Historical LinguisticsHistorical Linguistics

A Brief History of the English A Brief History of the English LanguageLanguage

Big Picture Big Picture in History of Englishin History of English

Old English characterized by:Old English characterized by:– Small lexiconSmall lexicon– Complex grammarComplex grammar

PDE characterized byPDE characterized by– Immense lexiconImmense lexicon– Simplified grammarSimplified grammar

What is Historical Linguistics?What is Historical Linguistics?

Tracks language change across time and Tracks language change across time and spacespace– Diachronic Diachronic rather than rather than synchronicsynchronic

First historical linguists tracked changes in First historical linguists tracked changes in the the Indo-European Language Family Indo-European Language Family Family Tree model used to describe Family Tree model used to describe relationship between Indo-European relationship between Indo-European LanguagesLanguages

Language FamiliesLanguage FamiliesMay be reconstructed based on two hypothesesMay be reconstructed based on two hypotheses

Regularity hypothesis: speech sounds Regularity hypothesis: speech sounds change in regular, predictable, and change in regular, predictable, and recognizable waysrecognizable ways

For example, velar stops become For example, velar stops become palatalizedpalatalized before front before front vowels vowels

– Contrast “key” /ki/ with “cot” /kContrast “key” /ki/ with “cot” /kɑ/ -- your /k/ differsɑ/ -- your /k/ differsVelar stops may become Velar stops may become affricatesaffricates before front vowels before front vowels

– Contrast L “gent” /gContrast L “gent” /gɛnt/ with PDE “gentle” /ʤɛntəl/ɛnt/ with PDE “gentle” /ʤɛntəl/

Language FamiliesLanguage Families

May be reconstructed based on two hypothesesMay be reconstructed based on two hypothesesRelatedness hypothesis: phonological similarities Relatedness hypothesis: phonological similarities (in (in cognatescognates) may be due to a historical ) may be due to a historical relationship between languagesrelationship between languages– PDE “mother” to F “mere” to L “mater” etc.PDE “mother” to F “mere” to L “mater” etc.– PDE “brother” to F “frere” to L “frater” etc.PDE “brother” to F “frere” to L “frater” etc.

Foundation of the Foundation of the comparative methodcomparative method

Types of Sound ChangeTypes of Sound Change

Unconditioned sound changeUnconditioned sound change– Happens without obvious provocationHappens without obvious provocation– Most important example in the history of Most important example in the history of

Germanic languages is the Germanic languages is the First Consonant Shift (c. 500 AD)(c. 500 AD)

– Most significant example in the history of Most significant example in the history of English is the English is the Great Vowel Shift (c. 1500 AD)(c. 1500 AD)

Conditioned Sound ChangeConditioned Sound Change

Parallel to phonological processes we discussed Parallel to phonological processes we discussed earlierearlier– Assimilation OE /wulfas/Assimilation OE /wulfas/ [wulvas] [wulvas]– Deletion OE /Deletion OE /no:zno:zɛɛ// ME /n ME /nɔ:zə/ɔ:zə/ PDE /noz/ PDE /noz/– Insertion OE /æmtij/Insertion OE /æmtij/PDE /ɛmpti/PDE /ɛmpti/Phonemic change is also the result of Phonemic change is also the result of conditioned change and contact between conditioned change and contact between languages and dialectslanguages and dialects– OE /f/OE /f/ [v] between voiced sounds; [f] elsewhere [v] between voiced sounds; [f] elsewhere– ME /f/, /v/ME /f/, /v/

Morphological ChangeMorphological ChangeMorphology changes largely by analogyMorphology changes largely by analogy– OE cu [ku] ‘cows’, pl. cye [kyOE cu [ku] ‘cows’, pl. cye [kyə]ə]– ME kou, kine (b/c many ME plurals in “n”)ME kou, kine (b/c many ME plurals in “n”)– PDE cow, cowsPDE cow, cowsProportional AnalogyProportional Analogy– NOUN : NOUN + s :: cow : cow+sNOUN : NOUN + s :: cow : cow+sParadigm leveling eliminates irregularities within Paradigm leveling eliminates irregularities within a paradigma paradigm– OE cēosan [OE cēosan [ʧe:ozan] ppl. corenʧe:ozan] ppl. coren– PDE choose, ppl. chosenPDE choose, ppl. chosen

Syntactic ChangeSyntactic Change

English originally a SOV languageEnglish originally a SOV language– Gradually changes to a SVO language, with Gradually changes to a SVO language, with

SOV order remaining in subordinate clauses SOV order remaining in subordinate clauses in Old Englishin Old English

English also originally had more elastic English also originally had more elastic clausal orderclausal order– NPNP N + DETpossp or DETpossp + N N + DETpossp or DETpossp + NMost important syntactic change in English Most important syntactic change in English is the development of the ‘do’ auxiliaryis the development of the ‘do’ auxiliary

Semantic ChangeSemantic Change

Extension of meaning (generalization)Extension of meaning (generalization)– Can be even from the “brand” levelCan be even from the “brand” level– Metaphorical extensions extend a meaning Metaphorical extensions extend a meaning

beyond its literal levelbeyond its literal level““I feel cooked.”I feel cooked.”““What’s your course load?”What’s your course load?”

Reductions (narrowing)Reductions (narrowing)– Restrict meaning of an otherwise general termRestrict meaning of an otherwise general term

OE mete (food) OE mete (food) PDE meat PDE meatOE deor (food animal) OE deor (food animal) PDE bambi animal PDE bambi animal

Elevations (amelioration)Elevations (amelioration)– Enhance the prestige of a termEnhance the prestige of a term

OE cniht ‘boy’ ME knightOE cniht ‘boy’ ME knight

Degradations (pejoration)Degradations (pejoration)– Diminished prestige or “tabooing” of a wordDiminished prestige or “tabooing” of a word– Frequently comes with borrowingFrequently comes with borrowing

OE swOE swīn īn PDE pork – In OE a “swin” was the PDE pork – In OE a “swin” was the animal, but in PDE it is merely the animals’s flesh.animal, but in PDE it is merely the animals’s flesh.

Other Important TopicsOther Important Topics

Borrowing: English speakers have Borrowing: English speakers have borrowed vocabulary from speakers of borrowed vocabulary from speakers of Latin, Old Norse, French; they’ve also Latin, Old Norse, French; they’ve also borrowed vocabulary from other borrowed vocabulary from other Europeans.Europeans.Irregular verbsIrregular verbsStrong/Weak AdjectivesStrong/Weak Adjectives