich can /e

evaluated in ter"s of progressive and degenerating pro/le"shifts< and scientific revolutions

consist of one research progra""e superseding another( )Laatos, *+76, p# **2-# n this

definition of scientific achieve"ent, Laatos alludes to a sense of historicis" and relativis",

indicating an organic progression of pro/le"shifts in science, !hich lead to ne!er research

progra""es superseding older ones )Laatos, *+76-# Pro/le"shifts occur and are /ased upon

theories /uilding upon and superseding each other )Laatos, *+76-# 5his discussion !as fully

presented in his *+76 /oo, the Methodology of Scientific Research Programmes.n this /oo,

Laatos refuted Popper@s falsificationis", stating that falsification should not lead to reection,

rather these ano"alies should /e recorded and acno!ledged, &/ut not acted upon( )Laatos,

*+76, p# ***-# Research progra""es, according to Laatos, are co"prised of t!o distinct unitsI a

hard core and a protective /elt )Laatos, *+76-# Laatos !rote that the protective /elt of these

progra""es is co"posed of &au'iliary hypotheses !hich /ear the /runt of tests( )Laatos, *+76,

p# ***-# 5he theories !ithin the protective /elt are "eant to e'plain the hard core, for"ing chains

of integration and progression /ased upon novel predictions )Laatos, *+76-# Posthu"ous essays

on "re Laatos further e'pound his focus on historical relativity and case la! as "aor criteria


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for scientific udg"ent and incorporation into scientific progra""es )5oul"in, *+78-# 5hese

later develop"ents lend even greater credence to his assertions of historicis" and relativis" in

science#

Larr# Laudan (19"1-Present)

$ final philosopher of great interest in the historicist and relativist perspective is Larry

Laudan# Laudan received his /achelors of arts in physics in *+81 and later o/tained a PhD in

philosophy fro" Princeton University in *+8 )Shoo, 122-# Laudan has assu"ed various

faculty positions in philosophical and legal sciences at >irginia Polytechnic University, the

University of Ha!aii, and the University of 5e'as at $ustin )Shoo, 122-#

Si"ilar to Laatos@s discussions of research progra""es, Laudan ela/orated on the

concept of research traditions# 9or Laudan, research traditions !ere defined asI

$ set of /eliefs a/out !hat sort of entities and process "ae the do"ain of in4uiry

and a set of episte"ic and "ethodological nor"s a/out ho! the do"ain is to /e

investigated, ho! theories are to /e tested, ho! data are to /e collected and the lie

)as cited in =oren/erg, *+63, p# 37-#

Laudan sa! research traditions as traversing an evolutionary process, in !hich traditions

continually "odify the"selves /ased on de"ands )=oren/erg, *+63-# 9urther"ore Laudan spoe

of the inti"ate relationship /et!een theories and research traditions, in !hich these traditions

e'ist to e'plain theories and facilitate solving pro/le"s !hich ste" fro" the" )=oren/erg,

*+63-# Research traditions are "eant to /e applied to their given historical period, in !hich they

serve the greatest utility# $s the progression of ti"e i"poses ne! de"ands on the tradition, it

thus alters itself to /etter e'plain the 4uestions of this ne! epoch@s theories# 5his evolutionary


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account of scientific change does not assu"e cu"ulativity );atheson : Dall"ann, 12*-#

Laudan reected the notion that progress in science re4uires a fi'ed "ethodology, the

cu"ulativity of previous innovations, and the convergence on a universal truth )Shoo, 122-#

Rather, Laudan advocated for evaluating no!ledge clai"s relative to their research tradition

and shifted the lens of in4uiry to &pro/le".solving( )Rodgers, 122-#

5hese ideas can /e further understood /y e'a"ining Laudan@s *+6* !ritings of an

approach to evaluating scientific progress# n this discussion, Laudan fre4uently incorporates the

i"portance of relativity in no!ledge evaluation# 9or e'a"ple, Laudan states &5he vie!s of

for"er scientists a/out ho! theories should /e evaluated "ust enter into udg"ents a/out ho!

rational those scientists !ere in testing their theories in the !ays that they did( )Laudan, *+6*, p#

*6-# n this state"ent !e see Laudan@s acno!ledg"ent that scientific develop"ents !ere

highly relative to their ti"e period and the fra"e!ors of the acting scientists#

In$luence on %ursin& Theor#

Theoretical 'ssumptions

Leininger listed nu"erous theoretical assu"ptions in descri/ing her vie!point of culture

care# 5he first assu"ption is that &Care is essential for hu"an gro!th, !ell/eing, and survival

and to face death or disa/ility( )Leininger, *+66, p# *-# Leininger, si"ilar to Ere" and %atson,

felt that caring and care are the central, crucial co"ponent !hich unifies all nursing# 5he second

assu"ption of her theory !as that there are &Diverse and universal for"s, e'pressions, patterns,

and processes that e'ist transculturally( )Leininger, *+66, p# *-# 5his assu"ptions lists the

ter"s diverse, universal, and transcultural, all of !hich !ere Leininger@s /u00!ords in her

discussion of culture care theory# Leininger fre4uently acno!ledged that there are transcultural


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differences and si"ilarities across groups, and it is i"portant for the scholar to recogni0e these

diversities and universalities in their study of other cultural groups# Leininger further defined

cultural care diversity as &5he varia/ility of "eanings, patterns, values, or sy"/ols of care that

are culturally derived /y hu"ans for their !ell./eing or to i"prove a hu"an condition and

life!ay or to face death( )Leininger, *+66, p# *8-# ?4ually i"portant is the concept of cultural

care universality, !hich !as defined as &Co""on, si"ilar, or unifor" "eanings, patterns,

values, or sy"/ols of care that are culturally derived /y hu"ans for their !ell./eing or to

i"prove a hu"an condition and life!ay or to face death( )Leininger, *+66, p# *8-# Leininger

discussed each of these concepts !ith e4ual i"portance, acno!ledging that cultural scholars

fre4uently use their o!n culture as a referent for other cultures of interest# n this u'taposition of

cultures, the e'ploration of diversities and universalities facilitates teasing out critically

i"portant constructs underlying a culture#

$ third assu"ption of Leininger@s theory !as that &Care is the essence of nursing and the

distinct, do"inant, and unifying feature of nursing( )*+66, p# *-# 9ro" this state"ent,

Leininger@s devout adherence to her /elief of caring as the cru' of nursing is evident, as "any of

her theoretical fore"others !ould also state# $ fourth assu"ption of the theory of Culture Care is

that &Culture care is the /roadest "eans to no!, e'plain, account for and predict nursing care

pheno"ena and to guide nursing care practices( )Leininger, *+66, p# *-# n this assu"ption

Leininger /egins to provide greater clarity to the role of culture care and its purpose for nursing,

illu"inating that cultural understanding is a crucial co"ponent to all nursing care provisions#

$nother assu"ption provided /y Leininger !as that &Ano!ledge of "eanings and

practices derived fro" !orld vie!s, social structure factors, cultural values, environ"ental

conte't, and language uses are essential to guide nursing decisions and actions in providing


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culturally congruent care( )*+66, p# *-# Leininger fre4uently referred to nursing care that is

&culturally congruent(# 5his notion of congruency i"plies a sense of "utual agree"ent and

consensus, !hich Leininger felt !as crucial to nursing care# Culturally congruent care provides

nursing care that "eets e'pectations and desires of the culture, rather than care that is predicated

on !hat the nurse /elieves is appropriate# 9or this sa"e reason, Leininger reected the use of the

ter" &interventions( in her theory, as she felt this ter" invoed a sense of patriarchy and one.

sided decision."aing )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-# ?'pounding further on this definition,

Leininger syste"atically defined !orld vie!s, social structure, and environ"ental conte't# %orld

vie!s refer to &5he !ay people tend to loo upon the !orld or universe to for" a picture or

value stance a/out their life and the !orld a/out the"(, )Leininger, *+66, p# *8-# 5his relatively

si"ple concept is fre4uently discussed /y Leininger, !ho felt that !orldvie!s !ere greatly

dictated /y cultural, social, and environ"ental conte'ts )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-# Social

structure is &5he dyna"ic nature of interrelated structural or organi0ational factors of a particular

culture and ho! these factors function to give "eaning and structural order, including religious,

inship, political, econo"ic, educational, technological, and cultural factors( )Leininger, *+66, p#

*8-# 5his definition of social structure presents a co"ple' concept that is significantly affected

/y "any other factors# Leininger fre4uently advocates for an intensive e'a"ination of social

structure !hen using the theory of Culture Care, as this !ill provide the scholar !ith a "uch

greater understanding of the studied culture )Leininger, *+66< Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-# $

final concept of interest for this assu"ption is environ"ental conte't# Leininger defines

environ"ental conte't as &5he totality of an event, situation, or particular e'perience that gives

"eaning to hu"an e'pressions, including social interactions and physical, ecological, e"otional,

and cultural di"ensions( )Leininger, *+66, p# *8-# 5he concept of environ"ent is very /road in


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this "anner and can refer to any nu"/er of factors i"pacting an individual, fa"ily, or cultural

group#

$ si'th assu"ption of her theory !as &Cultures have fol and professional care values,

/eliefs, and practices that influence cultural care practices in %estern and non.%estern cultures(

)Leininger, *+66, p# *-# 9ro" this assu"ption, Leininger laid further theoretical ground!or

/y acno!ledging e"ic and etic health care practices that transcend all cultures# 5he fol health

syste" !as defined /y Leininger as &5raditional or local indigenous health care or cure practices

that have special "eanings and uses to heal or assist people, !hich are generally offered in

fa"iliar ho"e or co""unity environ"ental conte'ts !ith their local practitioners( )*+66, p#

*8-# 5his type of health syste" is co""only no!n as local, traditional, or fol "edicine#

Leininger contends throughout her theory that these traditional practices can /e ust as or "ore

i"portant than professional practices in "any cultures )Leininger, *+66-# ?tic practices involve

professional "edicine practiced in %estern cultures# 5he professional health syste" !as defined

/y Leininger as &Professional care or cure services offered /y diverse health personnel through

for"al professional progra"s of study in special educational institutions( )*+66, p# *8-# 5hese

practices "ay not /e present !hatsoever in "any re"ote cultures !hich entirely use e"ic, or

fol "edicine )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-#

5he seventh assu"ption of this theory is &Care is essential to curing< ho!ever, there can

/e no curing !ithout caring, /ut there can /e caring !ithout curing( )Leininger, *+66, p# *-#

$gain, Leininger returns to the i"portance of care in curative practices, though she

acno!ledges that care does not al!ays pro"ote curing# 5his can /e seen in nursing care

provided in ti"es of disa/ility and death, !hich she discussed in her first theoretical assu"ption#

5his type of nursing process is not focused on curing, per se, /ut re"ains steadfast in adhering to


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Leininger@s definition of care in nursing# $ final assu"ption provided for the theory is that

&Nursing is a transcultural pheno"enon re4uiring no!ledge of different cultures to provide care

that is congruent !ith the clients@ life!ays, social structure, and environ"ental conte't(

)Leininger, *+66, p# *8-#

Theor# Propositions

%hen using her theory of Culture Care Diversity and Universality, Leininger suggests

three different decisionaction "odalities for nurses )Leininger, *+66-# $ccording to Leininger,

culturally congruent care occurs in three distinct "anners in the for" of cultural preservation,

acco""odation, or restructuring )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-# t is helpful to thin of these

"odalities occurring across a spectru", !ith preservation at one end, acco""odation in the

"iddle, and restructuring at the other end# 5he progression fro" preservation to restructuring

involves increasing re4uire"ents for cultural co"pro"ise and adust"ents of cultural /eliefs and

values# ?ach of these sets of actions, or "odalities, is guided /y individual or group needs !ithin

the culture and are each provided in order to pro"ote /eneficial and "eaningful health outco"es

)Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-# Culture care preservation is defined as &$ssistive, supportive,

facilitative, or ena/ling professional actions and decisions that help people of a particular culture

to retain andor "aintain "eaningful care values and life!ays for their !ell./eing( )Leininger :

;c9arland, 1221, p# 6-# n this "odality, nursing actions are designed to "aintain a culture@s

values !ith regards to health, !ell./eing, disa/ilities, or dying )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-#

5hese nursing actions entirely retain the culture@s values, !ithout any i"position of su/ective

values on /ehalf of the nurse or scientist# $ second "odality provided /y Leininger !as culture

care acco""odation, defined as &Professional actions and decisions that help people of a

designated culture to adapt to or to negotiate !ith others for "eaningful, /eneficial, and


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congruent health outco"esI )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221, p# 6-# 5his "odality involves

negotiation, in !hich the nurse assists individuals to acco""odate ne! values or /eliefs, !hile

still "aintaining their o!n cultural values and /eliefs# 5he final, "ost e'tre"e "odality is

restructuring, defined as &Professional actions and decisions that help clients reorder, change, or

"odify their life!ays for ne!, different, and /eneficial health care outco"es( )Leininger :

;c9arland, 1221, p# 6-# n this "odality, an individual or group !ill entirely redefine their

/eliefs and values regarding health# 5he nurse scientists plays a pivotal role in this process, in

providing supportive and ena/ling actions to pro"ote the client@s adust"ent to these changes#

Philosophical nderpinnin& o$ Theor#

5hroughout Leininger@s pu/lications and discussions of her theory of Culture Care

Diversity and Universality, she never specifically recogni0es an episte"ological standpoint

!hich served as the launching pad for her theory# Rather, Leininger contends that the "ain goal

of this theory !as to &Discover transcultural nursing no!ledge to provide culturally congruent

and responsi/le care( )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221, p# 17-# $lthough she does co"pli"ent

anthropology as her initial discipline, Leininger asserts that transcultural nursing is its o!n

discipline, distinctly separate fro" "edical anthropology )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-#

Leininger defined transcultural nursing as a discipline co"prised of hu"anistic and scientific

no!ledge !hich &9ocused on holistic culture care pheno"ena and co"petencies to assist

individuals or groups to "aintain or regain health, deal !ith disa/ilities, dying, or other hu"an

conditions in culturally congruent and /eneficial !ays( )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221, p# 6-#

Leininger acno!ledges that prior to develop"ent of her theory, nursing functioned !ithin a

very narro! !orldvie!, necessitating a shift into a "uch /roader vie! and foundation )Leininger


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: ;c9arland, 1221-# Her efforts to e'pand transcultural nursing !ere a pivotal shift in the

/roadening of nursing@s theoretical no!ledge /ase and pra'is#

Leininger@s theory, !ith culture.care as the central construct, provides a hu"anistic,

holistic approach to understanding )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-# $t the ti"e of its

develop"ent, the "aority of nursing theories resided !ithin the logical positivist do"ain )Silva

: Roth/art, *+6-# Leininger@s theory of Culture Care and her ethnonursing research "ethods

stressed the i"portance of understanding pheno"ena fro" the individual, fa"ily, or cultural

group@s o!n perspective )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-# $ccording to Silva and Roth/art

)*+6-, &5his acco""odation to su/ectivis" is "ore co"pati/le !ith historicis" than the

o/ectivis" of logical e"piricis"( )p# 6-# Leininger@s theory !as an early shift to a perceived

vie! of understanding in nursing )%arelo!, 12*3-# $ccording to ;eleis, &5he perceived vie!

/ases the theoretical constructions of nursing around alternative "ethods, !hich accept values,

su/ectivity, intuition, history, tradition and "ultiple realities although does retain so"e scientific

no!ledge & )12*1, p# *37-# 5his paradig"atic shift in nursing underpins Leininger@s theory of

Culture Care and affords significant relevance to the historicist and relativist perspectives#

Leininger also detailed a co"prehensive "ethod of conducting transcultural nursing

research using her 4ualitative ethnonursing research "ethod )Leininger, *+66-# Leininger

descri/ed this research "ethod as &$ 4ualitative nursing research "ethod focused on naturalistic,

open discovery and largely inductive )e"ic- "odes to docu"ent, descri/e, e'plain, and interpret

infor"ants@ !orldvie!, "eanings, sy"/ols, and life e'periences as they /ear on actual or

potential nursing care pheno"ena( )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221, p# 6-# 5his focus on e"ic

in4uiry captivates the i"portance of the covariance definition in relativis"# $ccording to

Leininger@s vie! of ethnonursing, e"ic in4uiry e'a"ines o/ects pertaining to nursing and ho!


16/21


they are dependent on and co.vary !ithin the cultural fra"e!or of assess"ent )Leininger :

;c9arland, 1221-# Leininger also iterates the i"portance of cultural history, ter"ed ethnohistory,

and ho! it shapes and affects cultural attitudes, values, and /eliefs pertaining to care and caring

)Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-# 5his contingency on historical and cultural conte't, !hich

transcends Leininger@s theory, is an e'a"ple of historicist and relativist perspectives !ithin

nursing science#

Historicis" and relativis" "ay also serve as ro/ust fra"e!ors in !holly evaluating

nursing theorists and their theories# $ccording to %arelo!, &$ll peoplenurses are e"/edded in,

and the su/ects of, their o!n personal histories and the specific histories relating to the conte'ts

in !hich they !or( )12*3, p# 3+-# Here the author acno!ledges that nursing theorists and their

products are not independent of their historical epoch, /ut highly influenced /y its political,

econo"ic, and cultural cli"ate )%arelo!, 12*3-# Nursing theorists, the"selves, are products of

their o!n ti"e period, forged /y the prevailing /eliefs, values, and attitudes of that era#

ulturall# *iverse Populations

5he theory of Culture Care Diversity and Universality and its theoretical underpinnings

lend the"selves !ell to a salient application in culturally diverse populations# Leininger@s

pri"ary purpose /ehind develop"ent of this theory !as to accurately descri/e nursing

pheno"ena !ithin a cultural conte't, and use these findings to provide nursing care that is

culturally congruent !ith the individual, fa"ily, or group@s specific needs )Leininger :

;c9arland, 1221-# Leininger@s theory, along !ith its Sunrise Model, provides a holistic,

co"prehensive approach to e'a"ine the variety of factors influencing a culture@s vie! of care

and caring and the i"plications for nursing practice# 5his is corro/orated /y the historicist and


17/21


relativist perspectives, !hich purport that in order to understand a concept, person, or group, you

"ust understand the society and its history )Reynolds, *+++-#

?"ic in4uiry and ethnonursing research "ethodologies are highly conducive to

e'a"ining nursing pheno"ena !ithin a culturally diverse conte't )Leininger : ;c9arland,

1221-# 5he "ethodology of ethnonursing research !as specifically designed to ascertain

4ualitative data regarding a specific culture@s !orldvie!s, values, /eliefs, and their i"plications

to nursing pheno"ena )Leininger : ;c9arland, 1221-# Currently, a su/stantial volu"e of

literature supports the use Leiningers theory and ethnonursing "ethod in culturally diverse

populations# 5he theory has /een successfully used to guide research and intervention

develop"ent for nu"erous culture groups, including rural $ppalachian people );i'er, 9ornehed,

>arney, : Lindley, 12*-, Palestinian cancer patients )Saca.Ha0/oun : =lennon, 12**-, Syrian.

$"erican ;usli"s )%eh/e.$la"ah, 12**-, and ;e'ican $"ericans )Hernande0, 12*3< %agner,

122+-#


18/21


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historicism and relativism in nursing

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