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High-Throughput Screen to Identify Small Molecule Inhibitors of the Canonical Wnt Signaling Pathway
by
Stephen J Perusini
A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science
Department of Biochemistry University of Toronto
© Copyright by Stephen J. Perusini 2008
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High-Throughput Screen to Identify Small Molecule Inhibitors of
the Canonical Wnt Signaling Pathway
Stephen J, Perusini
Masters of Science
Department of Biochemistry University of Toronto
2008
Abstract
Wnt signaling is important in human development and disease, thus dysregulated β-catenin
constitutes an attractive target for drug intervention. The few functional inhibitors currently
available target transcriptional activation, therefore, identifying novel upstream modulators
would be of tremendous importance to elucidating the mechanisms involved in regulating β-
catenin activity.
To achieve this, I developed a high-throughput screen to assess β-catenin stability in mammalian
cells using a luciferase tagged β-catenin molecule. This assay was used to screen three chemical
libraries to identify small molecule modulators of the pathway. Identified inhibitors/activators of
the pathway were investigated via secondary assays. The most promising inhibitor, 21H7,
significantly attenuated activated β-catenin signaling in colon cancer cells, decreasing β-catenin
stability. The inhibitory effects of 21H7 and a structurally similar compound were shown to not
only inhibit Wnt target gene expression in colon cancer cells, but also prostate cancer lines.
Thus, 21H7 represents an attractive lead compound for further study.
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Acknowledgments
I wish to thank my supervisor, Dr. Liliana Attisano for allowing me to join her team, for her guidance throughout my graduate studies and the various revisions of this thesis. My thanks and appreciation also goes to my thesis committee members, Dr. Craig Smibert and Dr. Aaron Schimmer, and collaborators Alessandro Datti and Jeffrey Wrana. I am greatly indebted to my peers in the Attisano lab, for their expertise, kindness, and most of all, for creating an enjoyable atmosphere with worthwhile memories.
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Table of Contents Acknowledgments........................................................................................................................... ii
Table of Contents........................................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................................ vii
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................. viii
1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Wnt signaling ...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Wnt genes and proteins........................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 The Wnt extracellular environment ........................................................................ 1
1.1.3 Wnt signal transduction .......................................................................................... 2
1.1.4 The canonical branch of the Wnt pathway ............................................................. 3
1.1.5 Additional factors involved in mediating a Wnt response...................................... 6
1.2 Wnt signaling in development ............................................................................................ 7
1.2.1 Invertebrates............................................................................................................ 7
1.2.2 Xenopus development............................................................................................. 8
1.2.3 Mammalian development........................................................................................ 8
1.3 Wnt signaling in human disease ....................................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Wnt signaling in Cancer........................................................................................ 11
1.3.2 Other human diseases and Wnt signaling ............................................................. 13
1.4 Small molecule screening ................................................................................................. 13
1.4.1 Drug discovery...................................................................................................... 14
1.4.2 Small molecule libraries ....................................................................................... 16
1.4.3 Chemical genomics............................................................................................... 17
1.4.4 Known small molecule modulators of the Wnt pathway...................................... 17
1.5 Rationale for project……………………………………………………………………...22
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2 Materials and methods ............................................................................................................. 23
2.1 Reagents............................................................................................................................ 23
2.2 Cell lines and maintenance ............................................................................................... 23
2.3 Production of Wnt3A ligand in conditioned media .......................................................... 24
2.4 Constructs, transcriptional reporter assays and immunoblotting...................................... 24
2.5 High-throughput assays .................................................................................................... 25
2.6 Real time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR analysis............................................... 27
3 Results ...................................................................................................................................... 28
3.1 High throughput assay development................................................................................. 28
3.1.1 Beta-catenin nuclear translocation assay .............................................................. 28
3.1.2 Firefly luciferase β-catenin stabilization assay (Ff-luc) ....................................... 32
3.1.3 Ff-luc assay optimization...................................................................................... 32
3.2 Pilot high-throughput Ff-luc assay run ............................................................................. 39
3.3 Final screening results and data analysis .......................................................................... 42
3.3.1 Comparison of various statistical hit-selection methods ...................................... 42
3.3.2 Summary of results from the Lopac library.......................................................... 43
3.3.3 Summary of results from the Prestwick library .................................................... 48
3.3.4 Summary of results from the Maybridge library .................................................. 48
3.3.5 Total assay hits from the entire HTP screen ......................................................... 53
3.4 Investigating selected hits via secondary analyses ........................................................... 53
3.4.1 Assessing the reproducibility of effects ................................................................ 53
3.4.2 Effects of hits on Wnt transcriptional activity and assessing pathway specificity.............................................................................................................. 57
3.5 Analysis of 21H7, a selective Wnt pathway inhibitor ...................................................... 59
3.5.1 Compound 21H7 preferentially inhibits Wnt responsive Topflash activity over the non-responsive Fopflash ................................................................................. 59
3.5.2 21H7 blocks Wnt-induced β-catenin stabilization................................................ 61
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3.5.3 21H7 inhibits Wnt dependent gene expression in colon cancer cell lines............ 61
3.5.4 Expression of endogenous Wnt target genes is inhibited by 21H7 in CRC cell lines ....................................................................................................................... 63
3.5.5 21H7 inhibits expression of endogenous Wnt target genes in prostate cancer cell lines. ............................................................................................................... 69
3.5.6 Wnt signaling is inhibited by 21H7 at the level of β-catenin ............................... 69
3.5.7 Structurally related compounds mimic the effect of 21H7………………………72
4 Discussion ................................................................................................................................. 75
5 References................................................................................................................................. 82
6 Appendices…………………………………………………………………………………….92
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List of Tables
Table 1: Known Small molecules modulators of the Wnt pathway…………………………21
Table 2: Pilot screen hits indicate a reproducible Ff-luc hit rate…………………………….40
Table 3: Summary of results from all compounds screened…………………………………54
Table 4: Summary of secondary assay results for twenty-two selected inhibitors and random control ..………………………………………………………………………………55
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List of Figures Figure 1: Overview of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway…………………………………4
Figure 2: Known Chemical inhibitors of the Wnt signaling pathway………………………..19
Figure 3: The β-catenin Nuclear translocation assay displays high variability…………........30
Figure 4: Development of the β-catenin-firefly-luciferase (Ff-luc) assay……………………33
Figure 5: The Ff-Luc assay …………..………………………..…………………………….36
Figure 6: Validation of the Ff-luc screening protocol…………………………………………37
Figure 7: Validating the pipetting accuracy and chemiluminescent readout of the robotics platform ………………………………………………………………………………………..38
Figure 8: Comparison of different statistical hit-selection methods……………………….....44
Figure 9: Lopac library screening results ……………………………...………………….....46
Figure 10: Prestwick library screening results ……………………………………………....49
Figure 11: Maybridge library screening results………………………………………………51
Figure 12: Re-testing of select compounds using the Ff-luc assay .………...………………56
Figure 13: Compound 21H7 preferentially inhibits the Wnt pathway ..…………………….58
Figure 14: 21H7 preferentially inhibits the transcriptional activity of Wnt3A treated cells ...60
Figure 15: Compound 21H7 inhibits the Wnt3A induced stabilization of endogenous β-catenin ……………………………………………………………………………………...62
Figure 16: Differential suppression of Wnt-dependent gene expression in colon cancer cell lines harboring activating mutations in the Wnt pathway by 21H7 ……………………...64
Figure 17: Wnt target gene expression is inhibited by 21H7 in colorectal cancer (CRC) cell lines irrespective of the differing Wnt pathway…………………………………………..66
Figure 18: 21H7 inhibits Wnt target gene expression in prostate cancer cells …………...…70
Figure 19: Epistatic analysis indicates 21H7 effects Wnt-dependent signaling at the level of β-catenin………………………………………………………………………………71
Figure 20: Screened Maybridge compounds with significant structural similarity to 21H7…73
Figure 21: Compound 21A8, the molecule of greatest structural similarity to 21H7 inhibits the expression of Wnt target genes in colon cancer cell lines…………………………………74
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1 Introduction
1.1 Wnt signaling
1.1.1 Wnt genes and proteins
Wnt genes, of which there are 19 in humans and mouse comprise a family of highly conserved
secreted glycoproteins that regulate processes such as cell motility and differentiation during
embryonic development by inducing diverse signaling cascades to effect cell growth and survival
(Clevers, 2006; Logan and Nusse, 2004). The Wnt proteins are found in species ranging in
complexity from sea anemone to humans, and effect embryo development by acting locally and
at distances in a morphogenic manner.
Due to the diverse roles of Wnts, they have typically been identified via sequence similarity and
not functional properties. All possess a highly conserved spacing of 22 cysteine residues, several
highly charged amino-acid with conserved positioning, a signal sequence for secretion and
multiple potential sites of glycosylation (Miller, 2002). Post-translational processing such as
glycosylation and lipid modification plays a significant role in Wnt functionality either during
secretion from the ligand producing cell or signal transduction at the receiving cell. Loss of
particular glycosylation sites has been shown to hinder the ability of Wnt3A and Wnt5A
producing cells to efficiently secrete the ligand, however, the ability of Wnts to bind their
receptors and transduce signals are unaffected (Coudreuse and Korswagen, 2007). Conversely,
palmitoylation of Wnt ligands is crucial to ligand receptor binding and bears no effect on
secretion (Kikuchi et al., 2007). Therefore, many Wnt modifications are essential for proper
secretion profiles and initiating a response in signal receiving cells in development and beyond.
1.1.2 The Wnt extracellular environment
Once secreted, the extracellular milieu allows Wnts to interact with a multitude of additional
Wnt signaling co-factors that modulate the effect of Wnts in a variety of ways (Kikuchi et al.,
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2007). Genetically identified factors such as secreted frizzled related protein (SFRP) and Wnt-
inhibitory factor (WIF-1) were shown to bind Wnts, sequestering them from the Wnt receptor
Frizzled (Fz) and thus antagonizing Wnt signaling (Kim et al., 2005). However, not all effectors
which bind Wnts are antagonistic. R-spondin binds Wnts and was recently demonstrated to bind
both Fz and its co-receptor LRP6 to synergistically activate the Wnt pathway (Kim et al., 2005;
Nam et al., 2006). Additional factors such as the Dikkopf (Dkk) family of proteins antagonize
the Wnt pathway not by binding Wnts, but through binding to the LRP co-receptor and blocking
receptor availability (Mao et al., 2001). Norrin is not a Wnt ligand as those previously described,
but was shown to activate the Wnt signaling pathway by independently binding select Fz
isoforms and thus effects Wnt signaling without modulating ligand activity (Planutis et al.,
2007). Consequently, the Wnt pathway extracellular environment is undoubtedly complex and
influences Wnt signaling through a combination of agonists and antagonists vying for the ability
to bind both ligands and their receptors
1.1.3 Wnt signal transduction
The various Wnt ligands induce one of three distinct but interconnected signaling pathways;
canonical, planar cell polarity, and the Ca2+ pathway. The canonical pathway is by far the best
understood of the three and it transduces signals via a distinct signaling cascade. The other two
Wnt pathways are far less understood. Both the Wnt/Ca2+ and non-canonical pathways transduce
signals through the Frizzled (Fz) receptors, but diverge afterwards. The non-canonical or planar
cell polarity pathway involves the activation of RhoA and Jun Kinase to regulate spatial and
temporal cytoskeletal rearrangements, cell migration and tissue polarity during embryogenesis
and afterwards (Adler, 2002). It is believed that the group of non-canonical Wnts initiate
signaling via binding the Frizzled receptors without co-receptor involvement and transduce
signal through Disheveled (Dvl) proteins, activating the two independent and parallel small
GTPase pathways, Rac and Rho.
The Wnt/Ca2+ pathway is best understood via its effect on intracellular Ca2+ levels, subsequent
activation of Protein Kinase C and Calmodulin kinase and principally affects cell movement
(Kikuchi et al., 2007). Wnt associated Frizzled activation is thought to affect Ca2+ levels through
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the activation of heterotrimeric G-proteins, resulting in the production of DAG and inositol
triphosphate second messengers (Slusarski et al., 1997).
1.1.4 The canonical branch of the Wnt pathway
By far the best understood of the Wnt pathways is canonical Wnt signaling which influences cell
fate through the activation of the LEF/TCF family of transcription factors. The central
component of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway is β-catenin. In the absence of Wnt ligand,
its cytoplasmic levels are kept low via the sequential phosphorylation by Casein Kinase 1 (CK1)
and GSK3β (Glycogen synthase kinase-3) on β-catenin. This phosphorylation permits it to be
recognized by the E3 ubiquitin ligase, βTrCP, and undergo continuous proteosome-mediated
degradation (Fig. 1) (Lustig and Behrens, 2003). This constitutive destruction of β-catenin is
interrupted as the Wnt pathway is activated once canonical Wnt ligands bind the Frizzled (Fz)
and LRP5/6 (low density lipoprotein related) co-receptors (Tamai et al., 2004). Current
knowledge indicates LRP functions solely in the canonical Wnt pathway and is dispensable for
the others (Wehrli 2000). These receptors signal to both Axin and the Disheveled (Dvl)
proteins, both key intracellular components of the Wnt pathway. By a yet unknown mechanism,
receptor activation allows Dvl to promote the dissolution of a multi-component cytoplasmic
complex (Destruction complex) that phosphorylates β-catenin (Wharton, 2003). Furthermore,
receptor activation recruits Axin, a member of the destruction complex, to LRP receptors
phosphorylated on both conserved Ser/Thr residues and the PPPSP motif (Tamai et al., 2004). In
a Wnt induced manner, CK1γ phosphorylates the Ser/Thr cluster regions of LRP5/6 while
GSK3β subsequently phosphorylates the PPPSP motif, allowing for Axin recruitment to the
plasma membrane and away from a multi-component destruction complex (Liu et al., 2002;
Tamai et al., 2004). This event, in combination with Dvl’s association with this multi-
component scaffolding/destruction complex containing Axin, GSK3β, the APC (Adenomatous
Polyposis Coli) tumor suppressor further promote complex dissociation, thereby preventing β-
catenin from being phosphorylated by both CK1 and GSK3β.
In a non-Wnt stimulated state, the destruction complex is believed to contain Axin as the primary
scaffolding molecule from which, CK1 (Liu et al., 2002), GSK3β (Dajani et al., 2003), and APC
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Figure 1. Overview of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway. In the basal state, defined by
an absence of Wnt signal, β-catenin is held within a multicomponent complex. Complex
formation facilitates the sequential phosphorylation of β-catenin by CK1α and GSK3β on
conserved serine and threonine residues. Phosphorylation on its amino terminus allows β-TrCP,
an E3 ligase, to bind β-catenin and promote ubiquitin-mediated proteosomal degradation
resulting in low levels of β-catenin. In the presence of Wnt ligand, the cell surface interaction
between Wnt and its two co-receptors Frizzled and LRP5/6 promotes the formation of a Frizzled-
Dishevelled complex and the phosporylation of LRP by CK1γ,ε and GSK3β. These
modifications allow for Axin to bind the LRP intracellular domain. Axin is sequestered away
from the destruction complex, to the cell surface, resulting in the dissociation of the
multicomponent complex. β-catenin is freed, is not efficiently modified by CK1α and GSK3β
and therefore goes unrecognized by the E3 ligase allowing for β-catenin levels to accumulate
and β-catenin enters the nucleus. Once in the nucleus, β-catenin interacts with members of the
TCF/LEF transcription factor family displacing transcriptional repressors and recruiting a host of
co-activators to promote the expression of a variety of proliferative and cell-fate determining
genes
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Figure 1
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(Kimelman and Xu, 2006; Spink et al., 2000) bind. β-catenin enters the complex by binding
Axin through the conserved armadillo repeats and the 15 amino acid repeats on APC. These
associations are thought to position the N-terminus β-catenin adjacent to the two kinases in the
complex, enabling CK1 to phosphorylate β-catenin at Ser45 (Hagen and Vidal-Puig, 2002) .
This primary modification serves as a primer, permitting GSK3β to sequentially phosphorylate
β-catenin at adjacent Thr 41, Ser 37 and Ser 33 (Amit et al., 2002). Upon Wnt stimulation, the
complex dissociates in the manner described above and β-catenin is freed from these interactors
and therefore is not efficiently modified by CK1 and GSK3β.
Upon release from the scaffolding complex, the non-phosphorylated form of β-catenin goes
unrecognized by the proteosome destruction complex. Thus, free β-catenin is stabilized and
accumulates in the cytosol, allowing its translocation to the nucleus where it binds to
transcription factors of the TCF/LEF (T cell-specific transcription factor/lymphoid enhancer-
binding factor) family. This interaction transiently converts TCF factor repression into
transcriptional activation thereby inducing the expression of a variety of downstream genes,
many of which have been implicated in cancer (Logan and Nusse, 2004). Canonical Wnt target
genes include cell cycle and anti-apoptotic factors such as survivin (Zhang et al., 2001a), Cyclin
D1 (Tetsu and McCormick, 1999), C-myc (He et al., 1998), in addition to a variety of secreted
growth factors including VEGF (Zhang et al., 2001b) and WISP (Xu et al., 2000). Furthermore,
Wnt signaling promotes the expression of Wnt pathway component Axin2 (Jho et al., 2002),
resulting in negative feedback.
1.1.5 Additional factors involved in mediating a Wnt response
Like the Wnt extracellular environment, there are many co-factors outside of the core Wnt-
pathway components which modulate intracellular Wnt signal transduction. In fact, there are
currently 32 purported intracellular modulators outside of the core canonical pathway
components (The Wnt homepage, http://www.stanford.edu/~rnusse/wntwindow.html). For
instance, members of the protein phosphatase family PP2A and C, are key components of
canonical Wnt signaling and are often found within the multi-component destruction complex
(Lustig and Behrens, 2003; Seeling et al., 1999). Their roles, however remain unclear,
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obfuscated by the ability of PP2A to bind both Axin and APC while acting as both a positive and
negative regulator of canonical Wnt signaling, in a yet unknown manner (Seeling et al., 1999;
Willert et al., 1999). PP2C has been shown to interact with Dvl2 though its PDZ domain and as
a result destabilizes Axin (Strovel et al., 2000). Other major cytoplasmic modulators such as
Frodo and Dapper possess 90% sequence identity, yet have been shown to inversely effect
canonical signaling. Required for proper development, both bind Dvl, but on different domains,
Dapper is a negative regulator, while Frodo has been shown to positively regulate Wnt signaling
by mechanisms still unknown (Wharton, 2003).
Once in the nucleus, a variety of factors directly influence β-catenin/TCF/LEF activity. ICAT,
for example, binds β-catenin and is thought to displace it from its transcriptional partners
TCF/LEF and CREB binding protein (Reifenberger et al., 2002). Furthermore, commonly seen
splice variants of TCF/LEF are known to act as dominant-negatives lacking either β-catenin or
DNA binding domains (Hoppler and Kavanagh, 2007). Furthermore, factors such as the
TCF/LEF co-repressor Groucho, competes with β-catenin for TCF/Lef binding. All of these
effectors contribute to the complexity of Wnt signal transduction and transcriptional activation.
1.2 Wnt signaling in development
1.2.1 Invertebrates
Wnt signaling is a crucial factor during embryonic development in organisms of varied
complexity. Wnt-β-catenin signaling is a key regulator of germ layer formation in invertebrate
species such as nematodes, sea urchina and cnidarians, in which factors stored in oocytes directly
activate canonical Wnt signaling in a spatially restricted manner specifying germ layers and
defining body axis patterns (Marikawa, 2006). This role of germ layer specification is most
evident in C. elegans, where the Wnt3 homologue mom-2 plays a critical role in establishing
embryonic polarity and inducing germ layer formation. After the second division of the zygote,
in a four-cell-staged embryo, one of the cells (P2) becomes polarized and adjacent daughter cells
which from there-on divide separately give rise to the endoderm or mesodermal lineages. In the
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absence of Wnt signaling, both daughter cells adopt the mesodermal cell fate and genetic screens
have linked mom2 as the essential P2 cell factor responsible for the polarization (Rocheleau et
al., 1997). Furthermore, activity of a Lef-1 homologue in the polarized daughter cells is critical
for the cells to adopt differing fates (Lin et al., 1995).
1.2.2 Xenopus development
Like the invertebrates, frog body axes are defined in the first few cellular divisions, establishing
the three germ layers, endoderm, ectoderm and mesoderm in the polarizing oocyte. Major body
axis organization is largely coordinated via a region of the developing embryo called the
Spemann organizer. This organizer consists of a small group of cells in the vertebrate embryo
which possess inductive morphogenic properties that establish the frog body plan (Garcia-
Fernandez et al., 2007). Wnt signaling plays a crucial role in the development of the organizer,
as activated β-catenin is present on the dorsal side of the blastula at the same time and location
the organizer develops. Injection of murine Wnt1 mRNA into early Xenopus blastomeres
resulted in the induction of dorsal mesoderm formation and a duplicate body axis (McMahon and
Moon, 1989). This quintessential Wnt experiment demonstrated a significant role for β-catenin
signaling in vertebrate body plan formation. Moreover, it demonstrated the highly conserved
nature of the canonical Wnt signaling pathway whereby murine Wnt1 was able to effect frog
development. Equally important, Wnt signaling was shown to play a critical role in specifying
germ layer and body plan in invertebrates and vertebrates alike. Subsequent studies revealed that
identical axis duplications could be induced by injecting any of the canonical Wnt ligands and a
wide variety of downstream Wnt pathway activating components including β-catenin, Dvl, and
dominant-negative forms of GSK3β (Clevers, 2006; Wodarz and Nusse, 1998).
1.2.3 Mammalian development
Although Wnt signaling is responsible for establishing the dorso-ventral body axis in lower
vertebrates, regulates germ layer formation and specifies body axes amongst invertebrate
species, data on higher vertebrates is not as well established. The Wnt influence in mammalian
development is significantly more complex and less delineated, however, significant insights
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have been garnered from mouse studies. Wnts have been shown to play critical roles during
various stages of development. Compared to other species, mammalian development is
significantly different; the initial events of germ layer and body axis formation in non-
mammalian species are secondary events in mammalian development. The first event in
mammals is placenta development allowing for interacting with the mothers uterus, body plan
and axis formation occur post implantation (Marikawa, 2006). A variety of studies have
investigated the role of canonical Wnts during pre-implantation development using loss-of-
function, gain-of-function, and overexpression analysis and none have reported any
abnormalities until post implantation (Haegel et al., 1995; Kemler et al., 2004). Therefore,
canonical Wnt signaling solely plays its role post implantation, despite a variety of ligands and
receptors being expresses pre-implantation (Hamatani et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2004).
The initial event of germ-layer formation occurs around E4.5, with the formation of the primitive
endoderm in the developing blastocyst, defining the dorso-ventral (D-V) axis of the embryo.
The role for Wnt in this event is unclear. β-catenin-null embryos develop normal primitive
endoderm (Haegel et al., 1995), however, in vitro models suggest up-regulation of β-catenin
signaling induces primitive endoderm formation (Liu et al., 1999). The first clear role for
Wnt/β-catenin signaling appears to be at E5.5 in patterning the visceral endoderm and promoting
its migration by regulating the expression of secreted molecules controlling the anterior
movement of the visceral endoderm (Huelsken et al., 2000).
After the formation of the endoderm, epiblast cells move opposite the anterior visceral ectoderm
and undergo epithelial-mesenchymal transformation (gastrulation) to generate the primitive
streak. It is from this structure that cells give rise to endoderm and mesoderm. Similar to
Xenopus development, non-phosphoryated β-catenin accumulation is present in the region of
epiblast cells where the primitive streak emerges during the onset of gastrulation (Marikawa,
2006; Mohamed et al., 2004). Furthermore, reporter constructs indicate TCF-mediated
transcription is spatially and temporally activated during gastrulation (Mohamed et al., 2004).
Also, several Wnt pathway components have demonstrated indispensability for both primitive
streak and eventual axis formation (Liu et al., 1999), while excessive Wnt signal causes
expansion and disorganization of the streak in mouse embryos (Kemler et al., 2004). The data
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indicates a critical role for canonical Wnt signaling in the events leading up to and encompassing
mouse gastrulation.
After gastrulation, the anterior visceral endoderm (AVE) and the anterior visceral mesoderm
(AME) which derive from the anterior primitive streak play critical roles in the formation of
anterior structures. Interestingly, both of these regions express high levels of Wnt antagonists
such as DKK, SFRP and CER1 (Biben et al., 1998; Glinka et al., 1998). Consequently, ectopic
expression of canonical Wnts has been shown to suppress the formation of anterior structures,
along with inducing partial axis duplication in mice. These experiments indicate critical roles for
AME and AVE factors in suppressing local Wnt signaling for normal anterior structure
development (Marikawa, 2006). Further, anterior involvement implicates canonical Wnts as
inducers of the neural crest, promoting its formation, closure and dispersal throughout the
embryo that eventually gives rise to most of the nervous system and the cranial skeleton
(LaBonne, 2002).
In addition to the early events in embryonic development, canonical Wnt signaling is required
for early stages of mammalian osteoblastogenesis (Day et al., 2005), late stages of brain (Thomas
and Capecchi, 1990), kidney (Herzlinger et al., 1994), tooth, and mammary gland development
by exerting its influence upon proliferation, cell migration and differentiation similar to events
surrounding gastrulation. It is through combinations of ligand expression patterns, agonists and
antagonists vying for the ability to bind both ligands and their receptors and in combination with
a variety of other embryonic factors, that Wnts contribute to the precise temporal and spatial
patterning of the developing mouse embryo
1.3 Wnt signaling in human disease Developmentally important signaling pathways like that of Wnts, which coordinate diverse
processes such as cell migration, proliferation, adhesion and death, play significant roles not only
in development but also in tissue homeostasis (Clevers, 2006). When a critically important
pathway such as Wnt becomes dysregulated, it predictably leads to a variety of pathological
conditions. These conditions range from various types of cancers (Polakis, 2000), to multiple
diseases related to unbalanced tissue homeostasis (Krishnan et al., 2006). The actions of these
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diseases are mediated mostly through the canonical branch of the pathway and the number of
Wnt-induced proliferative and or anti-apoptotic genes.
1.3.1 Wnt signaling in Cancer
The best studied of diseases involving Wnt signaling relate to its role in a variety of cancers
(Barker and Clevers, 2006; Giles RH, 2003; Polakis, 2000). Most evident are the implications
within the intestinal epithelium in colorectal cancer (CRC) where mutations of key pathway
components appear very early in adenoma development in approximately 90% of human CRC’s.
Mutational hot-spots located in APC account for 80% of inherited and random cases of colon
cancer, while mutations in β-catenin are seen in 9% of such cases. Additional Wnt pathway
components are mutated at a lesser frequency, yet all result in the stabilization of β-catenin,
promoting constitutive activation of canonical Wnt signaling (Barker and Clevers, 2006; Giles
RH, 2003; Polakis, 2000). Familial adenomatous polyposis (FAP) is an autosomal, inheritable
disease predisposing patients to develop thousands of colon polyps typically progressing to
carcinoma by early to mid adulthood. The majority of FAP associated mutations reflect
heterozygous truncations of the APC gene and are associated with a subsequent loss of
heterozygosity (Galiatsatos and Foulkes, 2006). This phenotype is mimicked in the Apcmin
mutant mouse heterozygous for a truncated form of APC, in which mice readily develop both
polyps and colon carcinomas (Moser et al., 1995).
Canonical Wnt signaling is required for maintaining epithelial homeostasis within the intestinal
tract. The colon is comprised of both villi (protrusions) and invaginations (crypts). The basal
crypt cells are highly proliferative cells that give rise to multiple cell types lining the intestinal
tract. Canonical Wnts exert a proliferative effect on these crypt progenitor cells through the
regulation of Wnt target genes c-Myc and CyclinD1 (Gregorieff and Clevers, 2005). Both
factors are highly overexpressed in cases of both FAP and colon cancer. Studies aimed at
blocking their expression in CRC cell lines have indicated their cell proliferative effect can be
mitigated and cellular differentiation programs induced via overexpression dnTCF4 (van de
Wetering et al., 2002). The precise mechanism by which Wnt signaling regulates the
proliferative homeostasis of these cells remains a mystery. In the colon, however, it is believed
that adenoma formation is promoted through Wnt induced unabated expansion of progenitor
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cells which somehow retain their crypt phenotype, yet continue to expand outside the intestinal
invaginations (Gregorieff and Clevers, 2005).
In addition to the multiple examples of activating mutations of Wnt signal transduction
components, recently, a variety of epigenetic regulatory mechanisms have been noted in cases of
colon cancer. A number of studies have reported hypermethylated promoters of secreted Wnt
ligand genes such as WIF1 (Taniguchi et al., 2005), DKK1 (Aguilera et al., 2006) and SFRP’s
(Suzuki et al., 2004) in multiple colon cancer cell lines and patients. These factors all act as
inhibitors of Wnt signaling in the extracellular matrix where they either sequester Wnt ligands
via direct binding or prevent Wnts from binding their target receptor. In effect,
hypermethylation lessens the ability of these factors to quell an already hyperactive Wnt signal in
many instances of colon cancer.
A common theme within the Wnt field surrounds the related effects of Wnt in cancer and cellular
or tissue self-renewal. While this theme is best characterized in the intestine, it is also evident in
hair follicle tumours, and in cases of leukemia. Hair follicle tumours are the first reported case
of a Wnt inactivating mutation seen to be highly correlative with a tumor (Takeda et al., 2006).
A significant percentage of follicular sebaceous tumours harbour a Lef1 mutation rendering it
unable to efficiently bind β-catenin. The end result is a set of early progenitor cells being
directed towards the wrong cellular fate in the absence of sufficient Wnt signal. Obfuscating the
picture in follicular tumours are the cases in which activated Wnt signaling is seen to play a
significant role in promoting tumor development (Lo Celso et al., 2004). This disparity implies a
more complex role for β-catenin/Wnt signaling in the determination or balance of follicular cell
fate.
This balance between cell-fate and cancer seen in the colon and hair follicles is also seen in
leukemias, whereby hyperactive Wnt signaling is believed to enhance the self-renewal activity of
CML granulocyte-macrophage progenitors leading to increased leukemic potential (Jamieson et
al., 2004). Moreover, similar instances of activated canonical Wnt pathways are seen and
implicated as effectors in cases of breast, lung, prostate, ovarian, thyroid and a variety of
additional cancers (Lustig and Behrens, 2003; Mazieres et al., 2005; Nusse and Varmus, 1982;
Tekmal and Keshava, 1997; Yardy and Brewster, 2005).
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1.3.2 Other human diseases and Wnt signaling
In addition to cancer, canonical Wnt signaling has been implicated in diseases as far ranging as
Alzheimer’s, bipolar disorders, skin diseases, cardiovascular diseases, type two diabetes and a
limb development disorder (Holmen et al., 2004; Johnson and Rajamannan, 2006; Luo et al.,
2007). However, the best documented case outside of cancer is that relating to skeletal disorders.
This crucial role for canonical Wnt signaling has only been documented in the last decade, as
Wnts play an essential role in post-natal bone tissue homeostasis.
In adult life, bone homeostasis is maintained by the balanced activities of osteoblasts, which
produce bone matrix and their cellular counterpart osteoclasts, which resorb the same matrix.
Therefore, bone mass is determined by the tightly coupled relative activities of these two cell
types (Bennett et al., 2005). Loss-of-function mutations of LRP5, the canonical Wnt co-receptor,
are associated with osteoporosis-pseudogloma syndrome, which is characterized by a loss of
bone density, hence skeletal fragility (Krishnan et al., 2006). Conversely, gain-of function
mutations in the LRP5 N-terminal domain which reduces its affinity for the Wnt antagonist
DKK1 confers a high bone mass phenotype (Boyden LM, 2002). The bone density phenotype in
LRP5 null mice is exacerbated by the heterozygous loss of LRP6, adding credence to the notion
that the entire LRP family of receptors critically influence bone mass through canonical Wnt
signaling (Holmen et al., 2004). While the molecular mechanisms by which Wnts influence
bone mass are not fully understood, GSK3β inhibition was seen to stimulate precursor cells to
differentiate into osteoblasts (Bennett et al., 2005). Additional studies have demonstrated
stabilized β-catenin and Wnts 3, 1 and 10b, all canonical Wnts, induce osteoblastogenesis
strongly indicating Wnts stimulate bone formation via directing cells towards an osteoblastic cell
fate (Krishnan et al., 2006).
1.4 Small molecule screening Sequencing of the human genome has provided researchers with a multitude of new biological
targets to study based on the approximately 25,000 genes likely to encode millions of protein
products. Of these proteins, fewer than 1000 are currently targeted by small molecules (Drews,
14
2000), and are predominantly pharmaceutical targets. The popularity of small molecule
screening is likely linked to the abundance of information provided by the genomics revolution.
New screening technologies and improved small molecule libraries have the potential to
accelerate the transition of genomic data into biological or therapeutic significance (Austin,
2003).
Used as a complement to traditional research, small molecules have a number of advantages;
they target a gene product rather than mRNA or a genetic locus, can be agonistic or antagonistic,
and they can selectively affect their target for a defined period in vivo and in vitro. With
virtually limitless structural diversity, there are conceivably specific agonists and antagonists for
every protein. Therefore, by screening chemical libraries against a variety of assays, it is
possible to identify specific effectors and develop small molecules as pharmaceuticals and as
research tools. Conversely, it is also possible to screen chemicals with known molecular
properties to dissect the function of novel genes and cellular pathways.
1.4.1 Drug discovery
The process of drug discovery involves biological target identification, assay development, and
high-throughput screening followed by identifying the mechanism of action and hit-to-lead
validation. Most molecules in the drug discovery process fail due to lack of potency, toxicity or
unsound biological targeting (Caldwell, 2007). The benefits, however, of being able to screen a
quality drug target against thousands of potential chemical compounds are invaluable and have
increased with the availability of drug-like compound libraries and robotics capabilities
(Goodnow, 2001). High-throughput screening, therefore, has become commonplace in industry
and increasingly so in academia as a means of drug discovery and as a tool to address key
biological questions.
Much like biological research itself, these screens take one of three distinct approaches; cell-
based, in vitro, and in silico. All possess distinct benefits and limitations. For example, in vitro
screens are predominantly used when a specific molecule of interest is directly targeted. In vitro
assays provide researchers with direct readouts of activity or function of the drug target, and can
be easier than cell-based screens. With an in vitro approach, however, it is not a certainty
15
whether similar effects will be duplicated in vivo, nor whether the compound is cytotoxic, or has
multiple off target effects. Cell-based screens bypass two of these issues. With the proper
controls, cytotoxic small molecules can be easily identified or screened for (Zaman, 2004) and in
vivo effect are not in question. However, cell-based screening is not without problems. False
positive rates are significantly higher, due to off target effects even in the best designed screen
(Zaman, 2004). However, the biggest advantage of cell based screens is the ability to perform
pathway and phenotypic screens. These screens allow researchers to address greater biological
questions through a broader range of applications. The third approach, in silico screening, also
has broad applications. In contrast to both in vitro and cell-based screening, in silico screens
draws information from previous screens and literature to make computer generated predictions
about compound effects on a particular protein. Structural modeling is used to generate
inhibitors/activators of enzymatic activity or of protein-protein interactions. In silico screens,
however, are limited to proteins with solved structures or with known small molecule effectors
as a starting point (Shan et al., 2005).
Regardless of screen type, of principal screening importance is identifying a proper target from
the onset. Particularly more so when screening for anti-cancer drugs, as their properties are often
toxic to normal tissues as well as the cancerous target cell population. Coupled with cancer
being a diverse disease due to environmental factors as well as patient genetic variability, a
screening target molecule or pathway must be very sound from the onset. This does not rule out
the possibility of targeting a component or pathway essential to general cell survival, because the
host of secondary issues these targets bring with them that can be satiated through appropriate
dosing and directed drug distribution (Kamb et al., 2007). Furthermore, using a cell-based assay
for drug screening can be advantageous in weeding out compounds with more general cytotoxic
effects.
An equally important part of the screening process is the development of a high-throughput
readout to measure the activity of the target molecule or pathway. The recent advances made in
cell-based screening technology including automated systems for cell manipulation, small
molecule delivery tools, signal detection reagents and apparatus, along with better chemical
libraries have all made cell-based small molecule implementation increasingly more reliable and
viable.
16
The most difficult and time consuming aspect of the drug discovery process is not the screen
itself, but the subsequent work validating the identified hits. The first goal is turning screened
hits into lead chemical compounds (Goodnow, 2001). Small molecule leads need not only have
a verified effect, but their cellular targets, and mechanism of action need to be identified in order
to proceed to optimization. Target identification needs to be determined in phenotypic and or
pathway screens, as opposed to targeted enzymatic screens in which the target is already known.
While genomic and proteomic tools have been in place for a long time in yeast to more easily
identify target molecules, these tools are not fully adaptable to mammalian cells (Luesch, 2006).
Therefore other than coupling a small molecule screen with a genomic screen (siRNA), a large
amount of secondary work is necessary for target and/or mechanistic identification. After target
identification, lead compounds typically go through an optimization stage in which their
structure is refined through medicinal chemistry to produce a clinically viable candidate lead
(Goodnow, 2001). From there, the long process of enabling their entry into animal and then
human studies is started, with the vast majority of leads failing due to lack of potency, toxicity or
specificity (Goodnow, 2001). It is precisely due to this high failure rate that a screens need to be
designed for a sound druggable target, and hit validation and optimization be thorough and
comprehensive.
1.4.2 Small molecule libraries
As important as it is to design the proper screen against a well researched target, hits will only
generate quality lead compounds if the chemical library contains compounds with biological
activity. Medicinal chemistry has traditionally favored particular scaffolds from which drugs are
derived. Therefore, molecules in a screening collection typically adhere to conventional rules for
drug-like properties, taking into consideration solubility, H-bond donating and accepting groups,
and size restrictions (Lipinski, 1997). The advantage of these chemical properties is
considerable, as they not only predict drug activity, but also demonstrate adequate physiological
absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion profiles (Yu and Adedoyin, 2003).
Therefore, they are ideal compounds for post-screening purposes.
The measure of chemical space is equally as important as the aforementioned properties. A
chemical library designed to randomly populate chemical space is not of significant biological
17
use if chemical and biological space does not overlap (McMillan and Kahn, 2005). Therefore,
compound libraries such as Maybridge (Thermo Fisher scientific), which are designed using core
structures common to medicinal chemistry as scaffolds, from which diversity and variability of
chemical space is explored, are ideal for drug screens. Moreover, a library of this type is best
suited to identify novel modulators of a cellular target while also adhering to typical drug-like
properties. Libraries such as the LOPAC (Sigma) and Prestwick (Prestwick chemicals), which
consist of biologically active compounds and off-patent drugs, are not likely to produce selective
inhibitors of a particular pathway of interest owing to their activity towards other cellular targets.
However, these libraries are of chemical genomic interest, and can identify interactions or
commonalities between different signaling pathways.
1.4.3 Chemical genomics
In parallel with the drug discovery process is the emerging field of chemical genomics. Forward
chemical genetic screens are identical to drug based screens, but differ in their end goals. While
drug discovery aims to generate lead medicinal compounds, chemical genomics aims to identify
a small molecule which can produce a particular phenotype (Lokey, 2003). In a manner very
similar to forward genetics, chemical genomics seeks compounds possessing properties able to
mimic a particular genetic mutation by altering the effects of one or more gene products
(Bellows and Tyers, 2004). In many situations, the molecular targets or phenotypes studied
through chemical genomics screens are the ones also of interest for drug discovery. At the core
of excitement surrounding chemical genomics, are its wide-ranging application. Once a screen
has been used to identify a chemical modulator, and its specificity of action upon a molecular
target is verified, the small molecule can then be used as a tool to dissect the biology of the
molecular target, its interactions, and its in vivo role. Moreover, the simplicity of use gives it an
advantage over the myriad of genetic tools that can be used in parallel.
1.4.4 Known small molecule modulators of the Wnt pathway
Dysregulated Wnt signaling was first linked to colon cancer in the late 1990’s (Korinek et al.,
1997), and since then, a significant amount of research from both private and public sectors has
18
investigated that link. Therefore, as expected, studies of purported small molecule antagonists of
canonical Wnt signaling have emerged (Fig. 2 and Table 1). The first inhibitor reported was
nitric oxide donating aspirin compounds already in drug testing as Cox2 inhibitors (Nath et al.,
2003). Subsequently, additional compounds such as hydrogen peroxide (Shin et al., 2004),
Green tea compounds (Kim et al., 2006) and Quercetin (Park et al., 2005) were also reported as
inhibitors. However, a mechanism for the activity of these and most other inhibitory compounds
remains largely undefined.
The largest class of compounds demonstrating an antagonistic effect on canonical Wnt signaling
is the NSAIDS. Included in this category are Aspirin, the NO-donating forms of Aspirin, and
sulindac sulfide. All have long been used for the treatment of pain and inflammation. The
mechanisms by which they affect Wnt signaling are varied. Aspirin is believed to inhibit PP2A
activity (Bos et al., 2006), while NO-donating aspirin have been suggested to disrupt the β-
catenin/TCF complex in the nucleus (Nath et al., 2003), and Sulindac was shown to inhibit
nuclear β-catenin accumulation in FAP patient colonic cells through an undetermined
mechanism (Boon et al., 2004; Koornstra et al., 2005). While these compounds have
demonstrated an inhibitory effect upon the canonical Wnt pathway, the effects were seen at high
concentrations; moreover, they are not specific to Wnt signaling.
In addition to reports of already studied compounds, three groups have used small molecule
screens in an attempt to identify novel compounds inhibiting canonical Wnt signaling. The first
of these reports characterized the compound ICG-001, identified in a cell-based screen using a
Wnt responsive transcriptional reporter, Topflash, as assay readout. This synthetic compound
demonstrated an inhibitory effect on Wnt transcriptional activity through its binding to the β-
catenin transcriptional partner CREB Binding Protein (Emami KH, 2004). A more directed
approach was taken by Leproucelet et al., in which they screened a chemical library in an
ELISA-based high throughput screen for inhibitors of β-catenin-TCF interaction (Lepourcelet et
al., 2004). The screen identified six inhibitors with IC-50 values in the low μM range, all of
which demonstrated in vivo effects on canonical Wnt signaling. The third screen was
accomplished in silico, using a structure-based approach. Utilizing the crystal structure of Dvl
binding protein Dapper, Shan et al. ran a virtual screen of 250,000 compounds to identify small
19
Figure 2. Known Chemical inhibitors of the Wnt signaling pathway. Small molecules with
antagonistic Wnt pathway activity are displayed at their molecular targets. Four of the six
known inhibitors are downstream effectors of the pathway acting at the transcription level.
Additional modulators, including agonists are listed in Table 1.
20
molecules which would bind Dvl and interrupt its association with the Frizzled receptor (Shan et
al., 2005). One such molecule was identified and demonstrated an in vivo effect upon Wnt
signaling, however, its effects were only seen at a very high concentration.
21
Table 1. Known small molecules modulators of the Wnt pathway. A number of small-
molecules have demonstrated the ability to effect β-catenin mediated Wnt signaling. While
some molecules were identified through high-throughput screening as indicated above, most
have been identified by alternative methods. All known Wnt pathway modulators are reported
along with the associated IC50 value (mM) and the molecular target, if identified. ND indicates
no data is available.
22
1.5 Rationale for project
Due to the importance of Wnt signaling in human disease, dysregulated β-catenin constitutes an
attractive target for drug intervention. However, in addition to anti-cancer therapy, the Wnt
pathway plays a critical role in animal development. The few functional inhibitors in existence
are downstream effectors of transcriptional activation. Therefore, identification of novel
upstream small molecule inhibitors/activators would be of tremendous importance as a research
tool to elucidate the mechanisms involved in regulating β-catenin stability, and thus Wnt
signaling.
My research endeavor therefore centered on the development and implementation of a high-
throughput screen to assess the status of β-catenin activity in mammalian cells. Using a
luciferase tagged β-catenin molecule to detect its stabilization, we screened the Maybridge,
LOPAC and Prestwick chemical libraries to identify small molecule modulators of canonical
Wnt signaling. Compounds identified as inhibitors or activators of the pathway were
subsequently investigated via β-catenin stabilization assay, and pathways specific reporter assay,
to assess repeatability and pathway specificity. The effects of the most promising inhibitory
compound was tested in colon cancer cell lines and was shown to significantly attenuate
activated β-catenin signaling via quantitative PCR analysis. Furthermore, through dissection of
the Wnt signaling pathway, we were bale to pinpoint the effect of the compound upon β-catenin
stability, through a currently undefined mechanism. Lastly, the inhibitory effects of this
compound and ones of significant structural similarity were shown to not only inhibit Wnt target
gene expression in colon cancer cell lines, but also effect prostate cancer models.
23
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Reagents The Lopac1280, Prestwick and Maybridge libraries housed at the S.M.A.R.T Robotics Facility at
the Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institutes (http://38.112.98.3/), were purchased from Lopac
Chemicals, Prestwick Chemicals and Maybridge Chemicals respectively. Aliquots were stored
at -900C in 96 and 384 well storage plates (Costar, Corning). Individual compounds used in
secondary analyses were obtained from Ryan Scientific, dissolved in DMSO (Sigma) and stored
in small 50 mM aliquots at -200C.
2.2 Cell lines and maintenance All cell lines were maintained in media according to American Type Culture Collection
guidelines (www.ATCC.org), supplemented with 10% FBS (Hyclone), incubated at 37 0C with
5% CO2 and went without additional additives unless otherwise indicated. Briefly, SW480,
SW620, LS1034, LS174T and HepG2 cells were cultured in alpha-MEM. HepG2 cells also
received non-essential amino acid supplementation (Gibco). The prostate derived cell lines
Du145 and PC3 were maintained in regular MEM. Colo205 cells were sustained in RPMI
media, while L-cells, HEK293 and HEK293T cells were cultured in DMEM. Wnt3A expressing
L-cells (Labbe E, 2000) were maintained in DMEM containing 0.4 mg/ml G418 (Gibco). The
Flag-β-catenin-Luciferase stable cell lines were generated by transfecting HEK293 cells with
pCAGIP-Flag-β-catenin-Ff-luciferase (see below) using calcium phosphate transfection (see
below) in DMEM. Cells stably expressing the fusion protein were selected with 1.5 μg/ml
puromycin (Sigma) by ring cloning after one week. Early passages were frozen down and
expanded when needed.
24
2.3 Production of Wnt3A ligand in conditioned media Mouse fibroblast L cells stably expressing the murineWnt3A gene were generated by Dr. Etienne
Labbe using the pPGK-neo-Wnt3A construct (Shibamoto et al., 1998). Cells were plated in 10
cm dishes and allowed to grow to 70% confluence, after which, the media was changed for
ligand collection. Both control and Wnt3A conditioned media was collected from cells cultured
for five days in DMEM supplemented with 0.2% fetal bovine serum. After collection, the media
was filtered through a 0.22 μm bottle top filter (Corning) and stored at 4o C for up to four weeks
without significant loss of activity. Confirmation of ligand activity was performed on each new
batch using Topflash transcriptional reporter assays to assess Wnt transcriptional activity and
immunoblot analysis to detect stabilization of endogenous β-catenin in L-cells (see below).
2.4 Constructs, transcriptional reporter assays and immunoblotting
Topflash and Fopflash reporter constructs were originally obtained from the Vogelstein Lab and
are the same as those previously used in our lab (Labbe E, 2000). IBRE-lux (Benchabane and
Wrana, 2003) and 3TP-luc (Wrana et al., 1992) reporters were obtained from the Wrana lab, and
the NFκB reporter is from Upstate Biotechnology. Wnt pathway components, Dvl2, β-catenin,
Lef1 and LRP6 all possess a C-terminal triple-Flag-epitope-tag and were cloned into the pCMV5
vector by Dr. Bryan Miller. The Flag(N-terminal)-β-catenin-firefly-luciferase(C terminal) fusion
construct was excised from a pCMV5B construct generated by Dr. Letamendia and cloned into
the ClaI and BglII sites of the pCAGIP vector, which contains a Puromycin resistance cassette
used to generate stable cell lines.
For transcriptional reporter assays, cells were transiently transfected with a reporter plasmid
specific to the Wnt, TGF-β, BMP or NFκB pathways, pCMVβ-gal, and any indicated constructs.
To induce the luciferase reporters, cells were treated overnight with the combinations of ligand
and compound as indicated. Luciferase activity in cell lysates was measured using the luciferase
assay system (Promega) in the EG&G Berthold microplate luminometer and normalized to β-gal
levels. HEK293T and HepG2 cells were transiently transfected using calcium-phosphate DNA
precipitation. Briefly, cells plated in 24-well dishes were given a fresh complete medium change
25
2 hr prior to transformation. DNA (3.0 μg/6 wells) was added to 15 μl of 2.5 M CaCl2 mixed
with 150μl of 2× HBS (280 mM NaCl, 50 mM HEPES, and 1.5 mM sodium phosphate [pH
7.05]) and incubated at room temperature for 20 min. The precipitate was added to cells, which
were incubated overnight (Labbe et al., 1998). Colo205, SW620 and SW480 cells were also
transfected with a total of 0.5μg cDNA per individual well of a 24 well plate, using 1 μl
Lipofectmine (Invitrogen) according to standard protocols. After six hours, the medium was
changed for overnight incubation. The following day, cells were treated with compounds and the
assay was performed as described above.
To determine endogenous β-catenin protein levels, lysates were prepared from cells plated in 12
well plates, treated with combination of Wnt and/or compound. Proteins from cell lysates were
separated by SDS–PAGE and transferred to nitrocellulose membranes. β-catenin was detected
using the anti-β-catenin antibody (1:10,000, BD Transduction laboratories) and HRP conjugated
secondary antibody via chemiluminesence as recommended by the manufacturer (ECL kit,
Amersham). Actin levels were detected using an anti-actin (1:2000, Sigma) antibody.
In the manual Ff-luc assay, stable 7 cells generated to express the flag-β-catenin-firefly-
luciferase fusion construct (see above for details) were manually plated into 48-well plates
(Greiner-Bio-One) at a density of 2500 cells/well and incubated for 24 hours. To the cells,
media containing the compounds was added. After a one hour pre-incubation with compound,
Ligand or control media was added and incubated for an additional 15 hours. Media was
removed, cells were lysed and luciferase activity measured using the luciferase assay system
(Promega).
2.5 High-throughput assays
For the β-catenin nuclear translocation assay, NIH3T3 cells (5000/well) plated in 96-well flat-
bottom plates (Costar, Corning) were treated with control or Wnt (50/50) conditioned media.
After a sixteen hour incubation, cells were washed twice in PBS prior to being fixed in 4%
paraformaldehyde (in PBS) for 10 minutes, washed twice, permeabilized with 0.5% triton X-100
(90 seconds), and washed an additional two times (PBS). Cells were prepared for
immunofluorescence by incubating with the mouse monoclonal anti-β-catenin antibody (1:1000,
26
BD Transduction Laboratories) for one hour, followed by a FITC conjugated secondary antibody
(Jackson ImmunoResearch) and Hoesct nuclear staining for one hour. A Cellomics Arrayscan II
HCS imager (Cellomics) was used to image 50-100 cells per well from each 96-well plate. The
Arrayscan V3.5 software captured images using a 10x lens and an XF100 filter. The molecular
translocation application on the Arrayscan was configured to define the nuclear (Hoechst
stained) and cytoplasmic cellular regions and to quantify the FITC fluorescent intensity
difference of β-catenin in these compartments defined as (mean nuclear intensity-cytoplasmic
intensity). These values were calculated for each cell with averages generated for individual
wells.
For the automated Ff-luc assay, stable 7 cells previously generated to express the flag-β-catenin-
firefly-luciferase fusion construct (see above for details) were manually plated into 96-well
plates (Greiner-Bio-One) at a density of 1250 cells/well and incubated for 24 hours at 37 0C plus
5% CO2. One hour prior to initiating the run, the medium was replaced with 50 μL of a
starvation media containing 0.2% FBS via manual pipettor. All plate handling thereafter and
reagent additions were performed by an integrated arm robotics platform (CRS robotic arm
controlled by the Polara software, Thermo Electron). Chemical aliquots from the libraries were
added to cells for a final assay concentration of approximately 1.2 μM and a final DMSO
concentration of 0.2% (compound solvent) via the Multimek automated pipettor (Beckman
Coulter) pinning apparatus. Control wells, treated with solvent alone were in the first and last
columns of each plate for control purposes. Following a one hour pre-incubation with the
compound at 2x final assay concentrations, 50μl of Wnt or control ligand was added to each well
by the multidrop dispensor (Thermo Electron). After a 16 hour compound treatment, 50μl of a
luciferase substrate/lysis reagent (Promega Bright-Glo) was directly added to each well via the
multidrop dispensor and shaken for 10 minutes. Luciferase activity in each well was measured
by the CLIPR (Molecular Devices), a high-throughput luminometer system set to quantify the
luciferase activity for all wells on a plate in a 30 second read. The run was performed in
duplicate, once with compound treatment and Wnt3A ligand, followed by compound and control
media treatment. For consistency, Wnt-stimulated and unstimulated runs were executed together
with the same pool of reagents.
27
2.6 Real time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR analysis Total cellular RNA was isolated from cells cultured in 35mm dishes (BD-Falcon) using RNeasy
Mini Kits (Qiagen) according to standard procedures. Briefly, media was aspirated and cells
washed with PBS, cells were then lysed and harvested with a cell scraper. RNA was then
isolated according to kit instructions. RNA samples were quantified on a spectrophotometer
(Eppendorf) and 6μg of each was treated with 3 units of DNase1 (Fermentas), and reverse
transcribed using random hexamers (2 μL of 100 μM stock) and 400 units of RevertAid H Minus
M-MuLV Reverse Transcriptase (Fermentas). Real-time PCR was performed using the SYBR
Green PCR master mix (Applied Biosystems) on the ABI Prism 7000 or 7900 sequence detection
system (Applied Biosystems). Primer pairs used at 100 nmol/L were designed and previously
reported by Dr. Etienne Labbe (Labbe et al., 2007), and validated against glygeraldehyde-3-
phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) by comparative standard curve analysis. Relative
quantitation was calculated by the ΔΔCt method normalized to GAPDH levels
(docs.appliedbiosystems.com/pebiodocs/ 04303859.pdf).
28
3 Results
3.1 High throughput assay development Development of a high-throughput robotics-based screen requires an assay with high
reproducibility, efficiency and the appropriate sensitivity to chemical compounds. To identify
small molecule inhibitors of the canonical Wnt pathway we developed and tested two assays to
evaluate Wnt signaling. These included an immunoflourescence-based microscopy assay
directed at quantifying β-catenin nuclear translocation and a luciferase-tagged β-catenin
molecule to measure β-catenin stabilization
3.1.1 Beta-catenin nuclear translocation assay
Activation of the Wnt pathway induces the nuclear translocation of β-catenin (Polakis, 2000),
thus the first assay tested was an immunofluorescent-based assay to measure the nuclear
translocation of β-catenin in Wnt stimulated and untreated samples. For this assay, Wnt-
responsive NIH3T3 cells seeded at a density of 12,000 cells per well were plated in a 96-well
dish and treated with Wnt3A containing cell culture media. For this and all other assays, Wnt3A
containing media was generated by collecting media from mouse L cells stably expressing and
secreting the Wnt3A ligand, with the appropriate control media from non-Wnt3A transfected
cells collected in parallel for the assay. In brief, the Articulated arm robotics system at the
Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute was used for ligand treatment, fixing, washing and staining
of endogenous β-catenin using an anti-β-catenin primary and FITC-conjugated secondary
antibody. A Cellomics Arrayscan II apparatus was used to visualize and quantify multiple wells
in 96 well plates. The Arrayscan V3.5 molecular translocation software is configured to define
the nuclear (Hoechst stained) and cytoplasmic cellular regions and to quantify the fluorescent
intensity difference of β-catenin in these compartments. By counting 50-100 cells per well, β-
catenin nuclear accumulation was quantified in response to Wnt stimulation in the presence or
absence of small molecule inhibitors.
29
The trial runs showed a clear difference in nuclear localization between the treated and untreated
samples (Fig. 3), however, the variability was consistently too high for high-throughput
screening (HTS) purposes. The Z-values, which are a statistical function indicative of the
feasibility of an assay for HTS ranged from 0.01-0.25, which is below the threshold of 0.4
considered to be a feasible assay. Use of higher ligand concentrations or other cell lines did not
improve the Z-values (data not shown). In summary, variability in the treated samples from
multiple tests was consistently too high for a viable screen, even when run in duplicate, and was
not further pursued.
30
Figure 3: The β-catenin nuclear translocation assay displays high variability. NIH3T3 cells
were treated with Wnt3A or control media, fixed, washed and stained with a b-catenin antibody
on the robotics platform. Nuclear and cytoplasmic subcellular regions were defined through
staining patterns and the difference in β-catenin fluorescent intensity between these
compartments was quantified using the Cellomics Arrayscan II apparatus. A) Raw data
collected during a run from all six plates is plotted collectively, and indicates considerable
variability amongst the Wnt treated samples. B) Data from the best (plate 1) and worst (plate 4)
plates in the run are plotted with their associated Z-factor values. Z-factor values, which are a
measure of assay viability are substantially under the threshold of 0.4 considered to be a viable
assay C) Z-factor equation, which accounts for the dynamic range between control and
experimental values, and the variability within the data set. Four parameters are needed to
calculate Z-factor; the mean (m) and standard deviation (s) of both the control (c) and sample
values (s).
31
Figure 3
32
3.1.2 Firefly luciferase β-catenin stabilization assay (Ff-luc)
As the stabilization of β-catenin is the key event in dysregulated Wnt signaling, I next developed
a method to measure β-catenin protein levels by tagging β-catenin with a firefly luciferase
protein (Fig. 4A). The luciferase tag was fused C-terminally to human β-catenin in the pCAGIP
plasmid under the control of a β-actin promoter. Multiple clones in two mammalian cell lines
(HEK 293 and L’s) stably expressing the fusion protein were isolated via puromycin selection
and were tested for Wnt induced increases of luciferase signal, indicative of β-catenin
stabilization. Most of the HEK 293 cell clones displayed roughly a two-fold increase in
luciferase activity in response to Wnt treatment (Fig. 4B), while those obtained from L cells were
less responsive (data not shown). Subsequent testing showed that HEK293 clone number 7 gave
the most reproducible results, and a signal sufficiently high to be amenable for HTP detection
and was selected for high-throughput screening. The cell density that yielded maximal β-catenin
stabilization was next determined by seeding a varying number of cells (from 500-6000) in each
well of a 96-well dish. The following day, media was aspirated, cells lysed, and the lysates were
then measured for luciferase activity. A density dependent decrease in fold activation was
observed (Fig. 4C). Thus, seeding of 1250 cells per well, roughly corresponding to 25%
confluence, achieved a reproducible two-fold activation and was easily detectable with the
CLIPR, a CCD camera used to measure the luciferase signal on the robotics platform. Further
testing indicated that DMSO did not affect the viability of the cells, nor did it affect the readout
(Fig. 4D).
3.1.3 Ff-luc assay optimization
Due to the limited (two-fold) dynamic range of the Ff-Luc assay, it was necessary to conduct a
series of manual and then robotic runs to optimize and validate the HTP protocol. Thus a number
of seemingly modest details of the assays were optimized to achieve best results. First, I tested a
variety of different plate types and brands settling on Greiner Bio-One plates which allowed for
easy robotics handling, permitted high cell adherence and the deep wells minimized glow
contamination from adjacent wells. We varied the reading time on the CLIPR from 10-120
seconds and established that 30 second reads were in the linear range of detection and gave a
33
Figure 4: Development of the β-catenin-firefly-luciferase (Ff-luc) stabilization assay. A)
Schematic of the Ff-luc assay, which allows for high-throughput detection of b-catenin stability
in human cell lines. B) In the presence and absence of Wnt3A, β-catenin levels were
determined by measuring the luciferase signal of whole cell lysates in HEK293 clones stably
expressing Ff-Luc-β-catenin. Most clones displayed a Wnt3A induced stabilization β-catenin.
Clone 7 was selected for screening because it reproducibly displayed a robust Wnt3A
stabilization and possessed a high signal intensity. C) The Ff-luc assay is influence by seeding
density. Clone 7 cells were plated in 96-well dishes at the indicated cell densities and assayed
for luciferase signal. A density of 1250 cells/well yielded a repeatable two-fold Wnt induction
and a signal intensity high enough for detection on the robotics platform. D) Using the Ff-luc
assay as readout, DMSO has no effect on assay signal or cell viability at concentration
comparable to proposed screening conditions.
34
Figure 4
35
sufficiently high signal. In addition the ideal volumes of media, ligand and luciferase/lysis
reagent were determined taking into consideration, cost, ease of use and reproducibility.
The final established assay protocol involves manual plating of 1250 cells/well in a 96 well
format, followed by a 24 hour incubation. One hour prior to initiating the run, the medium is
replaced with 50 μL of media containing 0.2% FBS. Compounds are added by pinning DMSO
soluble compounds to a final concentration of approximately 1.2 μM and then incubated for one
hour prior to the addition of 50 μl of Wnt or control ligand overnight. On day three, 50μl of a
luciferase substrate/lysis reagent (Promega Bright-Glo) is directly added to cells, the plate is
incubated in a shaker for 10 minutes at room temperature and luciferase activity quantified using
a CCD camera. The readout indicates Wnt induced stabilization of the β-catenin fusion protein
(see Fig. 5). On each plate, the two outer columns are used for control purposes, with cells in
one column treated with Wnt ligand and the other with control media, while the inner 10
columns are all treated with individual compounds.
Prior to undertaking a HTS, it is essential to validate assay performance. However, in the case of
Wnt signaling, upstream inhibitors were not available. As an alternative, we used an inhibitor of
GSK3β, Indirubin-3’-monoxime (I3M, Sigma), which activates Wnt signaling, for proof of
principle experiments (Polychronopoulos et al., 2004). I first confirmed compound activity in
manual assays. I3M stabilized the β-catenin-luciferase fusion construct in a dose dependent
manner in both Wnt treated and untreated samples (Fig. 6A). The stabilizing effect on β-catenin
observed using the Ff-Luc assay was mimicked when endogenous β-catenin was examined by
immunoblotting in a mouse fibroblast cell line (L cells) (Fig. 6B). To test for reliability and
reproducibility of the HTP platform, we added I3M to a final concentration of 5 μM, which
elicits signal stabilization roughly equivalent to Wnt3A treatment. Robotic runs showed minimal
variability within I3M treated wells across plates, indicating accurate and reliable compound
addition by the robotic platform (Fig. 7). Therefore, not only was it possible to identify chemical
modulation of the pathway in the assay, the robotics protocol readout and compound addition
steps were functioning as expected.
36
Figure 5: The Ff-luc assay. A) HEK293 cells (Clone 7 cells) stably expressing Firefly
Luciferase tagged β-catenin were used to indentify compounds affecting b-catenin stability in the
Ff-luc assay. B) Step-by-step flowchart of the Ff-luc assay. C) Raw data from plate 21 is
shown for both the Wnt-treated and unstimulated runs. H7 denotes an inhibitory hit identified
from the screen.
37
Figure 6: Validation of the Ff-luc screening protocol. A) Using the Ff-luc assay as readout,
Wnt pathway agonist Indirubin-3'-monoxime (I3M, Sigma), a GSK3β inhibitor, was used to
validate the screening protocol. Here, the small molecule I3M stabilizes the Ff-luc-β-catenin
reporter in a dose-dependent manner. B) I3M is also shown to stabilize endogenous levels of β-
catenin in mouse L-cells as determined by immunoblotting in a similar dose-dependent manner.
38
Figure 7: Validating the pipetting accuracy and chemiluminescent readout of the robotics
platform. The robotics platform was programmed to add a 120 nL aliquot of concentrated
Indirubin-3'-monoxime (I3M) using the Multimek pinning tool into alternating wells of four 96-
well plates in the Ff-luc assay. The desired final concentration of (5 µM) is known to stabilize b-
catenin similar to Wnt3A treatment. The Ff-luc assay was performed entirely on the robotics
platform, and averages from the four different treatments across all four plates is displayed. The
data from the robotic compound addition indicates low variability and consistency across the
assay.
39
3.2 Pilot high-throughput Ff-luc assay run After having established a screening protocol, our next goal was to identify the ideal compound
concentration critical for screening purposes. Identifying the proper screening concentration
allows us to balance the search for compounds with high specificity at a low concentration while
minimizing false negatives. Typical concentrations used in cell based screens range from 1-10
μM, therefore to determine optimal concentrations for our assay we first screened through the
first 800 compounds (10 plates) of the Maybridge library at roughly 1.2 and 7 μM. Analysis of
the 10-plate screen revealed that higher chemical concentration significantly increased variability
in the assay. Average Z’-values for the first 10 plates screened at the lower concentration was
0.379 compared to -0.135 for the same 800 compounds screened at the high dose. Therefore, all
future screens were conducted using the lower (1.2 μM) concentrations, we expect this would
enhance identification of more potent compounds.
We next conducted a pilot screen using the first 4000 compounds of the Maybridge chemical
library to assess the hit rate and reproducibility of the assay. For this, runs with and without Wnt
ligand were performed together, while a replicate Wnt treated run was executed on a separate
day. Results from the initial run (Wnt3A #1) of the first 4000 compounds (Table 2) showed 37
individual activating hits of the pathway, 25 of which were duplicated in the replicate Wnt
treated run (Wnt3A #2), and 24 of these activators were also detected in the control run (Wo).
The high degree of correlation amongst the three runs suggests a high rate of reproducibility for
the screen. A similarly pattern of reproducibility was seem among inhibitory compounds. We
identified fewer inhibitors with a total of 9 from the first Wnt3A screen; 5 duplicated in the
second stimulated run with 4 being detected in all three runs. Furthermore, the 4 inhibitors
common to all runs can be further broken down into those displaying an increased inhibitory
effect in the Wnt treated samples, and those with similar levels of inhibition in both treated and
untreated runs. One compound, 21H07, fit the profile of preferential Wnt inhibition.
Using B-score analysis, the hit rate for activators from the initial run (Wnt3A #1) was 0.93%.
Inhibitors, which were the more desired lead compound, had a lower rate of 0.23%. Based on
these hit rates we predicted a total of 465 activating and 115 inhibiting lead compounds from the
entire 50,000 molecule Maybridge library if we were simply to screen the library with one
stimulated and one unstimulated run. Because the majority of the hits were duplicated in the
40
Table 2: Pilot screen hits indicate a reproducible Ff-luc hit rate. The pilot Ff-luc screen was
performed on the first 4000 Maybridge compounds to assess the hit rate and reproducibility of
the assay. For this, two duplicate Wnt treated runs were performed on separate days, while a
single unstimulated run was run in conjunction with the first stimulated one. Hits (both
activators and inhibitors) were defined by those points surpassing the 3 standard deviation
threshold above or below the mean. The associated B-score for each compound is listed.
41
42
second Wnt treated run and considering screening costs, we concluded that a single stimulated
run combined with an unstimulated run would be sufficient for the final screening procedure.
Moreover, the 46 chemical modulators identified in the initial stimulated run (37 activators, 9
inhibitors), 30 were duplicated in the second run and 28 of these were identified in the
unstimulated run. Consequently, a large increase in false positives is not expected to be very
pronounced from using single runs, therefore, all subsequent runs were performed without a
duplicate Wnt treated run.
3.3 Final screening results and data analysis Three diverse sets of compound libraries were available for our screen, the Maybridge, Lopac
and Prestwick chemical sets. The Maybridge chemical library is a 50,000 molecule diverse
library set, whose compounds possess typical drug-like properties. The Prestwick set (Prestwick
chemicals) includes an 1120 molecule set of largely off-patent drugs and the 1280 molecule
Lopac set contains drug compounds with some known molecular targets and properties.
3.3.1 Comparison of various statistical hit-selection methods
As there is only a two-fold dynamic range in the Ff-Luc assay, the data analysis method would
be critical to our hit selection process. To establish the most appropriate data analysis method,
we focused on the Lopac library results due to its small size and the known properties of many of
its compounds. The data from stimulated runs was analyzed using three distinct statistical
methods; percent activity, fold over median and B-score. The percent activity measure is the
simplest method, in which experimental data points (compound treated wells) are compared to
control wells within the same plate. The data is converted into a percentage value, whereby the
value of 100 indicates no effect and activators or inhibitors will show an increase or decrease
relative to 100. The fold over median method is a measure of the compound treated wells with
respect to each other on an individual plate, and does not take the control wells of the plate into
consideration. The B-score is a more complex function which takes into consideration the
experimental points (compound treated), yet also factors in plate location by relating the data
43
points to adjacent wells within a plate, thereby correcting for possible plate trends in a run
(Brideau et al., 2003).
The three data analysis methods for the Lopac library returned roughly the same number of hits
for the Wnt3A treated run (Fig. 8). Fold over median (using a three standard deviation cutoff)
identified 4 activators and 26 inhibitors, percent activity (also using three SD) showed 4
activators and 23 inhibitors, while B-score revealed 2 activators and 21 inhibitors. Notably, all
the effectors, both β-catenin stabilizers and destabilizers indicated by the B-score method were
hits in the other methods as well. Both fold over median and percent activity measures identified
some hits that did not appear in the other methods. This analysis revealed two important
conclusions. First, B-score appeared to be the most reliable of the methods as miscellaneous hits
were apparently weeded out and secondly that irrespective of which statistical method is used to
determine hits, most of the same hits are identified amongst all methods. This analysis
confirmed that even though the dynamic range of the Ff-Luc assay is not very large, it is in fact a
viable screen and variability within and between plates is best analyzed using the B-score
method.
3.3.2 Summary of results from the Lopac library
As reported above, B-score analysis of the Wnt stimulated run identified 4 compounds which
stabilized the β-catenin-Ff-Luc construct and hence were possible Wnt pathway agonists, and 23
molecules that destabilized β-catenin and might work as Wnt antagonists (all listed in Table 3).
Additionally, the unstimulated run displayed 15 inhibitors and 6 activators. Twelve of these
inhibitors are common to both stimulated and unstimulated runs; therefore, 11 inhibitors were
detected uniquely in the Wnt treated run (Fig. 9). These are the compounds that appear from
screening results to possess a preferential inhibitory effect in the presence of Wnt treatment and
are more likely to be Wnt pathway antagonists as opposed to general effectors of β-catenin
stability. Interestingly, the inhibitory hit rate on average was about 4 fold higher that the
activators.
44
Figure 8: Comparison of different statistical hit-selection methods. Fold over median, B-
score and percent activity measurements were used to analyze raw data from Lopac library
screen. A) Data from the Lopac library is depicted for each method of analysis, Fold over
median, B-score and percent activity. The upper and lower lines mark the three standard
deviation threshold we defined as a hit in the high-throughput screen. B) Summary of Lopac hits
using the different methods of analysis, and those common amongst all three statistical methods
of analysis.
45
Figure 8
46
Figure 9: Lopac library screening results. A) Summary of total hits and hit rate identified
through B-score analysis of the 1280 molecules screened from the Lopac chemical library. Hits
were defined by those points surpassing the 3 standard deviation threshold above or below the
mean. B) Raw data plotted from B-score analysis of the entire screened Lopac run is depicted.
Lines mark the 3 standard deviation threshold above and below the mean (middle line).
47
Figure 9
48
3.3.3 Summary of results from the Prestwick library
The largely off-patent drug containing Prestwick library displayed a pattern similar to that of the
Lopac compounds, where the vast majority of effecter molecules had a destabilizing effect on β-
catenin. The inhibitory hit rate for the combined (stimulated and unstimulated) runs was 2.37%.
Twenty seven destabilizers were identified in the Wnt treated run and 26 in the untreated run,
with the vast majority (21) common to both (Fig. 10A and B). With only five activators
identified in the Wnt3A treated run and three from the unstimulated run, it is interesting to note
that only two are common to both screens, three are unique to stimulated while one is unique to
the non-Wnt treated run.
3.3.4 Summary of results from the Maybridge library
Hits identified from the Maybridge chemical library would be particularly interesting as any
inhibitors or activators identified would be novel and undocumented, unlike the Lopac and
Prestwick sets. Of the entire 50,000 Maybridge set, 130 plates corresponding to 10400
compounds were screened.
Based on the hit rates of activators (0.93%) and inhibitors (0.23%) from the initial 4000
Maybridge compound pilot screen, we predicted a total of 97 activating and 24 inhibiting lead
compounds from the 10400 screened of the Maybridge set. The activator hit rate for the entire
10,400 compounds screened adhered roughly to the expected rates culminating in an overall
activator hit rate of 1.52% or 158 compounds for the stimulated run. The unstimulated run
displayed a higher activator hit rate of 188 compounds, 77 of which were unique to the
unstimulated run. In contrast, the inhibitory hit rate increased significantly from the predicted
0.23% to 0.6%, consisting of 63 inhibitory compounds in the stimulated run and 0.44% or 46
compounds in the unstimulated run, with 40 hits unique to the stimulated run (Fig. 11 A and B).
Of note, the Maybridge library displayed an approximately 2.5 fold higher ratio of activating
versus inhibitory hits, an inverse of the pattern seen with the Prestwick and Lopac Libraries.
49
Figure 10: Prestwick library screening results. A) Summary of total hits and hit rate
identified through B-score analysis of the 1120 molecules screened from the Prestwick chemical
library. Hits were defined by those points surpassing the 3 standard deviation threshold above
or below the mean. B) Raw data plotted from B-score analysis of the entire screened Prestwick
run is depicted. Lines mark the 3 standard deviation threshold above and below the mean
(middle line).
50
Figure 10
51
Figure 11: Maybridge library screening results. A) Summary of total hits and hit rate
identified through B-score analysis from 10400 molecules screened from the Maybridge
chemical library. Hits were defined by those points surpassing the 3 standard deviation
threshold above or below the mean. B) Raw data plotted from B-score analysis of the entire
screened Maybridge set run is depicted. Lines mark the 3 standard deviation threshold above
and below the mean (middle line)
52
Figure 11
53
3.3.5 Total assay hits from the entire HTP screen
Analysis of Wnt stimulated runs from all three libraries screened identified 120 inhibitors for
follow up work. Of these, 57 were solely detected in the Wnt stimulated runs and an additional
five of these displayed preferential inhibition upon Wnt stimulation. Similarly, there were a
significant number of activators identified, 194 from the unstimulated runs alone. Eighty of these
were detected only in the non-Wnt treated run and are thus of more interest as activators.
Therefore, there are a significant number of compounds which are worthy targets for secondary
analysis (Table 3).
3.4 Investigating selected hits via secondary analyses
3.4.1 Assessing the reproducibility of effects
From the 13,080 screened compounds, we selected nine from Maybridge, three from Prestwick,
and one from Lopac that inhibited β-catenin stability for further analysis. Nine randomly
selected compounds were also used as comparative controls. Lead compound selection was
based on a variety of criteria. Some were chosen for preferential inhibitory activity in the
presence of Wnt stimulation, where others displayed similar affects in both ligand-treated and
untreated screens. While all were hits based on statistical analyses, some compounds displayed
potent destabilizing properties while others displayed more moderate effects.
Compounds were first analyzed using a manual version of the Ff-Luc assay to assess the
reproducibility of hit compounds using the same stable clone 7 cell line but in a 48 well format.
Luciferase activity was measured subsequent to media removal and cell lysis, rather than using a
homogeneous lysis as in the robotics protocol. Results from secondary analyses are summarized
in Table 3. Of the fourteen compounds across three libraries displaying a destabilizing effect on
β-catenin in the Ff-luc assay, only three were reproduced in the duplicate manual Ff-luc (Table
4; Fig. 12), indicating a false positive rate for the Ff-luc of approximately 80%. The apparent
high false positive rate is unexpected given the significant reproducibility seen in the duplicate
runs of the first 4000 Maybridge compounds. However, as only a small number of samples
54
Table 3: Summary of results from all compounds screened. Compounds from the three
libraries screened were identified as inhibitors or activators based on the destabilizing or
stabilizing effect in the Ff-luc assay. Hits are determined as points three standard deviations
above or below the mean using B-score analysis. Data is presented as both totals and percent hit
rate for Wnt-treated (Wnt3A), and untreated (Wo) high-throughput screening runs.
55
Table 4: Summary of secondary assay results for twenty-two selected inhibitors and
random controls. Nine randomly selected controls (compound #10-18) and thirteen inhibitory
compounds were selected from the three libraries screened. Compounds were tested for their
effect in manual repeats of Ff-luc to assess reproducibility. And for effects upon specific
signaling pathway transcriptional reporter assays to ascertain Wnt pathway specific effects. In
signaling assays, HEK293T cells were transfected with the indicated pathway specific reporter
plasmids, and treated overnight with compound and the appropriate ligand. Luciferase activity
was measured and normalized with a β-gal control. Effects in the manual Ff-luc assay are
reported as modulation of Ff-luc-β-catenin levels. Inhibitory or activating effects on pathway
specific transcriptional regulation are indicated with directional arrows. Points in which no
effect was seen are reported with a dashed line.
56
Figure 12: Re-testing of select compounds using the Ff-luc assay. Compound 21H7 was
shown to destabilize the Ff-Luc-b-catenin construct. Other compounds displayed no effect or
stabilized (compound 25A2) Ff-Luc-β-catenin. Manual repeats of the Ff-luc assay were
preformed in 48 well plates at 0.5, 1, 2.5, 5 and 12.5 µM concentrations. Media was removed
and luciferase values were measured from whole cell lysates in a luminometer.
57
(12% of total hits) were tested, this may not be a completely accurate estimate of false-positive
rates. Of the randomly selected compounds not detected as hits during screening, none were
seen to modulate β-catenin stability in the manual Ff-luc repeat, suggesting a low false negative
rate.
3.4.2 Effects of hits on Wnt transcriptional activity and assessing pathway specificity
Next, those compounds scoring positive in the screen were tested for effects on Wnt induced
transcriptional activity in HEK 293T cells. Compound effects were monitored by transfecting
the Wnt pathway specific luciferase reporter plasmid pTopflash. A construct containing a
mutated TCF/LEF binding site, pFopflash, was transfected in parallel as control. Transfection
efficiencies were corrected by cotransfection with a β-galactosidase-encoding reporter plasmid.
Assays were performed using varying compound doses to facilitate determination of the effective
dose range for each compound. β-catenin activated transcriptional activity from the Topflash
reporter assay was abrogated by only five of the fourteen inhibitory compounds tested (Table 4).
Moreover, when comparing to the manual Ff-luc assay, all three of the compounds shown to
reproduce a β-catenin destabilizing effect also demonstrated an inhibitory effect upon Wnt
mediated transcriptional activity (Table 4). Additionally, none of the randomly selected
compounds not identified as inhibitors in the screen modulated the Wnt pathway.
The compounds identified as inhibitors in the screen, manual repeats, or in Topflash assays, were
next assessed for specific or preferential effect upon the Wnt signaling pathway. For this, we
employed multiple pathway specific reporter assays, namely 3TP-lux, IBRE-luc and NFκB
reporter plasmids that are responsive to the TGFβ (Transforming Growth Factor β), BMP (Bone
Morphogenetic Protein) and IL1 (Interleukin 1) ligands, respectively. Only two compounds,
21H7 and 46D10, inhibited Wnt-dependent transcriptional activity, yet had minimal or no effect
on the other pathways tested (Table 4). Therefore, in using these assays, we are able to assess
properties of hit compounds and rule out general cell inhibitors (compounds 23H2, 25A2, and
chelerythrine chloride) which display transcriptional effects on all pathways tested (Table 4).
Compound 21H7 reduced Topflash reporter activity by 60% at 1μΜ concentration (Fig 13).
58
Figure 13: Compound 21H7 preferentially inhibits the Wnt pathway. HEK293T cells were
transfected with the indicated reporter plasmids, and treated overnight with compound and
pathway specific ligand. Luciferase values indicate pathway specific reporter gene expression.
The inhibitory compound (21H7) displays a preferential inhibitory effect upon the Wnt pathway
specific reporter Topflash assay in comparison to TGFβ, IL1 and BMP responsive transcriptional
assays.
59
While only a 20% reduction of NFκB and BMP pathways was observed at this concentration.
Therefore, these results indicate a preferential effect on the Wnt pathway. Although compound
46D10 (Table 4) displayed inhibitory properties, this activity was lost upon subsequent
compound restocking and was not pursued further (data not shown). As the remaining inhibitory
compounds affected other pathways tested, either promoting or inhibiting transcriptional activity
indicative of non-specific effects (Summarized in Table 4), 21H7 was the only compound
selected for further analysis.
3.5 Analysis of 21H7, a selective Wnt pathway inhibitor
3.5.1 Compound 21H7 preferentially inhibits Wnt responsive Topflash activity over the non-responsive Fopflash
We next assessed the effects of a wider range of 21H7 doses in a Topflash luciferase assay using
Fopflash as control. Fopflash as previously reported is a construct identical to Topflash, except
that the LEF/TCF binding sites are mutated and therefore the reporter is non-responsive to Wnt
treatment. Topflash results indicate 21H7 displays a dose-dependent effect, having no activity at
0.1 μM, while at 0.5μM a 30% inhibition of transcriptional activity is observed. The effect levels
out at approximately 80% inhibition at concentrations between 2.5 and 12.5 μM, and the IC50
value is approximately 1 μM (Fig. 14). At inhibitory concentrations (0.5-12.5 μM) in the
Topflash assay, a preferential inhibitory effect in the Wnt treated samples (80%) is observed
compared to the control (45%) treatment. Furthermore, analogous Fopflash experiments (Fig.
14) do not display the same differential effect between the Wnt treated and untreated data sets.
In fact, the Fopflash data appears almost identical in both inhibitory and dose dependent effect to
that of the untreated Topflash data. Analysis of the Fopflash and Topflash data combined
strongly indicates that 21H7 is acting preferentially to block Wnt-dependent transcriptional
activity.
60
Figure 14: 21H7 preferentially inhibits the transcriptional activity of Wnt3A treated cells.
HEK293T cells were transfected with the Wnt responsive Topflash or non-responsive Fopflash
reporter plasmids. One day after transfection, cells were treated with 21H7 or DMSO control
and stimulated overnight with Wnt3A or control ligand. Data is presented as a percent of the
control (DMSO) value. Preferential inhibition is seen in Wnt-treated Topflash data, but not with
the non-Wnt responsive Fopflash reporter.
61
3.5.2 21H7 blocks Wnt-induced β-catenin stabilization
Our screen was designed to identify molecules that effect Wnt-dependent β-catenin stabilization,
thus we next examined the effects of 21H7 on endogenous β-catenin. For this, we utilized
mouse fibroblastic L-cells, a line commonly used to measure Wnt induced β-catenin stabilization
due to their low steady-state β-catenin levels and a pronounced Wnt3A induced stabilization of
β-catenin. In multiple experiments, we found that Wnt3A treatment induces a steady rise in β-
catenin levels for up to four hours at which time levels remained constant up to 16 hours.
Therefore, we examined the effects of the compound at the four hour time point.
As seen in Figure 15, cells stimulated with Wnt3A displayed a robust and dose-dependent
increase in total β-catenin levels. The addition of 21H7 at low concentrations did not affect total
β-catenin levels, but in the range of 5-12.5 μM, dramatic destabilization of β-catenin and no
effect on α-actin levels was observed. Similar results were observed with overnight treatment of
both compound and ligand (data not shown), indicating the compound is effective in both short
term and longer time frames. We noted that even at the highest concentrations, the compound
did not restore β-catenin levels to that observed in controls. Nevertheless, these experiments
indicate that 21H7 can significantly decrease endogenous β-catenin levels induced by the
addition of Wnt ligand.
3.5.3 21H7 inhibits Wnt dependent gene expression in colon cancer cell lines
For a lead compound to have anticancer application, the compound should also demonstrate the
ability to suppress the constitutive Wnt signaling typically observed in cancers. Colorectal
cancer (CRC) cell lines contain a variety of activating mutations in key Wnt pathway
components, typically APC or β-catenin, and in some cases both, that result in constitutively
nuclear β-catenin and activation of Wnt target genes (Ilyas et al., 1997). Thus, we next utilized
the Topflash/Fopflash reporter system to ascertain the ability of compound 21H7 to turn off
constitutive Wnt signaling in CRC cell lines.
62
Figure 15: Compound 21H7 inhibits the Wnt3A induced stabilization of endogenous β-
catenin levels in the presence of Wnt3A and increasing concentrations of compound 21H7. Cell
lysates from mouse L-cells pre-treated with compound for 1 hour then stimulated with Wnt
ligand for a four hour period were immunoblotted with anti-β-catenin and anti-β-actin to
determine protein levels. The Wnt-induced stabilization of β-catenin is inhibited in a dose
dependent manner by 21H7. The final compound concentration ranges from 0.1µM to 12.5 µM,
while control lanes were treated with DMSO only.
63
Common amongst all CRC lines tested is the loss of Wnt induced transcriptional activation of
Topflash signal (Fig.16 B), as a result of mutations that hyperactivate the Wnt pathway. SW620
cells harbor an APC truncation (Zhao et al., 2007), and upon compound treatment we detected a
significant inhibition of Topflash transcriptional activity yet very little inhibition of the Fopflash
construct (Fig. 16A), a pattern of preferential inhibition also seen with HEK293 cells (Fig 14).
Although the pattern of preferential Topflash inhibition in β-catenin mutated Colo205 cells
(Gayet et al., 2001) is seen, the effect was not as dramatic. However, in two additional cancer
cell lines containing mutations in β-catenin (HepG2 cells) and APC (SW480 cells), the inhibitory
effects on neither Topflash nor Fopflash reporters were detected. Together, this set of results
indicates that 21H7 can inhibit Topflash activity in colorectal cancer cell lines harbouring
diverse pathway mutations, however, penetrance of this effect appears to depend on cell
background.
3.5.4 Expression of endogenous Wnt target genes is inhibited by 21H7 in CRC cell lines
We next assessed the inhibitory effects of the compound on the Wnt3A induced expression of
endogenous Wnt target genes in a range of colorectal cancer cell lines. Previous work in the lab
(Labbe et al 2007) and other studies (Shtutman et al., 1999) have demonstrated Wnt-dependent
induction of Axin2 and Cyclin D1, thus, we focused on those genes endogenous targets. Cells
were treated with compounds or with DMSO as control for 16 hours, RNA was isolated and
reverse transcribed, and relative gene expression levels normalized to GAPDH levels were
quantified using Real-Time PCR.
21H7 induced a significant dose-dependent decrease in Axin2 levels in all CRC cell lines tested,
though, the extent of inhibition varied between the lines. In the related cell lines SW480 and
SW620 cells, which are heterozygotic for a truncated APC (Zhao et al., 2007), an 80-90%
reduction in total Axin2 levels was seen (Fig. 17). Analysis of four other cell lines, each
harboring different mutations in Wnt pathway components also revealed significant reductions in
Axin2 mRNA levels. Similar to SW480 cells, LS1034 cells have undergone APC loss of
heterozygosity and possess a truncated form of the remaining allele (Sparks et al., 1998).
64
Figure 16: Differential suppression of Wnt-dependent gene expression in colon cancer cell
lines harboring activating mutations in the Wnt pathway by 21H7. Cells transfected with
individual reporter constructs were treated with the 21H7 and stimulated with Wnt3A or ligand
control overnight. A) In a dose-dependent manner, 21H7 inhibits both Topflash and Fopflash
activity. Data is presented as a percent of the control (DMSO) value. B) All colon cancer cell
lines tested lack ligand responsiveness due to known hyperactivating mutations of the Wnt
pathway.
65
Figure 16
66
Figure 17: Wnt target gene expression is inhibited by 21H7 in colon cancer (CRC) cell
lines irrespective of the differing Wnt pathway mutations. Total cellular RNA was isolated
from prostate cancer cell lines treated with 21H7 or DMSO control for a 16 hour period. The
RNA was reverse transcribed with random hexamers and cDNA’s of established Wnt target
genes were quantified by QPCR (using SYBRGreen in an ABI Prism 7000 sequence detection
system). Levels of GAPDH cDNA were also quantified and used to normalize results by
comparative standard curve analysis. All six CRC cell lines possess activating mutations of key
Wnt pathway components, as shown. Irrespective of their mutational status, all lines tested
display a 21H7 induced decrease in mRNA levels of established Wnt target genes, with differing
magnitudes of effect.
67
Figure 17
68
Despite the similar mutational status, the reduction in Axin2 levels (roughly 50%) was not as
robust as seen in SW480 and SW620 cells. The HCT116 and LS174T cell lines contain wild
type APC, but possess β-catenin mutations at serine 45, a residue phosphorylated in a Wnt
dependent manner (Gayet et al., 2001; Sparks et al., 1998). In HCT116 cells, this mutation
consists of a heterozygous deletion of serine 45, while LS174T cells possess a homozygous
serine to phenylalanine mutation. In addition to possessing similar mutations, HCT116 and
LS174T cells displayed very similar dose-dependency with roughly 70% maximal reduction in
Axin2 mRNA levels (Fig.17). Colo205 cells displayed the lowest reduction of Axin2 mRNA
levels (45%) in the presence of 21H7. The Colo 205 cells possess compound mutations of the
Wnt pathway, whereby neither APC nor β-catenin are wild-type. However, the mutation in β-
catenin is an alanine to serine substitution at amino acid 287, which has not been examined for
effects upon Wnt signaling. From the above data, it is clear that Axin2 mRNA levels are
affected by 21H7 in all cell lines regardless of their Wnt pathway mutational status. Moreover,
the varied effect of inhibition between cell lines displays no clear pattern based the mutational
status of the cells.
CyclinD1 is another established Wnt target gene, though in general, Wnt dependent induction is
not as robust as observed for Axin2 (Jho et al., 2002; Labbe et al., 2007; Tetsu and McCormick,
1999). Levels of CyclinD1 displayed a modest 21H7 induced reduction in most cell lines, for
some lines, no change at was identified (Fig. 17). In addition, the effects on CyclinD1 levels do
not appear to correlate with the mutational status of cells. LS 1034 and Colo 205 cell lines,
which displayed the least reduction in Axin2 mRNA levels, exhibit no significant decrease in
total CyclinD1 mRNA levels. The only cell line in which CyclinD1 and Axin2 levels were
comparably affected, resulting in a maximal reduction of 70% in each case, was the LS174T line.
In all other lines, 21H7 had a significantly more pronounced effect upon Axin2 levels than
CyclinD1. Levels of CyclinD1 are regulated by a variety of other factors including NF- κB
(Guttridge et al., 1999), STAT (Leslie et al., 2006) and Ras-dependent signaling (Gladden and
Diehl, 2005), indicating the balance of CyclinD1 levels in cells is important to or affected by
other factors.
From the combined Axin2 and CyclinD1 data, it is clear that Wnt target gene mRNA levels are
affected by 21H7 in colorectal cancer cell lines regardless of their Wnt pathway mutational
69
status. The inhibitory effects did vary between cell lines and were significantly more pronounced
for Axin2, however, the experiments indicate no clear pattern of inhibition based upon the
mutational status of the cells.
3.5.5 21H7 inhibits expression of endogenous Wnt target genes in prostate cancer cell lines.
Excessive Wnt signaling has been implicated in a variety of cancers. Therefore, we next
assessed the effects of 21H7 on the established prostate cancer cell lines, PC3 and Du145 cells,
in which the mutational status of Wnt pathway components has not been examined by us or
others. In both prostate lines tested, we identified a marked inhibition of the expression of both
the Axin2 and CyclinD1 Wnt target genes (Fig. 18). This demonstrates that 21H7 can suppress
Wnt transcriptional activity in both colon cancer and prostate cell lines. As Wnt pathway
misregulation is prominent in a wide range of cancers including prostate (Yardy and Brewster,
2005), these indicate that 21H7 may have efficacy in a broad range or cancers.
3.5.6 Wnt signaling is inhibited by 21H7 at the level of β-catenin
Having demonstrated the wide ranging and significant inhibitory effect of 21H7 on Wnt-
dependent transcription, we next focused on examining where in the pathway 21H7 acts. While
the Wnt pathway is becoming increasingly complicated, key steps can be viewed as a linear
system, involving ligand-receptor binding, dishevelled activation, destruction complex
dissociation, β-catenin stabilization, nuclear translocation and transcriptional activation (Fig.
19A). Therefore, to determine where 21H7 acts, we performed Topflash assays in the presence
of individual Wnt-activating pathway components, with the goal of identifying whether the
repressive activity of 21H7 occurs in their presence.
Wnt signaling requires a Wnt induced Frizzled-LRP interaction (Holmen et al., 2005; Liu G,
2003). Interestingly, truncated forms of LRP omitting the N-terminal extracellular domain
confers pathway activation by a yet undetermined mechanism (Mi and Johnson, 2005). Our data
indicates that the inhibitory effect of 21H7 is not lost in the presence of LRP6ΔΝ, ruling out any
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Figure 18: 21H7 inhibits Wnt target gene expression in prostate cancer cells. Total cellular
RNA was isolated from prostate cancer cell lines treated with 21H7 or DMSO control for a 16
hour period. The RNA was reverse transcribed with random hexamers and cDNA’s of
established Wnt target genes were quantified by QPCR (using SYBRGreen in an ABI Prism
7000 sequence detection system). Levels of GAPDH cDNA was also quantified and used to
normalize results by comparative standard curve analysis. 21H7 is able to decrease endogenous
mRNA levels of both Wnt target genes in the both prostate lines tested. The mutational status of
APC and β-catenin has not been characterized in either cell line.
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Figure 19: Epistatic analysis indicates 21H7 effects Wnt-dependent signaling at the level of
β-catenin. HEK293T cells were transiently transfected with the Topflash reporter along with
Wnt pathway activators LRP6, Dvl2 and β-catenin. A) Linear schematic of the canonical Wnt
pathway noting the location of overexpressed components. B) 21H7 retains the ability to inhibit
Wnt dependent transcriptional expressions in the presence of upstream activating components
(LRP6 & Dvl2). C) In the presence of β-cateninD91, a constitutively active mutation, 21H7
retains its inhibitory effect on Topflash activity and is therefore not inhibiting the Wnt signaling
cascade.
72
effects on ligand binding or receptor interaction (Fig 19B). Likewise, the inhibitory effect
appears to occur downstream of Dishevelled2 (Dvl2) as 21H7 still inhibited Topflash activity in
a Dvl2 overexpression background. Similar results were observed on Topflash when
overexpressing β-catenin (Fig 19B and C). Considering our previous data, that indicated an
effect of 21H7 on β-catenin levels, we next assessed whether this effect was specifically on the
Wnt induced β-catenin stabilization, or on basal levels. The β-cateninΔ91 construct, lacking its
amino terminus and hence the three residues phosphorylated during a Wnt response is a
dominant positive mutant. The ability of our inhibitor to reduce Topflash transcriptional activity
in the presence of overexpressed β-catenin and the mutant construct indicates a mode of action
independent of upstream Wnt pathway activity, but likely promoting β-catenin destruction.
3.5.7 Structurally related compounds mimic the effects of 21H7
To obtain preliminary insights into structure-activity relationships we searched the entire
Maybridge library for compounds displaying substructures, superstructures and compounds with
general similarity to 21H7 using StructureBase software (IDBS). We focused the search to
solely include compounds that had been screened, which resulted in three closely related
compounds; 21A8, 12B11 and 21B8 (Fig. 20). Notably, none of the three compounds displayed
any effect in the Ff-luc assay. We tested the most closely related compound, 21A8 for effects on
Wnt-dependent induction of Axin2 and CyclinD1 expression by Real-time PCR. 21A8, which
has an additional ether moiety, was seen to block Wnt-induced Axin2 and/or CyclinD1
expression similar to 21H7 (Fig. 21) and therefore appears to be a false negative identified
through secondary analysis. Neither of the other two compounds, 21B8 or 12B11, were
available to us at the time of testing and were not assessed for effect.
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Figure 20: Screened Maybridge compounds with significant structural similarity to 21H7.
Compound 21H7 and molecules of structural similarity which were screened are depicted. None
of the additional compounds displayed any effect upon b-catenin levels in the Ff-luc high-
throughput screen.
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Figure 21: Compound 21A8, the molecule of greatest structural similarity to 21H7 inhibits
the expression of Wnt target genes in colon cancer cell lines. RNA isolated from the CRC
cell lines treated with 21A8 or DMSO control was reverse transcribed, and cDNA of established
Wnt target genes was quantified by QPCR. Levels of GAPDH cDNA was also quantified and
used to normalize results. Compound 21A8 displays an effect similar to 21H7 in reducing
endogenous mRNA levels of Wnt target genes in all colon cancer cell lines tested.
75
1 Discussion
A large number of cancer therapeutic approaches rely on cytotoxic agents to induce general cell
death. Albeit successful, these methods take an unfocused approach to offset the
hyperproliferative effects of cancers in a nonspecific manner. Future generations of cancer drugs
would ideally be targeted to specific molecular pathways. Targeting known tumorigenic
pathways, or pathways highly correlated to certain cancers presents an ideal opportunity for less
toxic chemopreventive measures. One cancer well suited to a directed approach is colorectal
cancer, for which mutations of key Wnt pathway components appear very early in adenoma
development in approximately 90% of human CRC’s (Giles RH, 2003). Moreover, all such
mutations confer constitutive Wnt pathway activation and the subsequent expression of a variety
of anti-apoptotic and proliferative genes (Polakis, 2000).
In considering how to inhibit the proliferative effect associated with hyperactive Wnt signaling,
several approaches can be envisaged. Studies using antisense (Green et al., 2001) or gene
targeting strategies (Kwong et al., 2002) have been met with considerable obstacles. A more
feasible approach would be to identify small molecules directly targeted to a component of the
signaling pathway. Such studies have already produced molecules which inhibit β-catenin-TCF
interaction (Lepourcelet et al., 2004). Other inhibitors of the pathway that currently exist are
downstream effectors of transcriptional activation (Fig. 2). We therefore sought to identify novel
upstream small molecule inhibitors of Wnt signaling not only for the potential as a therapeutic
agent, but as a research tool to elucidate the mechanisms involved in regulating β-catenin
stability.
To this end we developed and optimized an assay to identify small molecule effectors of β-
catenin stabilization utilizing a high-throughput screen. The cell based screening approach offers
several advantages; any active compound will be cell permeable, and compounds displaying
nonspecific cytotoxicity can be recognized through secondary assays. Moreover, by choosing a
midstream pathway component as readout, the strategy allowed us to identify molecules active at
or upstream of β-catenin in the pathway, independent of any predetermined mechanism of
76
action. Potentially, inhibitors or activators identified may even affect the signaling pathway
through unknown mechanisms or levels of regulation.
The final screening data was analyzed and is presented as B-score values which we believed best
compensated for systemic assay variability. Percent activity measurements, like all control based
measures do not account for systemic sources of error or positional variability (Brideau et al.,
2003). Moreover, B-scores contain adjustments for both row and column positional effects not
present in a simple fold over median measurement. As a result, the B-score proved to perform
the best in our data analysis identifying outliers and minimizing noise (Fig. 8).
Through the screen, we identified a number of effectors of β-catenin stability, hence Wnt
pathway modulators. Hit rates for cell based assays are typically higher than in vitro and in
silico approaches (Zaman, 2004), and our inhibitory hit rate from the Maybridge library (0.6%)
is higher than other Wnt pathway in vitro (Lepourcelet et al., 2004) and in silico (Shan et al.,
2005) screens. However, differences in hit rates are also influenced by the nature of the library
being screened, as noted in the variation between libraries we used for screening. In both the
Lopac and Prestwick libraries, destabilizing compounds were far more frequently identified than
stabilizing molecules. An inverse of the ratio is seen in the Maybridge screening data, and can
be attributed to the nature of the collection. Prestwick and Lopac libraries, which consist of
biologically active small molecules are more likely to possess compounds effecting general cell
viability. The Ff-luc assay is not ideally designed to identify general effectors such as these, and
therefore hit rates are skewed.
Weeding out compounds with general effects was accomplished through the use of manual assay
repeats along with pathway specific reporter assays assessing the effects of these compounds on
the activity of the Wnt pathway as a whole compared to its effects on other developmentally
important signaling pathways (Fig 12, 13, Table 4). Interestingly, the only compound displaying
a repeatable and preferential inhibitory effect upon the Wnt signaling pathway was also the only
molecule (21H7) which preferentially destabilized β-catenin in the Wnt ligand treated run
compared to the control run. We then used immunoblotting to detect changes in the levels of
cytosolic β-catenin and found a concentration dependent decrease in total levels at micromolar
concentrations. Notably, this effect has been seen with other small molecules in cell lines before
77
(Boon et al., 2004; Fujii et al., 2007), but never at low micromolar concentrations as displayed
by compound 21H7.
Because the effects of 21H7 could be occurring at or anywhere upstream of β-catenin, we
utilized a variety of assays to ascertain the molecular target of 21H7. Topflash assays assessing
the epistatic effects of the compound were inconclusive, indicating the compound definitely acts
downstream of the receptor level and dishevelled activation. Moreover, the ability of the
compound to retain its inhibitory effects on Topflash activity in the presence of overexpressed β-
catenin and a β-catenin construct lacking residues phosphorylated during a Wnt response (Fig.
19) points to a mode of action in which β-catenin levels are regulated by a mechanism outside of
the known Wnt pathway effectors. These results, taken together with the immunoblotting data
strongly suggest the inhibitory mechanism is related to β-catenin itself. Due to the inherent
nature of the Ff-luc assay which measures the levels of β-catenin, downstream components can
be ruled out. While β-catenin levels are most profoundly kept in check through Wnt signaling via
the E3 ligase βTrCP (Lustig and Behrens, 2003), the possibility exists of other ligases promoting
β-catenin degradation by a means entirely unrelated to the Wnt pathway. In fact, the E3 ligase,
Siah1 has been shown to work in this manner (Liu et al., 2001). In the future, it will be
important to determine whether 21H7 mediates its effect in a Siah1 or βTrCP dependent manner
through directed knock-down experiments using Topflash as readout. Experiments such as these
could point towards a significantly more complex mechanism regulating β-catenin stability then
what is currently known.
More immediate experiments should be directed towards determining whether the experimental
evidence pointing towards 21H7 in promoting the destruction of β-catenin is in fact correct.
Multiple possibilities can be envisioned whereby a specific pool or subpopulation of β-catenin is
solely affected, or perhaps that the effect of 21H7 is more general than we believe. To this end,
Topflash assays using a combination of 21H7 and general proteosome inhibitors such as LLnL or
MG132 (Xu and Attisano, 2000) would be resistant to the inhibitory effects. Likewise, in
conjunction with β-catenin knock-down Topflash experiments should determine whether the
effect is being mediated solely through β-catenin. The possibility could exist where 21H7 is
acting upon one or more particular forms of β-catenin. Subpopulations of differentially activated
78
forms of β-catenin exist, whereby different phosphorylation states govern the activity of the
molecule (van Noort et al., 2007).
Identifying the cellular components directly or indirectly affected by our inhibitor will
undoubtedly be difficult. Nevertheless, one approach we anticipate using will combine basic
biomolecular techniques with high throughput technologies. We have successfully developed
protocols for screening large siRNA and cDNA libraries for effects in Topflash assays
(Manuscript in preparation). Eventually these screens can be used to identify whether 21H7
retain its inhibitory effect with overexpressed cDNA’s, or whether its effects can be either
mimicked or enhanced by a particular siRNA construct. For these experiments we will initially
utilize a siRNA (Dharmacon, siGenome Smartpool) and cDNA library of known Wnt pathway
components followed by the possibility of larger genome wide libraries.
Constitutive activation of the Wnt pathway is found in nearly every case of colon cancer
(Polakis, 2000). Mutations of key Wnt pathway components lead to a disruption of normal β-
catenin breakdown resulting in increased Wnt/β-catenin target gene expression (Logan and
Nusse, 2004). We therefore set out to explore the effect of 21H7 on a variety of colorectal
cancer (CRC) cell lines possessing hyperactive Wnt signaling due to various mutations by
examining transcript levels of established Wnt target genes (Axin2 and CyclinD1) via real-time
quantitative PCR analysis. Axin2 levels were clearly affected by 21H7 in all colorectal cancer
cell lines regardless of their Wnt pathway mutational status (Fig 17). While the effects did vary
between lines, there was no correlation between degree of effect and mutational status, indicating
21H7 does exert its effect downstream of these mutations, supporting our model of inhibition by
promoting β-catenin degradation. CyclinD1 mRNA levels were not effected to the same extent
as Axin2. In fact, transcript levels in both LS1034 or Colo205 cells displayed no significant
reduction upon treatment with the inhibitor. This is most likely due to the fact that Cyclin D1 is
not as robust a Wnt target, coupled with the fact that its levels are regulated by a variety of other
pathways including STAT (Leslie et al., 2006), NFκB (Guttridge et al., 1999) and Ras (Gladden
and Diehl, 2005).
Interestingly, CyclinD1 it is not the sole Wnt target gene which has its levels influenced by other
pathways. Work done in our lab (Labbe et al., 2007), point towards cross-talk between the Wnt
and TGF-β pathways regulating Axin2 levels and playing a role during intestinal tumorogenesis.
79
It is therefore possible that differences in inhibitory effects displayed between CRC cell lines
may be attributed to synergistic pathway activity. Therefore knowledge of TGF-β activity in all
CRC cell lines assayed would be informative, made more noteworthy because 21H7 displays a
slight inhibitory effect on TGF-β dependent transcriptional activity (Fig 13).
As a lead compound with potential anticancer properties, 21H7 demonstrated the ability to not
only inhibit Wnt transcriptional activity, but also block the effects associated with misregulated
Wnt signaling in CRC cell lines. Thus, we next assessed the breadth of that effect. First, we
determined whether 21H7 can suppress Wnt target gene expression in cell lines derived from
other cancers, by using prostate derived cell lines where misregulated Wnt signaling has been
implicated in prostate cancer (Yardy and Brewster, 2005). We identified a similar inhibitory
effect by 21H7 in two different prostate cancer cell lines via QPCR analysis (Fig. 18). Our
second approach focused on the effects of a structurally related compound. With the exception
of an additional ether moiety, compound 21A8 is structurally identical 21H7 (Fig 20). The fact
that 21A8 displayed matching patterns of inhibition through QPCR analysis in CRC cell lines
signifies a structure-activity relationship. We have yet to acquire additional structurally related
compounds, however, 21H7 will be treated as molecular starting point from which lead
optimization will be pursued. For this purpose we will use StructureBase software (IDBS) to
screen other chemical libraries for substructures, superstructures and compounds with general
similarity. This will allow us to test additional compounds for increased selectivity, potency or
ascertain which chemical moieties are key to the Wnt inhibitory effect.
In considering the soundness of future therapeutic applications, it would be necessary to identify
a positive phenotypic chemopreventive effect managed by 21H7 treatment. Our lead compound
should demonstrate growth inhibitory effects preferential to CRC cell lines as compared to
normal colonic epithelial cells (Emami KH, 2004). Therefore, via cell proliferation (MTT,
ATCC) or soft agar growth assays (Lin et al., 2007), we could ascertain whether the mitogenic
activity of Wnts can be suppressed in CRC cell lines habituated to a constitutively active
pathway. More pertinent experiments should be directed towards animal studies. For this we
could use Min (APC+/-) mice, which harbor a mutation in APC leading to the development of
numerous colonic and small-bowel adenomas (Moser et al., 1995). Quantifying the colonic
polyps, adenomas, or rate of apoptosis in crypts with 21H7 treatment or vehicle alone would
allow us to determine the effectiveness of our inhibitor as a CRC chemopreventive agent.
80
Moreover, future work towards potential therapeutic applications would require ADME/Tox
studies completed in laboratory mice to determine whether patient applications are feasible.
As equally important as an inhibitor would be for its cancer applications, identifying a novel
midstream small molecule inhibitor of Wnt signaling could be of tremendous importance as a
research tool in elucidating the mechanisms involved in regulating Wnt signaling. There are
many unanswered questions within the Wnt signaling field, and if our inhibitor proves to be
suitably selective, it could be utilized in assessing unanswered pathway questions. For instance,
unlike canonical Wnt signaling, other well defined signaling pathways such as TGF-β, ΒΜP and
MAPK exhibit significant amounts of cross-talk (von Bubnoff and Cho, 2001). Therefore,
contingent on the specificity of 21H7 or its derivatives, we could address questions of Wnt
pathway cross-talk in addition to that previously described by our lab (Labbe E, 2000).
In addition to the importance of inhibitors, compounds identified as activators in the screen may
inhibit β-TrCP or GSK3β, two attractive targets for drug intervention. The E3 ligase recognizing
β-catenin also recognizes IκB, the inhibitory subunit of NFκB. Preventing the degradation of the
inhibitory subunit (IκB) will curb the nuclear activities of NFκB associated with a variety of
cancers (Fuchs SY, 2004). Also, GSK3β activation has been shown to increase β-amyloid (Aβ)
production, while its inhibition decrease Aβ levels (Phiel CJ, 2003). Heritable defects of early-
onset Alzheimers are linked to this increase in Aβ production, indicating the potential for
GSK3β inhibitors to reduce Aβ levels (Fuchs SY, 2004). Therefore, while our secondary
analyses have focused entirely on Wnt pathway inhibitors, the activitory hits which are greater in
number may have significant medical and biochemical implications and merit future
consideration.
In summary, we have developed and optimized a high-throughput assay to investigate β-catenin
stability, hence Wnt pathway activity in a human derived cell line using chemiluminescent
readout. This format of Luciferase-tagging a molecule of interest to investigate its stability has
never been reported as a high-throughput technique. Our study demonstrates the viability of this
technique to identify novel pathway small molecule effectors. We provide evidence of an
identified inhibitory compound (21H7) promoting the destruction of β-catenin and repressing
Wnt-dependent gene expression in colorectal cancer cell lines. Furthermore, considering the
81
nearly identical effects of structurally similar compounds, these findings support future research
designed to ascertain mechanism of action and to further mine the screening data for additional
Wnt pathway effectors.
82
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Appendices
Appendix 1. Small molecule hits detected from screening the Prestwick chemical library.
Positive and negative effectors of β-catenin stabilization are listed with their common chemical
name, plate/well location and their associated B-score. Negative scores indicate compounds
which destabilize β-catenin, positive values have the opposite effect.
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Appendix 2. Small molecule hits detected from screening the Lopac chemical library. Positive
and negative effectors of β-catenin stabilization are listed with their common chemical name,
plate/well location and their associated B-score. Negative scores indicate compounds which
destabilize β-catenin, positive values have the opposite effect. The known activity of each
compound listed is data provided with the Lopac library (Sigma)