1543-1792Scientific Methods

and Critiques of the “Old Order”

History 102: Ages of Science and Reason (Chapters 16-17)

Witches and Reason

Some Historical ContextCopernicus published Revolutions of the

Heavenly Spheres (1543)Galileo and Shakespeare born in 1564Reginald Scott: Discoverie of Witchcraft (1584)

Questioned reality of witchcraft based on empirical observation and reason

Threat of witchcraft charges or heresy stifled observation and experimentation of natural phenomena

Johannes Kepler published Mysterium Cosmographicum in 1596

Galileo published The Starry Messenger in 1610 and Letters on Sunspots in 1613

30 Years War: Sovereignty and Religion 1618-1648 war involved most of the Kingdoms in Western

and Central Europe Who decides religion of the Kingdom? Prince or Church?

Scientific Theory and Medieval World View: Aristotle

Aristotle: all things in nature are composed of 4 fundamental elements: Air Fire Water Earth

These elements were bound to follow their ideal nature: Air & Fire move upward. Water & Earth move downward

The elements strive against one another and this striving is what keeps everything in place

Air and fire combined to form Aether which is what heavenly bodies –stars and planets– are made of and why they remain in the sky

Scientific Theory and Medieval World View: Ptolemy

Stars on a fixed sphere and earth was its centerBeyond the earth moving about it in a spherical

plane were the planetsBeyond the planets were the starsBeyond the stars was the “Prime Mover” or “First

Cause”Ptolemy’s theory said planets moved in epicycles

to explain why planets appeared to stop and change direction

More and more complex epicycles were needed as observation improved through telescopes and lenses and as mathematics improved

Dante & Thomas Aquinas

Nature is kept going moment to moment by a miracle always new and forever renewed

God ordered the universe through this miracleThe miracle depended not only on God but

man’s faith in God—absolute and unwaveringDuring the Renaissance and after the Black

Plague: scholars became more interested in studying the miracle How did it work? Study was not intended to disprove but to understand Knowledge about the miracle can bring man closer to

God

Facing the Facts with “Both Eyes

Open”Copernicus and the Heliocentric Universe

“Finally we shall place the sun himself at the center of the universe…if only we face the facts, as they say, with both eyes open.” – Nickolaus Copernicus

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)

Copernicus and Christianity

Investigate the images on the previous slide. What evidences of Christianity do you see?

Copernicus was deeply religious He believed that his system, based on

mathematical calculations, would restore a pure understanding of God’s design

Copernican Theory Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

(1543) Argued the case for a heliocentric view of the

universe Published the year Copernicus died

Remained a subject of debate for 100+ years

Magisterium Cosmographicum by Johannes Kepler published in 1596 supported Copernican theory through mathematics

Kepler’s LawsEverything in creation had been created

according to mathematical lawsUnderstanding these laws would allow

humans to share God’s wisdom Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion

Planetary orbits of the sun are elliptical Speed of planets varied with their distance from the

sun Magnetic forces between the sun and the planets kept

the planets in orbital motion around the sun

Galileo Born in 1564Professor of Mathematics at University of PaduaGalileo’s Patron: Cosimo de Medici (wealthy

banker and ruler of Florence) 1597: Galileo read Kepler’s bookGalileo had already adopted Copernican theory

but feared the wrath of the church if he published his views

Unlike Copernicus and Kepler who wrote in Latin and whose writings were heavy on math, Galileo wrote in Italian and explained concepts with words.

Letter to FoscariniCardinal Bellarmine to Paolo Antonio

Foscarini (1615) Argued that acceptance of Copernican theory

contradicts the holy scriptures

“Doubt thou the stars are fire?”

Shakespeare and Galileo were born in the same year-1564 Doubt thou the stars are fire,

Doubt that the sun doth move, Doubt truth to be a liar, But never doubt I love. Shakespeare, Hamlet, II.2 (c. 1600)

The Sun and the Earth

Psalm 19:4-6yet their voice goes out through all the earth, and their words to the end of the world. In them he has set a tent for the sun, which comes forth like a bridegroom leaving his chamber, and like a strong man runs his course with joy. Its rising is from the end of the heavens, and its circuit to the end of them; and there is nothing hid from its heat.

Psalm 93:1The Lord reigns; he is robbed in majesty; the lord is robbed, he is girded with strength. Yea, the world is established; it shall never be moved.

Hyperbole or fact?

Is Cardinal Bellarmine’s position based on his not knowing the difference between poetic license by the Psalmist or because the Church was under increasing pressure from the spread of Protestantism and Royal claims of sovereignty that undermined the power of the Church?

Belief, Reason

“I do not feel obliged to believe that that same God who has endowed us with senses, reason, and intellect has intended to forgo their use and by some other means to give us knowledge which we can obtain by them.”

---Galileo, Letter to Grand Duchess Christina (1615)

Galileo & HeresyCharged with heresy in 1616Published A Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief

World Systems in 1632 A debate between supporters of geocentric and

heliocentric view of universeInquisition banned Dialogue and ordered Galileo

to stand trial in 1633 Galileo convicted & ordered to repent heresy of

heliocentric universe Banned from working on or discussion Copernican ideas House arrest for life

The Roman Catholic church dropped opposition to the heliocentric universe in 1835

Aristotle

Copernicus

KeplerFrench Academy of Science & Louis XIV

Structural Foundations of Scientific Advances Body of Knowledge

Heliocentric universe Mathematical physics

Method of inquiry Scientific method

Observation Experimentation Testing

New societies and Institutions Royal patrons Wealthy patrons University Systems

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

Invented a telescope that enabled him to confirm many of Kepler’s observations

The Starry Messenger (1610) confirmed heliocentric view of the universe Church indicted Galileo in 1616 for heresy Galileo published A Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems in

1632 A debate between supporters of geocentric and heliocentric view of

universe Inquisition banned Dialogue and ordered Galileo to stand trial in 1633 Galileo convicted

Repent heresy of heliocentric universe Banned from working on or discussion Copernican ideas House arrest for life

Two New Sciences published in 1638 in Holland Early version of theory of inertia Same laws which govern the motion of objects on earth could also be

observed in the heavens The church dropped opposition to the heliocentric universe in 1835

Sir FrancisBacon

Methods for a New Philosophy I

Frances Bacon (1561-1626) “Knowledge is power” Authority of the ancients should not constrain

modern thinkers “If thinkers will be content to begin with doubts they

will end with certainties” Scientific method

Observation Experimentation Confirmation Inductive reasoning: amassing evidence from specific

observations to draw general conclusions

Rene Descartes

Methods for a New Philosophy II

Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Discourse on the Method (1637)

Doubt everything “Never to receive anything as a truth which [he] did not

clearly know to be such.” Cogito Ergo Sum “I think, therefore I am”

The thinking individual existed, reason existed, God existed

Deductive Reasoning: proceeding logically from one certainty to another, “so long as we avoid accepting as true what we do not know.”

Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton (1642-1727)

Cambridge 1664-1666 Optics: white light composed of different colored rays Mathematics: integral calculus and differential calculus Gravity: Apple falls to earth because the earth draws it

Principia Mathematica 1687 & 1713 Gravitation is a universal force and can be expressed

mathematically Law of Gravitation “All bodies whatsoever are endowed with a

principle of mutual gravitation.” Science need not always uncover causes, science could and did

describe natural phenomena and accurately predict the behavior of objects as confirmed by experimentation

Role of Print Capitalism Publication across Europe in vernacular John Locke published Essay Concerning Human Understanding

(1690). Read Newton twice.

Observations about the Scientific Revolution

Elite knowledgeFormed by core of ancient and medieval scholarship—did

not spin out of empty spaceDid not undo the authority of the ancients in one fell

swoop Change occurred gradually

Did not usurp Christian religious belief natural philosophers did not attempt to refute the idea of a divinely

ordered universe Intricate universe was evidence of God’s guiding presence. Newton: a

firm advocate of this view.Challenged authority of the Church in matters related to

studying the physical worldQuestion to consider:

Is religious opposition to man made climate change similar to religious opposition to heliocentric universe?

What was Different about the Scientific Revolution?

1. Produced new answers to fundamental questions about the physical world

2. Developed new approach to amassing and integrating information in a systematic way

3. Science moved out of the church and into universities and lay organizations

4. New beliefs about the purpose and methods of science

No longer sought to confirm old truths New methods designed to explore the unknown and discover new

truths Old model of learning: read, reason logically, compare classical texts. New model of learning: discovery (hypothesize, experiment, observe,

reason)

5. Replaced the medieval view of physical world

“All men are created equal and are endowed by their Creator with certain

inalienable rights…”—Thomas Jefferson 1776

The Enlightenment (1700-1800)

The Enlightenment (1700-1800)

Shared characteristics of Enlightenment Writings Confidence in the power of human reason

Stemmed from accomplishments of the scientific revolution especially Locke, Bacon and Newton.

Nature operated according to laws that could be grasped by study, observation, and reason.

Societies are a product of nature (man) and can be observed to discern natural laws that govern society.

“Dare to know”: confront the power of established institutions including the monarch and the church

Belief in the perfectibility and goodness of humanity Locke’s tabula rasa (blank slate) Education might level social hierarchies

Scientific method: observe particular phenomena to arrive at general laws as applicable to study of human affairs

General ObservationsNot all Enlightenment thinkers agreedElite pursuit like Scientific RevolutionEducated middle class artisans and

merchants read Enlightenment thinkers as a result of print capitalism Expansion of education by enlightened absolutists growing markets of people with new wealth. Literacy extended to growing numbers of women.

Enlightenment thought varied from country to country

PhilosophesEnlightenment thought was a European

phenomenon British thinkers played a key role France was the stage and the language of the

EnlightenmentPhilosophe Fr., free thinker; a person

whose reflections were unhampered by the constraints of religion or dogma in any form

Important Enlightenment Themes

Humanitarianism: stressed the dignity and worth of all human beings Caesare Beccaria On Crimes and Punishments (1764)

Punishments should not represent vengeance Purpose of Punishment: maintain social order & deterrence Opposed torture and the death penalty

Opposed principle of slavery Few opposed the practice of slavery

Applied to women as long as they maintained their proper roles as wives and mothers, subordinate to men.

Religious toleration Toleration of religious minorities

Applied mostly to Christians not Jews or MuslimsPersonal Liberty

Capitalism Social contract Representative government or Enlightened monarchs

Voltaire (1694-1778)Francois Marie Arouet

Religious and political liberty Compared British open-mindedness and empiricism

with French society, aristocracy and church Praised British tax system for fairness compared with

French tax system (too many exemptions to church and nobility)

Compared British constitutional monarchy with French absolutism

Condemned religious bigotry “The less superstition, the less fanaticism; and the less

fanaticism the less misery.”

Adam SmithAn Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the

Wealth of Nations (1776) Central Issues

Productivity of labor How labor was used in different sectors of the economy Mercantile restrictions did not encourage the productive

deployment of labor and did not create real economic health General prosperity could best be obtained by allowing

individuals to pursue their own interests without interference from state chartered monopolies or legal restraints that privileged some interests over others

“Invisible hand” of the free market “Obvious and simple system of natural liberty” champion of

justice against state sponsored economic privilege and monopoly

Observations and Questions about Smith

Smith would oppose ALL subsidies and monopolies including: Oil company subsidies Farm subsidies Insurance company subsidies Commodity subsidies

Smith wrote when Europeans were in a position to dominate global markets. How would he react to the global markets today? Smith did not address natural disasters; effects of war

Smith believed in the right of governments to tax citizens and colonies for benefits provided Smith did not answer questions about how to manage boom and bust cycle of

capitalism. Boom and bust was a natural law. Did Smith’s belief represent a naïve faith that the rich would

share the wealth? Did Smith consider the danger of unrestricted capitalism on

natural resources? Late 18th and early 19th century Whaling is good example of dangers to

natural resources by unrestricted capitalism

Enlightenment Thinkers had Complex Ideas about

Slavery Most Enlightenment thinkers opposed slavery in principle Few Enlightenment thinkers opposed the practice Theory

Smith: uneconomical Voltaire: would Europeans look away if Africans enslaved Europeans Montesquieu: Slavery debased both Europeans and Africans

Beliefs Africans and African cultures were less “civilized” than Europeans Hard work raises the moral and cultural development of less civilized

peoples Each society free to balance their systems of labor in accordance with

their special needs Individual rights to property should be protected and slaves were

property Slaves were not ready for freedom because they had never known

freedom and slavery had destroyed their natural virtue

Pacific ExplorationSystematically mapping new sections of the

Pacific presented new opportunities for knowledgeScientific missions

Luis Anne de Bougainville (1729-1811) Sought new trade route to China Discovered Tahiti

James Cook (1728-1779) Charted coasts of New Zealand New Hebrides, Hawaii, explored coasts of Antarctica, the Bering

Sea & Arctic Ocean Expanded knowledge of Botany, Zoology and Geology Portraits of Maoris and Tahitians

Travel literature widely popular with non-academic public

Impact of Scientific ExplorationSpawned theories of man in his “natural

environment” based on information and observation about Tahitian, Maori, and Hawaiian peoples

Diderot, Supplement au Voyage de Bougainville, (1772) Simplicity of “natives” exposed the hypocrisy, and rigidity of

over-civilized European society Represented break with earlier European views which

understood the world as divided between Christendom and heathen “others”

Gave rise to paternalistic views of European colonialism Duty to protect simplistic societies in their natural state

Unintended Consequence? Enabled advance of colonialism in name of “science” Resulted in deaths of hundreds of thousands of Pacific Islanders

Radical Enlightenment

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

The Social Contract “Man was born free but everywhere he is in chains.”

In the state of nature all men are free Inequality is anchored in private property which profoundly corrupted the social contract Under these conditions of property and inequality, governments protected only the rich

and the privileged. “The problem is to find a form of association…in which each, while uniting himself with

all, may still obey himself alone, and remain as free as before.” Freedom does not mean the absence of restraint but that all obey the laws that they

had made themselves Equality= no man is rich enough to buy another, nor poor enough to have to sell himself

The Body Politic Sovereignty belongs to the people alone

No separation of powers Exercising sovereignty transformed the nation

Creating a regenerated and powerful nation in which citizens are bound by mutual obligation rather than coercive laws

United in equality rather than divided by privilege National community is guided by the General Will

Common interest of the nation arose above individual demands Was not particularly concerned with balancing individual interest against the General

Will

Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797)

A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) Opposed to monarchy and favored Republicanism Opposed artificial distinctions or rank, birth or wealth Argued that equality laid the basis for virtue

Women had same innate capacity for reason and self-government as men

Virtue should mean the same thing for men and women Relations between the sexes should be based on equality

Legal inequalities of marriage laws deprived women of property rights and gave husbands despotic power over their wives

“Civilized women are …so weakened by false refinement that, respecting morals, their condition is much below what it would be were they left in a state nearer to nature”

A culture that encouraged feminine weakness produced women who are childish, cunning, cruel and vulnerable

Education for women had to promote liberty and self-reliance Believed women and men had different duties

Women’s foremost responsibility was mothering

The mixed Legacy of the Enlightenment

Developed & popularized arguments about natural rights

Elevated differences to a higher plane by suggesting that nature dictated different and possibly unequal social roles Complex ideas about nature and its dictates about

social roles Slavery and “civilized” vs. “uncivilized” Meaning of Paternalism Natural and unequal social roles

Print Capitalism and the Book Trade

Enlightenment bound up in the expansion of printing and print culture

Readers bought books from stores, subscription, special mail order from book distributers abroad

Daily Newspapers appeared in London in 1702, called “Dailies”

Freedom of the Press varied from place to place Publishing licenses England had few restrictions France and Russia had many restrictions Restrictions had little impact on pamphlets; minimal impact

even on books: censorship only made banned books expensive

Literary underground

What is the Public Sphere?

Informal deliberations, debates about how to regenerate the nation, discussions of civic virtue and efforts to forge a consensus of the population moved politics beyond the confines of the court into a “public” space Expanding networks of social contact Flourishing book trade Circulation of Enlightenment ideas about humanity, society,

government, and reasonBy the late 18th century, European governments

recognized the existence of a civic minded group that cut across traditional divisions of society and to which they needed to respond

The Public SphereElites had “learned societies” who published booksNew Frontiers of interaction between elites and

middle class Salons

Informal gatherings of social and commercial elites in which impoverished artists and scholars were welcome Informal and formal patronages were created

Included both genders—aristocratic French women ruled French salons Madame Marie-Therese Geoffrin patron of Encyclopedia and influenced

placing scholars in Academies Enabled elite women to exercise influence informally when they had

little formal power Masonic Lodges

Members pledged themselves to regeneration of society Attracted men across divisions of birth and wealth (egalitarian

behind closed doors)

The Public Sphere IIMiddle Class—artisans and bureaucrats and

housewives High literacy Targeted by publishers Circulation of books about science, history, geography,

travel and fiction Means of control for middle class women

Etiquette Running a household Nutrition and meals Raising children, especially daughters

Novels were most popular form of literature in Britain Discussions of feeling and emotion linked middle class with

concern about personhood and humanity and natural law