RES527

HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHODS IN CONSERVATION

Izmir Yüksek Teknoloji Enstitüsü

A STUDY ON HOW TO FIND, READ AND USE HISTORICAL SOURCES WHENWORKING WITH A RESTORATION PROJECT.

AKSEL STAVE ERVIK

LEVANTINES OF BORNOVA

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RES527 !!HISTORICAL RESEARCH METHODS IN CONSERVATION !The winter 2015 I have been working on developing a restoration plan for the Richard Whittall Mansion in Bornova, Izmir. This has been a part of my course RES501, Design in Architectural Restoration. I have chosen to use my RES527 course as a tool to go into the depth of historical research methods related to my object of restoration specifically, as well as a general way of researching. I have learned about what type of sources one has to consider when working in complex ancient areas, and where these sources could be found. Further on, an important part has been how to evaluate their reliability, and how to re-tell my investigated information in the most correct possible way. As my main project this fall has been the restoration of a Levantine mansion in Bornova, the following study will investigate the history behind both the geographical area of Bornova, as well as the general history of the Levantine people residing there. The information will be presented and explained methodically, based on the historical method used for the course outline. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

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1.1 Starting the research 1.2 What is a source? A source can be any kind of leftover from the past that provides us with information. This may be traces of a building, a train ticket, a letter, a painting or many other things. It can show evidence of the time it dates from, or even from the time before. The following principles are cited from two Scandinavian textbooks on source criticism, Olden-Jørgensen (1998) and Thurén (1997): Human sources may be relics, for example a fingerprint. It can also be narratives, like a statement, a letter, or a painting. Relics are more credible sources than narratives. A given source may be forged or corrupted, so strong indications of the originality of the source will increase its reliability. The closer a source is to the event which it purports to describe, the more one can trust it to give an accurate description of what really happened. These sources can be primary or secondary: Primary sources are original materials that have not been altered or distorted in any way. These sources are mostly found in archives, and have a higher reliability than a secondary source. Secondary sources are documents or recordings that relates or discusses information originally presented elsewhere, usually primary sources. Secondary sources involve generalization, analysis, synthesis, interpretation, or evaluation of the original information. To determine whether a source is primary or secondary depends on the context in which they are used, as well as subjective meanings. The tendency of a source is its motivation for providing some kind of bias. Tendencies should be minimized or supplemented with opposite motivations. If it can be demonstrated that the witness (or source) has no direct interest in creating bias, the credibility of the message is increased. 1.3 Where to search for sources Primary sources with a certain age are often highly valued, and mainly found in museums and archives. Some sources are still in its original place, such as buildings and geological elements, and can be researched directly with or without permission. Original letters, drawings, photos and paintings can also be held private, and is hard to get access to or knowledge about.

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Most secondary sources like maps, books and published documents are available in libraries. Some of them might also be digital, and available on the Internet. Today, the Internet is our easiest access to sources, but it also makes it harder for us to determine their reliability, as it is mostly considered a tertiary source. A text written on the Internet is not necessarily less reliable, but the tools for determining the reliability are weaker as we cannot investigate the object physically. The next chapter will therefore provide some helpful tools: 1.4 Source criticism and reliability During the research process, we face many sources. An important thing to consider from the start, is their reliability. This must also be emphasized when setting the model for how to do the research itself. A common method to use as outline for historical research, is the guide to historical method (1946) by Gilbert J. Garraghan. This guide presents the source criticism as 6 inquiries: 1-When was the source, written or unwritten, produced (date)? 2-Where was it produced (localization)? 3-By whom was it produced (authorship)? 4-From what pre-existing material was it produced (analysis)? 5-In what original form was it produced (integrity)? 6-What is the evidential value of its contents (credibility)? While answering these inquiries, the level of reliability of the source becomes clearer for the investigator. Sometimes, one may find that the sources are contradictory towards each other. In this case, it is important to use your own common sense when concluding. This also applies throughout the research. 1.5 Approaching the object What sort of information should one start collecting when doing research on a gegraphical site? We firstly search for information that provides a general and neutral understanding of the site. This information can be reached through more reliable sources, and even physically checked in situ. 1.5.1 Name (toponomy) 1.5.2 Geography and ecology 1.5.3 Historical remains and physical appearance In the next stage, we search for information that requires more source critics. It is important to distinguish between neutral sources and more biased sources. A biased

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source can for example be a letter or narration written to give the impression of someone’s greatness, and thus be exaggerated. It can be hard to decide whether a source is neutral, but there are tools that can help to determine the neutrality of the sources. This is explained on the next page. One must also remember that a source may be reliable, without being neutral. 1.5.4 History: political and administrative 1.5.5 Demography 1.5.6 Economic situation 1.5.7 Education and culture Additionally, there are a few more factors that must be taken into consideration when reviewing the sources. We may ask ourselves; is the real meaning of the statement different from its literal meaning, and are words used in senses that are not employed today. Language changes over time, and so does their meanings. We must also be careful if certain statements are meant to be ironic. Although it does not occur often in older texts, we must be aware. More importantly, especially when reviewing first hand sources, is how well could the author observe the thing he reports? We must consider whether his senses were equal to the observation, and if his physical location were suitable to sight, hearing, or touching the item or event described. Do we know how well the author understood the language spoken, or if he had reliable persons around him that did not have any interest in changing the perception of the occurred situation? Time is also an important factor. Did the author describe the event at the time it occurred, or later? There is a big difference between a year after, and fifty years after. If a generation has passed, most eyewitnesses may be gone, and the remaining might have forgotten the relevance. Another clue here is also the intention of reporting. Did he report on behalf of someone, or by his own interest? It may be important to know the authors relation to the people or places described in the text. How the reports were carried out must also be considered. Did the author have the proper time, place and equipment to make a reliable report? The way the report was written will necessarily affect its reliability, and the author’s possibility to reflect over his own material to secure important details has been mentioned. Lastly, when reviewing it is important to ask yourself; does it seem logic? Do we have other reliable sources that contradict with the studied source, and what kind of information is contradictory? A source can also include inner contradictions, and those must always be researched further. A detail that seems less important in one source may be of great importance in another. If anything is improbable contrary to human nature, or in conflict with what we know, it is important to reflect over it before making a statement.

Enjoying Co!ee, unknown painter (French School) "rst half of the 18th century

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2.1 The Levantines 2.2 Toponomy The term levant is an expression used by people from the west to describe people that lived in the east. In French, the world levant means rising, referring to the rising sun in the east1. Similar etymologies to the word is also found in Italian, Spanish (levante) and latin (levare) The word appeared first in English in 14972, and became current in the English language in the 16th century together with the extension of commercial activity with adventures to the east. 2.3 How did they arise? The history of the Levant people has evolved through hundreds of years, and as we use the term today, we refer mostly to the people that did commerce between the east and the west in in the 17-20th century. While the term Levant is used to describe the history of the region, Levants was a general term for people residing there. To understand the evolution of the Levantines, we have to know the history of the Ottoman Empire. With the aim of securing a strong economy to continue their growth, commerce was used as a tool. Commercial centres and routes were developed under control of the empire to perform basic economic functions, following its geopolitical structure. People were encouraged to extend the area of cultivated land, to be able to deliver goods for trade. The Ottoman Empire held not only a powerful geographical location; they had also created a bureaucratic system to benefit from it. Being an intersection between the East and the west, they would administrate the much-needed exchange of goods between the two continents. The French people were the first Europeans to start trading with The Ottoman Empire in a larger scale, and the empire had treasuries to ensure keeping them. In 1535, Suleman the Magnificent signed a capitulation regarding France. The capitulations were bilateral acts, and according to them, traders entering The Ottoman Empire were exempt from local prosecution, local taxation, local conscription and the searching of their domicile.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 -2 Douglas Harper, Online Etymology Dictionary. "Levant" !

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As shipping was growing rapidly, several European countries started to see the benefit of expanding into the east. As countries like China and India were far away, and mostly controlled by the British Empire through the East India Company, The Levant were not monopolized in the same way, and controlled their trading partners themselves. Although Capitulations were signed with certain countries, it was possible for other foreign merchants to trade with the Empire. During the 17th and 18th century, France and England was constantly competing about being the largest trader in the Levant, knowing that the success of one company might kill the other. Geographically, The Ottoman Empire was easily reached trough the Mediterranean Sea, attracting powerful merchants from commercial metropolis such as Venice, Marseille, Amsterdam and London.3 This development was facilitated by the Ottoman Empire using economical tools such as tax exemptions, to encourage further commercial exchange with the western merchants. 2.4 Why Smyrna? In the 18th Century, the three largest commercial ports of the Ottoman Empire were Smyrna, Beirut and Alexandria.4 With the exception of the imperial capitol of Constantinople, they were also the richest. Separated by the Mediterranean Sea, they were each a centre covering a share of the Empire.

Illustration of the three largest commercial ports of the Ottoman Emire in the 18th century.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!3 David Omrod, The Rise of Commercial Empires, Cambridge University Press 2003. 4 Philip Mansel, Levant, 2012.!!!

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Why Smyrna was chosen in favour of other cities in the first place, were mainly based on decisions taken by Sultans. It was a wish for them to concentrate the trade in specific cities. As the eastern part of the empire were in wars with neighbouring countries such as Iran, the trading routes in the east were not safe for commerce anymore. With rebels against the Ottoman Empire elaborating in Aleppo, It was also important to insure that the incomes of the commercial interest did not reach them. Smyrna was developed as a commercial centre to ensure the returns and taxes would be to the best of the Ottoman Empire. Although it was firstly the Sultans who had decided to develop Smyrna as a commercial centre, it was more to it that attracted the merchandisers. An important basis to start commerce, was that there were no powerful families to compete with when it came to commercial interest. Another very important reason was the capitulations as mentioned. The English chartered Venetian Company emerged with the Turkish Company, and formed the Levant Company in 15925. It was granted monopoly of trade in the Levant by a treat signed between England and The Ottoman Empire. The treat had been approved by Queen Elizabeth 1 to cope with the decrease in trade that England had suffered through the past decades. A continuation of the monopoly combined with lack of interference from the government, allowed the commerce to bloom.

Smyrna as seen from the gulf in 1883.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5 T. S. Willan, Some Aspects of English Trade with the Levant in the Sixteenth Century. The English Historical Review, 1955, (p.405)

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2.5 Commercial development Throughout the 15th century, export of cotton had been abandoned in the Empire, as the sultans considered it raw material. The weaving industry of Smyrna therefore started developing, as cloths and carpets of both wool, cotton and silk could be allowed to export. This caused Turkish merchandisers to travel to Italian cities to do trade, and a two-way trade continued evolving. European people wanted more of what could be offered from the East, causing Italian merchandisers to see their incision to expand. Slowly, during the first decades of the 16th century, the French commerce decreased in the Empire, mainly due to French religious wars (1562-1598). The Venice-Ottoman war (1570-1573) also encouraged them to concentrate their commerce around İskenderiye and Aleppo. This was taken advantage to by English and Dutch merchants, who settled in Smyrna. However, the French people quickly got on their feet again, and retained commerce. It was also during this time that the Ottoman Empire experienced a loss of control over administrative influence to the western Anatolia6. In 1575, a wooden customhouse with stairs was built on pylons out in the sea7. This made it easier for big ships to arrive in the harbour, and to load and unload their goods efficiently. More European Merchandisers started settling in Smyrna, building up their companies from products such as cotton, leather, silk and figs8. This commerce was further enabled when the French Ambassador of Istanbul obtained new trading rights in 16049. With the privileged trading conditions accorded to foreigners in 1620, Smyrna was strengthening its position to become one of the most powerful commercial centres in the Empire. The French consulate opened in 1619, and the English one in 1621. In addition, there was a Dutch and a Venetian consulate. Their role was to ensure that the relations between the countries and empires were peaceful, and to manage the administration and communication within the trading communities. The Merchants of states that did not have consulates in Ottoman Turkey, would be enabled to do trade under the flags of the countries that did have consulates.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!6The economy of Izmir today and yesterday, Turkish ministry of culure and Tourism, 2008 7 Galland, Voyage à Smyrne, p 105-106 8 William Knight, Oriental Outlines, or, a Rambler’s Recollections of a Tour in Turkey, Greece and Tuscany i 1838, 1839, p.256-299 9 The economy of Izmir today and yesterday, Turkish ministry of culure and Tourism, 2008!

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Each country or merchant family had their own port with an office where goods would arrive and be declared and distributed. This is an illustration of how one might have looked like. We know that in 1656-57, a fort was constructed at the entrance to the gulf of Smyrna10. This was done to stop Venetian ships attacking, and also to prevent merchants cheating Ottoman customs by taking their loads on and off there. With the construction of the fort, all ships had to show certificates to prove that they had paid tax and been through customs. Pitton De Tournefat, who arrived in Smyrna in 1702, tells it to be “The most splendid gateway through which one could pass into the levant; A city built by a bay capable of harbouring the largest naval fleet in the world” 11 Looking to Europe, the industrial revolution started in England during late 1800 century. At the same time, following the seven years war, the Napoleonic wars were going on between the French Empire and various European powers, lasting for almost 25 years. Being in war, most of Europe was considered an unstable and little secure supplier of commodities to England. To carry on its industrialisation, The British Empire was reliant on predictable and stable trading alliances. Due to this factor, The British Empire’s interest in Smyrna continued to develop. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!10 M.Poullet, Nouvelles relations du Levant, 2.vol, 1667 Galland, Voyage à Smyrne, p.260 11 Voyage D’un Botaniste, Part 2.

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2.6 Out of the city Inventions such as the steam engine allowed the ships to travel faster, more predictable, and also to carry a much larger tonnage of goods. But these inventions also had their backdraws to the environment. The harbour was getting not only a busy place, but also noisy and dirty. Alexander Drummond, who visited Smyrna in the end of the 18th century, says that “Streets changed directions from house to house. Camels and mules were the main means of transport, and the city was dirty, ill-paved and narrow” 12Through the first half of the 18th century, Smyrna remained much as it has been since the end of the 17th century. After also having faced several earthquakes and fires, the city always managed to recover13. Plagues and fires were dangerous, and both the merchandisers and their families were in need of better conditions. Through the 19th century the two outskirt villages of the city, Buca and Bornova, were discovered as peaceful oases that could provide just what the merchandisers needed. Firstly, summer residences were erected by the Merchandisers to enjoy valuable time off, where they also could escape the immense heat in the city during the summer months. Slowly, the small villages were transformed into becoming stately suburbs with an international character that had not been seen before. Among small Turkish farmhouses, large areas were converted into parks and impressing mansions where the Levantines lived on a permanent basis.

Illustration of the relation between the city center of Smyrna, and the two suburbs of Bornova and Buca, as it looked in the 18th century. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!12 C.B Elliot, Traveld in the three great empires of Austria, Russia and Turkey, 1838, part 1, p. 33!13 July 10th, 1688: A terrible earthquake (between 15,000-20,000 deaths) followed by a major fire ravaged the city!

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The villages got connected to Smyrna by railroads and steam locomotives, one of the inventions brought by the English merchandisers. The opening of the first two Railwaylines between Smyrna-Kasaba and Smyrna-Aidin Eyalet in 1856 propulsed the city into an modern era together with the construction of the quay by the Dussaud Brothers14. The same year, an edit of reform from the Ottoman Empire gave foreigners permission to buy land and establish factories. This further facilitated the expansion of settlement in the outskirts. The villages of Bornova and Buca soon also became more than just residential areas, they became top modern exhibition spaces for the last inventions the respective countries had to offer. Still today, it is possible to find rare architectonical features on the Levantine mansions that strengthen the history of their power. By showing off the European greatness, the region of Smyrna also became a place where Asia came shopping for Europe15. During the early 19th century, the most important company to be rising in Smyrna was the Whittall and Partners Company. It was owned by Sir Charlton Whittall who came there in 1811, to carry out trade between Smyrna and England. The French family of Charnoud and La fountain had already established relations in Smyrna beforehand, and cooperated with the Whittalls to establish a strong trade network.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!14 Constructed by the French company Dussaud, over a strech of four kilometres, the quays provided the first impression of the city as the place for offloading of merchandise and passengers. 15 E. Frangakis-Syrett, Commercial practices and competition in the Levant- The British and the Dutch in Eighteenth century Izmir, Leiden 2000, p.145-147

!e entrance of the Matthey house at the beginning of the 20th century.

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3.1 Bornova 3.2 Toponomy Often referred to as Bournabad or Bornabat in western sources, the official name of Bornova in the Ottoman Period was Birunabad16. One explanation can be that the Ottoman Turkish and Persian term Birun, that means outer or exterior, was combined with the suffix of abad. This suffix often forms a place name when it is attached to the name of a person or proper, such as Islamabad or Haydarabad. From this, we can understand that the village was an outer, yet connected area to Smyrna. 3.3 Geography and ecology As this project aims to highlight the lives of Levant people in Bornova in the 18-19th century, the content of this chapter describes the topic at the stated time. Gustave Flaubert, who visited in 1850, speaks of a "small town at the foot of the mountain, with country houses of Levantine merchants. It is the counterpart of Boudja". It showed "Charming villas blooming like flowers in the shade of plane trees, fresh streams that run through the lawns, fountains murmuring, the massive orange fragrant. Only in these gardens art grower is supported by more vigorous vegetation." It was "the most delightful summer home of Franks and Greeks rich. In a slightly elevated location, close enough to the sea to have sight, far enough not to have trouble of his eternal murmur. " 17 Flaubert’s description gives a good render of the atmosphere. Located 8 kilometres northeast of what would in the 19th century be the city centre of Smyrna, Bornova were a calm oasis outside of the noisy city. In addition, its location was situated along the trading route that brought goods to and from the city. Establishing their households there, the merchandisers were also insured a certain control over the flow of goods. In the book “Remarkable Trees” a specific tree is mentioned having an importance for the people moving between Smyrna and Bornova in the 18-19th century by foot or horse. Located beside the road where horses and carriages moved, stood a tree with two strong trunks, sharing one head between them with a considerable height from the ground18. The tree is illustrated in the book, and Bornova is also mentioned through the existence of a grotto, in which it has been thought from the remotest times, that Homer wrote the Iliad. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!16 Joan Mervyn Hussey,The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire, 1990, p. 193 17 Laurence Abensur-Hazan, Smyrne –Evocation d’une echelle du levant, Alan Sutton 2004 18 Remarkable Trees, The illustrated magazine of art, 1853, p. 345!

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3.4 Historical remains and physical appearance In a larger scale, the historical remains of Bornovas Levant past can still be read. The foremost trace of the past is the still existing urban pattern of Levantine “köşks” or mansions. Although many houses have been lost due to lack of use and maintenance, a significant number is still standing. Together, they form an important townscape that tells us the history not only about the architecture, but also social relations. The way they are oriented in relation to each other and the streets, as well as the direct connections between their gardens, bring our perceptions of them back to what is written by Flaubert when he visited Bornova. Sadly, many new additions of buildings and roads, as well as reorganization of outdoor spaces, are weakening the readability of this historical townscape. The Catholic Church of Santa Maria and the Anglican cemetery must also be mentioned, as they are still maintained and visible as landmarks of Bornovas cosmopolitan past. Each of the Levantine Mansions are keepers of an important architectural history, that can be read both exteriorly and interiorly. The authenticity varies, so does the quality of the restoration works. Still, many significant architectural elements are kept and valued as cultural heritage. As an example, the Richard Whittall mansion, today surrounded by the Suphi Koyuncuoğlu children school, holds such elements. The four cast iron posts on the west portico are rare to Levantine mansions, and can be considered a symbol of the industrial era not only because of their existence, but also due to their journey from Coalbrookdale, England, to Smyrna in the late 19th century. In the kitchen of the same mansion we also find a Gold Medal Eagle Range, a large and expensive investment during the Victorian Era, even in England. This cooking stove was at the time revolutionary, and attained its title at the Great Exhibition in 1863. A similar range has been seen in the Rees Mansion in Buca, and is also thought to have arrived in Smyrna by the steam ships that at the time revolutionised the shipping of goods. The Whittall mansion in Bornova also holds an early example of a stained glass window in Art Nouveau style, representative of its time. Many of the houses still have the red tiles from Marseille that was introduced in the 1850s19. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!19 Philip Mansel, We are all Levantines now, Le monde Diplomatique April 2012

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3.5 Demography In the first half of the nineteenth century, the village of Bournaba was "inhabited by half of Europeans, half of the Turks". "This village, although well built, sunny and airy, is not separated from Smyrna as Boudja, by a chain of hills.” 20 Though the townscape today has been altered, and mansions lost in favor of new buildings, the distance between the old mansions indicate a scattered settlement where big gardens and parks were common. However, if we believe the words of Gertrude Bell21 The Mansions were anything but empty. This is the impression that she, as an outsider looking in to Bournabat at the end of the 19th century, had: "The Whittalls are grain merchants, they've been settled here since about 1809. All these people are connected with one another. They have married each other and everyone is a cousin to everyone else...They have the bulk of the English Trade in their hands, branch offices all down the southern coast, mines and shooting boxes and properties scattered all down the sea coast of Asia Minor and yachts on the sea. They all have immense quantities of children. The sons, young men in the various Whittall businesses, the daughters very charming and gay. The big gardens touch one another and they walk in and out of one another's houses all day long gossiping and laughing. I should think that life presents itself nowhere under such easy and pleasant conditions." 22 It is obvious that being the child of a rich merchandiser in 19th century Bornova would give many possibilities, and we know the Levantines and their descendants had a strong position in the society. However, the sources on the relations between the Levantines and the local residents are few. What we do know, Is that with their own schools, churches and neighbourhoods, they were separated from each other. It was not only money and positions that separated them, but also religion and language. Until the 19th century, the common language of communication between Turks and Levantines were Lingua Franca. This was a simplified version of Italian, used until the French language replaced it as a world language from the 1840s23. The presence of education and religion were important factors to facilitate the continuity of the Levantines in Bornova.

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!20 Laurence Abensur-Hazan, Smyrne –Evocation d’une echelle du levant, Alan Sutton 2004p.106-107 21 Gertude Bell (1868-1926), British writer, Archealogist, Politic Analytician and administrator in the middle east.!!22 Bette McKernan, Turkey Genealogy, 1996 23!Philip Mansel, We are all Levantines now, Le monde Diplomatique April 2012!

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4.1 Epilogue: Already in 1825, the English Levant Company was abolished due to the increase of foreign traders. This had an economical impact to the Empire, who was also benefiting from the trade. As the Ottoman Empire slowly lost much of their control in Smyrna to the free market of merchandisers, there was a change of power of which the city was run. The number of Merchants in Smyrna reached its peak, and we consider the 30 years between the 1880s-1910s to be the golden era of the Levantines in Smyrna, years where also major architectural footprints were set. The reasons of the Levant resolution are complex, and did not happen quickly. It was a result of long-term changes in laws, politics, and economy not only in the Ottoman Empire, but also in Europe. After the first 10 years of the 20th century, many things changed. The biggest single reason for the deserting of the Levantine properties was the Greco-Turkish war that ended in a fire in Smyrna in September 1922. In two weeks, the city changed identity from Greek-cosmopolitan to Turkish, as it changed its name from Smyrna to Izmir24. From this, a new Izmir rose from the ashes of Smyrna. Bornova, which was invaded by the Greek troop on May 15th, 1919, has a very important role during the Turkish War of Independence. Hortense Woods, who inhabited the Wood-Paterson house, had it enquired by Kemal Ataturk, whom of which she admired greatly, when he arrived with his troops to Bornova in September 1922. Living there under his protection as the war reached its final days, she saw the flight of the merchandisers in Bornova with her own eyes. She says that “The Gates of the houses left wide open, the houses looted and deserted, the streets empty, the village abandoned by all former residents and our friends. Will they ever return?” 25 Many of the people that did not flight in time, were killed. Nationalism had crated catastrophe for the society in Bornova, and after this, many Smyrna firms relocated to Athens, Alexandria, Trieste or Marseilles26

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!24 Philip Mansel, Levant, 2012, p. 220 25 Giles Milton, Paradise Lost, Smyrna 1922, 2008 p. 392 26 Caglar Keyder, The definition of a peripheral economy: Turkey 1923-1929, Cambridge 1981, p. 89-90

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Paterson house in the 1920s. Not to be confused with the Wood-Paterson house. Image courtesy of Donals Whittall. As families fled or had their economies and markets destroyed, a sad era began for whatever was left behind by them. For many years, several of the mansions of Bornova and Buca were partially or completely abandoned. It is therefore with great pleasure that a political initiative is now taken27, and many of these important heritage buidings can continue to tell their stories and provide both functional, historical and cultural resources for the future. It is a hope that the on-going restorations of Levantine Mansions will trigger the initiative to take care of them all. !!!!!!!!!!!!!

!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!27 Bornova Mayor Kamil Okyay Sındır, Hurriyet Daily News, 8/4 2009. !

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5.1!Bibliography!and!Sources!!Besides all the following sources, is also the general bibliography of the RES527 course. This has not been listed here, as this specific project focus mainly on the 17th -19th Century. The following sources are arranged based on reliability, content taken into consideration. Books, documents and newspaper articles: Sketches of Turkey, Published by J.J. Harper, New York 1833 Found at: https://archive.org/stream/sketchesofturkey00dekauoft#page/n7/mode/2up Daniel Goffman Izmir and the Levantine world 1550-1650 W.M. Ramsay Historical geography for Asia Minor Found at: https://archive.org/details/TheHistoricalGeographyOfAsiaMinor W M Ramsay: Newly discovered sites near Smyrna, Jounrey of Hellenistic studies, 1881

Smyrna in the 18th and 19th centuries: a western perspective Found at: Arkas sanat merkezi Olden-Jørgensen, Sebastian Til Kilderne: Introduktion til Historisk Kildekritik, 2001 Gilbert J. Garraghan A guide to Historical Method, 1946 Laurence Abensur-Hazan Smyrne –Evocation d’une echelle du Levant, 2004 Found at: Antique bookstore in Konak J Thompson A journey through Cyprus in the autumn of 1878

Antoine Galland, Le Voyage à Smyrne, 1678

M.Poullet, Nouvelles relations du Levant, 2.vol, 1667 Joseph P. De Tournefort Voyage D’un Botaniste, Part 2,

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C.B Elliot, Traveld in the three great empires of Austria, Russia and Turkey, 1838, part 1

Betty McKernan E. Frangakis-Syrett, Commercial practices and competition in the Levant- The British and the Dutch in Eighteenth century Izmir, Leiden 2000

Remarkable Trees, The illustrated magazine of art, 1853 Genealogy on Gertrude Bell and Whittall descendents, 1996 (found on Levantineheritage.com)

David Omrod, The Rise of Commercial Empires, Cambridge University Press 2003. T. S. Willan, Some Aspects of English Trade with the Levant in the Sixteenth Century. The English Historical Review, 1955 William Knight, Oriental Outlines, or, a Rambler’s Recollections of a Tour in Turkey, Greece and Tuscany i 1838, 1839 Caglar Keyder The definition of a peripheral economy: Turkey 1923-1929, Cambridge 1981 Hasan Arican Bornova Albümlü Tepekule Kitapligi yayinlari 2, 1996 Found at: Ahmet Piristina Kent Arsivi ve Muzesi Hasan Arican Bornova tarihinden yapraklar Found at: Ahmet Piristina Kent Arsivi ve Muzesi Izmir Architectural Guide, 2005 Found at: Ahmet Piristina Kent Arsivi ve Muzesi Her Yönü ile Bornova, 1993 The economy of Izmir today and yesterday, Turkish ministry of culure and Tourism, 2008 Joan Mervyn Hussey The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire, 1990 Izmir Sehir Reheben, Harita Generel Müdürlügü Matbaasi d¨ner Sermayesi, 1968 Izmir’deki Levantenler Newspaper clip, 1991 Found at: Izmir library Philip Mansel, We are all Levantines now, Le monde Diplomatique April 2012 Philip Mansel Levant –splendour and catastrophe on the mediterranian, 2010(borrowed by Pashaevna)

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Giles Milton, A.J. Hobbins Paradise Lost, Smyrna 1922 (found at archives.org) Rauf Beyru 19.Yüzyilda Izmir Kenti Ege mimarlik 2004/3 -51 Bornova ve Buca levanten Konutlari Hümeyra BI ̇ROL AKKURT, doctor thesis 2004 19. yüzyil batililas ̧ma kesi ̇ti ̇nde, bornova ve buca levanten kös ̧kleri ̇ mekansal ki ̇mli ̇g ̆i ̇ni ̇n i ̇rdelenmesi ̇

Internet sources: https://archive.org/stream/greeceandlevant00unkngoog#page/n98/mode/2up https://archive.org/stream/inlevant02warngoog#page/n285/mode/2up https://archive.org/stream/reportonsmyrna00rollrich#page/48/mode/2up/search/Bournabat https://archive.org/stream/aguidealongdanu00clargoog#page/n204/mode/2up/search/Smyrna http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN,34505/izmir-in-the-18th-century.html !