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    CHAPTER- XI . ,i .r- 215

    HERETI CAL VI EWS I N EARLY BUDDHI ST LI TERATURE.

    Li ke many ot her r el i gi ous precept s, t he pr ecept s of

    Buddha were handed down oral l y f or a number of year s. The

    Buddhi st monks used t o keep t he t eachi ngs of Buddha on t heSoTa.

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    The samgha therefore thought that it was time to assemble

    for the purpose of recitation, verification and collection of

    the Buddhas teachings. Consequently, three councils were held.

    The first council was held at Rajagijha in 483 B. C. (Four months

    after the Mahaparinibbana of the Buddha); the second at Yaisali

    in 383 B. C. and the third at Pataliputra in 247 B. C. The

    first one was presided over by the elder Mahakassapa$ the second

    by thevelder Revata? and the third, by Moggaliputta Tissa.

    When the third council was held, Asoka was the ruler.

    In his kingdom, there were many heretics (tirthikas), i. e.

    teachers of other faiths, who sought honour and patronage by

    entering the Buddhist order, but they were so far denied this

    privilege. The result was that they now claimed their own

    heresies to be the real doctrines and teachings of the Buddha.

    In order to weed out these heretics, A.loka convened a meeting

    and sending for each group in turn asked what really the

    doctrine of the Enlightened one was. Since each of these

    groups held its own doctrine to be that of the Buddha, Asoka,

    with the help of Tissa Moggalioutta (who was the president

    of this Council), threw these heretics out of the order.

    Only the FibhaJ^avadins were found to be the real followers

    of the Buddha. When this task was over, Elder Tissa, Moggalis

    1. cf. The History of Buddhist Thought, pp. 27-37.

    By Edward J. Thomas

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    son, composed the Kathavatthu, In which * five hundred theses,

    put forward by various schools, in opposition to the doctrine

    of the Pitakas, are set out and refuted.

    The canonical texts of the Buddhists, are known as

    Pi|akas. In the first and second Councils, they were only

    recited. It was in the third Council that they were actually

    compiled. It may, nevertheless, be noted that the whole

    KatHffvatthu, In i t . present f o, is not the sae as itoriginally was because many later additions appear to have

    been made therein.

    The Buddhist Canon gives a detailed account of the

    religious doctrines and the disciplinary rules of the Buddhists.

    In the Canon, we find at places, an exposition of the views

    of rival schools, possibly meant for the better appreciation

    and understanding of the Buddha*s own views. An exposition

    thereof is given here, as it might help us in understanding

    the Pravaduka-dystis, discussed in the Nyaya-Sutras. 4.1.11-43.

    Before we proceed to examine the presentation and refu

    tation of such ? heresies, we may first give a brief account

    of the sacred texts of the Buddhists.

    The Buddhist canon Is classified In three main divisions

    known as Pitakas. They are s

    1. cf. ** Buddhism *% p, 226 by T. . Rhys Davids.

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    (A) Vinaya Pitaka;

    (B) Sutta Pitaka;

    (C) Abhidhamma Pitaka.

    (A) The lnaya Pitaka comprises

    (i) Sutta Yibhaiiga,

    (ii) The Khandhakas which consist of the Mahavagga

    and the Culavagga, .

    (iii) Parivara.

    (B) The Sutta Pitaka comprises five Nikayas s

    (i) Digha Nikaya,

    (ii) Majjhima Nikaya,

    (iii) Samyutta Nikaya,

    (iv) Anguttara Nikaya,

    (v) Khuddaka Nikaya.

    The Khuddaka Nikaya, in its turn,

    minor works which are as under :

    (1) Khuddaka Patha,

    (2) D hammapada,

    (3) lid ana,

    (4) Itivuttaka,

    (5) Sutta pfiLpata,

    (6) imanavatthu,

    (?) Petaratthu,

    (8) Ther^gatha,

    consists of some

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    ' (9) Therigatha,

    (10) Jitaka,

    (11) Niddesa,

    (12) Patisambhidamagga,

    (13) Apadana,

    (14) Buddhavamsa,

    (15) Cariyipitaka.

    (C) In the Abhidhamma Pitaka, we find seven Independent

    works x

    (1) Dhammasangani,

    (2) Vibhanga,

    (3) Dhatukatha,

    (4) Puggalapannatti,

    (5) Kathavatthu,

    (6) Yamaka,

    (7) PatthSna.

    sKenMIt m e t be noted that this is the Abhidhamma of the

    h-

    Theravadins and the Sarvastivadins have an Abhidhannapitaka

    in Sanskrit; the books of which, even though also seven in

    number, differ entirely from those of the Pali Abhidhamma

    1Pitaka.

    l.See A History of Indian Literature,1 p. 173

    by M. Wlnternitz;

    also f* The History of Buddhist Thought,'* pp. 274-275

    by B. J. Thomas

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    I l l t h i s c o n c e r n s t h e c a n o n i c a l t e x t s o f t h e B u d d h i s t s

    B u d d h i s t t h o u g h t w a s l a t e r d i v i d e d i n s e v e r a l s c h o o l s a m o n g

    w h i c h f o u r a r e p r e m i n e n t . T h e s e a r e :

    d( 1 ) B a h y a p r a t y a k s a v a d i n s o r V a i b h a s i k a B a u d d h a s ( D i r e d t R e a l i s t s ) #

    R.( 2 ) B a h y a n u m e y a v a d i n s o r S a u t r a n t i k a b a u d d h a s ( C r i t i c a l R e a l i s t s ) ,

    ( 4 ) T h e S u n y a v a d i n s o r M a d h y n u k a B a u d d h a s ( N i h i l i s t s ) .

    W e n e e d n o t e n t e r i n t o a n y d e t a i l s r e g a r d i n g t h e s e v i e w s .

    W e s h a l l o n l y r e f e r t o a f e w o f t h e t r e a t i s e s o f t h e s e s c h o o l s

    w h i c h a r e a s u n d e r :

    ( a n d f l o u r i s h e d a t a b o u t t h e t u r n i n g p o i n t o f t h e s e c o n d

    a n d t h i r d c e n t u r y A . D . )

    ( 3 ) Y o g a e a r a b h u m i o f A s a n g a ( w h o l i v e d i n t h e f o u r t h C e n t u r y A . D .)

    ( 4 ) J a t a k a m a l a o f A r y a s u r a ( 4 t h C e n t u r y A . D . ) ;

    ( 5 ) L a r i k a v a t a r a S u t r a k n o w n a s S a d d h a r m a - L a n k a v a t a r a s u t r a a l s o

    ( o f t h e 4 t h C e n t u r y A . D . I t s f i r s t C h i n e s e t r a n s l a t i o n

    i s o f 4 4 3 A . D . ) ,

    1 . T h e d a t e s o f t h e s e w o r k s a r e a c c o r d i n g t o w i n t e r n i t z * s

    vol-X-'*& H i s t o r y o f I n d i a n L i t e r a t u r e p p . 3 4 2 , 3 5 0 , 3 5 5 ,

    2 7 6 a n d 3 3 7 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

    ( 3 ) V l j n a n a v a d i n s o r Y o g a c a r a B a u d d h a s

    ( 1 ) T h e M l d h y a m a k a S a s t r a o f N a g a r j u n a ( 2 n d C e n t u r y A . D . ) ;

    ( 2 ) S a t a s a s t r a o f A r y a d e v a w h o w a s t h e d i s c i p l e o f N a g a r j u n a

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    ' i,

    (6) Upayahrdayam - this is a book of which the original Sanskrit

    text is lost.^ It is a very ancient work according to

    Giuseppe Tucci, who has translated it from the Chinese

    l into Sanskrit again. This book is ascribed to Nagarjuna,

    but no such name is found in the list of books generally

    regarded as composed by NSgarjuna; and as Tucci observes,2

    it must be the work of some other Nagarjuna.

    Besides the buddhist canonical texts, a non canonical

    3treatise namely Milindapanho (first cdntury A. D.) and the

    books noted above which are of quite an early date, refer to

    several heretical views of their time; which were traditionally

    handed down. We cannot pronounce any opinion whether some of

    them as actually presented were prior to the Nyaya Sutras but

    we are confident that their exposition will help us in under

    standing the Pravaduka drstis in the Nyaya Sutras.

    We shall first discuss the main heretical doctrines,

    found in the Canonical buddhist texts. These views are as

    under s

    1. cf. Pre-Dinnaga Buddhist texts of logic from Chinese

    Sources,by Tucci, Introduction, page XI.

    2. cf. Ibid, p. XII.

    3. cf. A. History of Indian Literature JL

    p. 175, by Winternitz

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    * (1) Akriyavada

    (2) Ahetuka Suddhivada,(3) tJ cchedavada,

    (4) Sa/vatavada,

    (6) Akrtavada,

    ( 6) Anis cayavada,

    (7) Theory of eight ineaplicable problems,

    (8) Sasvata - asasvatav'ada,

    (9) Santa-anantavada,

    (10) Isvaravada.

    (1) AKRTYAVAPA s

    An exposition of th is theory is found a t length

    in the Samannaphala su tta of the Digha Nikaya. Prince AJatasatru

    approaches Buddha in order to know the immediate f ru it which the

    li fe of a recluse can y ie ld , such a f ru it as is visib le in thi s

    very world. Buddha asks him whether he, (A jatasatru), had put

    the same question to other teachers as w ell. And AJatas'atru,

    admitting that he had put the question to some others, relates

    the answer which Purana Kassapa had given to him as under t -

    '* To him, who acts, 0 king, or causes another to act,

    to him who mutilates or causes another to mutilate,to him who

    punishes or causes another to punish, to him who causes grief

    or torment, to him who trembles or causes another to tumble,

    to him who k i l ls a liv ing crea ture, who breaks into houses,

    who commits dacoity, or robbery, or highway robery, or adultery,

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    or who speaks lies, to him thus acting, there is no (|Uilt.

    If with a discus, with an edge as shaWp as a razors, heshould make all the living creatures on the earth one heap,

    one mass of flesh, there would be no guilt thence resulting,

    no increase of

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    In the Majjhima Nikiya, this same theory is stated1

    in the same words, and then a view/guite opposite to it qs> i$

    4WreJ : " T , wku err $/^causes another to act, ..... or who tells lies, to him thus

    acting there does occur quilt. If with a discus.....Increase

    of guilt does ensue, Were he to go along the south hank......

    increase of guilt does ensue. Were he to go along the north

    bank giving alms.... ..there is the increase of merit. In

    generosity, in self-mastery, in control of the senses, in

    speaking truth, there is merit and the increase of merit.1

    tkes^v

    From tha* Buddha seems to be inclined to support

    the theory of Kriyavada, hence he says, ** the view that there2

    is action is the right view .

    In the Samyutta Nikaya, after describing the AkriyS-

    vada in these very words, Buddha says that such a view arises

    because there is rapa (matter), Yedana (feeling), Sam^na

    (ideation), Samskara (conformation) and Vljnana (consciousness).

    And then he explained that the r u p a....... etc. are all momen

    tary and non-eternal and one who knows this, is finally emanci

    pated and is not born again.

    There is another passage in the Samyutta Nikaya

    where different heretical views are stated by Patali and one

    of them is the Akriyavada of Purana. In the same breath, a

    .. - 4 H - - ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- :---------

    2. See Majjhima NikSya, (2.10

    3. See Samyutta Nikaya, Karoto sutta, 24.6.

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    yiew quite opposite to it, is stated. Then patali, asks the

    t

    Btiddha which of these the Sramana or the Brahmana was right.

    Buddha tells him that even if the view that to

    one who acts or causes another to act.... there is no sin..

    ..... there is no increase of merit1* is right, an Aryasrivaka

    is not affected thereby as he never causes any evil to any

    one. So also even if the view that '* To one who acts or causes

    another to act.....

    there is sin.....

    there does ensure the

    increase of merit1* be right, an Aryasravaka is not affected.

    And at the very thought that he is not affected even if either

    one or the other view be right, he feels a sense of great iy.

    Prom this, it is clear that for Puranas doctrine,

    the name Akriyavada seems quite proper and this is the name

    given to it in the Samannaphala sutta. His is the theory of

    non-action, according to which one is not affected by acts,

    either good or sinful. In other words, the soul according to

    him does not act, it is passive ( ). We must however

    note at thismjuncture that the Akriyavada of Purana Kassapa is

    confounded sometimes with the Ahetuvada of Gosala Mahkhaliputra.

    This gives rise to a confusion regarding their teachers also.

    Goslala in fact, held that * there is no cause,

    either ultimate or remote for the depravity of beings, they

    become depraved without reason and without cause. There is

    1. Samyutta Nikaya (42.13)

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    no cause; for the rectitude of beings they become pure without

    reason and cause.

    In Safcyutta Nikaya (22.60), Liechavi Mahal1 comes

    to Buddha; and te l ls him,* Lord l) Pura^a Kassapa says that

    no cause, ultimate or remote, is there fo r the depravity of

    beings, they become depraved without reason and without cause.

    There is no cause, either proximate or remote for the rectitude

    of beings, they become pure, without reason and without cause.'*

    Here we see that the theory of $osala, with the

    same terminology, is ascribed to Purana . Eventhen it is

    difficult to come to any conclusion, whether both of these

    views can result in a single theory or they are quite

    complementary.

    It seems that in both the views, there is a lot

    of difference in the way of laying stress on a particular

    view point. Puraija first refers to action and then explains

    in respect of action that any kind of action, either good or

    bad, cannot bring any f r u i t , either good or bad. While Golala,

    refers to the fruit either good or evil first, and then in

    respect of tha t f ru it , says tha t i t is not brought forth by

    any action, previously existing.

    Thus the problem of the relationship of action and

    fru it is the same, which is faced by both of them from diffe rent

    point of viewjjby the former from the viewpoint of action, by

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    the latter from the viewpoint of fruit. jAnd it is this treatment

    given by each of them, that differentiates their views. It

    dhould nevertheless be noted that both of them, any how accept

    no relationship of cause and effect between the actions and

    the fruits. Could it be that it is only because of this simila

    rity that their views are often confounded ?

    ^ilatika, while commenting upon a passage in the

    Sutrakrtahga, I. 1.1.13, says that Aklrakavada is here descri

    bed. The view therein set out is this* * When a man acts or

    causes another to act, it is not his soul (Stman) which acts

    or causes to act. Thus they (i. e. the holders of their view)1

    boldly proclaim.

    j So also, in the Sutrakrtahga 11.14, we have aHvA. Tntory

    ^Pancamahabhutavadins. We shall examine it in detail in the

    next chapter. At this stage, we only refer to the last portion

    dam

    of that description from which it may be clearly inferred that

    it is quite similar to the theory of Purana Kassapa. It is

    as follows :

    '* A man buys and causes to buy, kills and causes to

    kill, cooks and causes to cook, he may even sell and kill a

    man - know that even in this case, he does not do any wrong*.

    csr =* fcpyst# j

    ep*rr

    3 TxpTf|w 11

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    This can be interpreted to mean that the soul does

    not act but it is the five elemental substances that do so.

    Thus there is a striking similarity between the views of the

    Pancamahabhutavadin and Purana Kassapa and the description in

    the Mghanlkaya, is rather detailed, though not exaggerated.

    The line of thought in the Dighanikaya, is almost the same asOrs -t-

    th at in the Sutrakrtariga, and expressions are also^ at both

    the places, the same.

    We can therefore conclude th at (i) Purana recognises

    no action on the part of soul; (i i) he holds that no act resul ts

    ei th er in sin or in merit; that is to say, there is no Punya

    and plpa, ( i i i ) in his view, there can be no otherworld

    (Paraloka) (as the other-world is the resu lt of ac tion, but

    Purana does not recognise any result of any action.

    J

    Ahetuka Suddhlvada :

    Relating the answer which he got from Gosala, Ajatasatru

    thus describes the view of Gosala. Gosala said to him : * There

    is, 0 Kin^, no cause, either ultimate or remote, for the depravity

    of beings, they become degraved^without reason and without cause.There is no cause, either proximate or remote for the rectitude

    of beings, they become pure without reason and without cause.

    The attainment of any given condition, of any character, does

    not depend either on ones own acts or on the acts of another,

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    259

    o r o n h u m a n e f f o r t . T h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s p o w e r o r e n e r g y ,

    o r h u m a n s t r e n g t h o r v i g o u r . A l l a n i m a l s , a l l c r e a t u r e s ,

    ( w i t h one,, t w o o r m o r e s e n s e s ) , a l l b e i n g s ( p r o du c e d) f r o m

    e g g s o r i n a w o m b , a l l s o u l s ( i n p l a n t s ) a r e w i t h o u t ..force a n d

    p o w e r a n d e n e r g y o f t h e i r o w n . T h e y a r e b e n t t h i s w a y a n d t h a t

    b y t h e i r f a t e , b y t h e n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e c l a s s t o w h i c h

    t h e y b e l o n g , b y t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l . n a t u r e s a n d it i s a c c o r d i n g

    t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n i n o n e o r o t h e r o f t h e s i x c l a s s e s , t h a t

    t h e y e x p e r i e n c e e a s e o r p a i n . .. .. . . T h e r e a r e e i g h t y - f o u r

    h u n d r e d t h o u s a n d p e r i o d s , d u r i n g w h i c h b o t h f o o l s a n d w i s e

    a l i k e w a n d e r i n g i n t r a n s m i g r a t i o n , s h a l l a t l a st m a k e a n e n d

    o f p a i n . T h o u g h t h e w i s e s h o u l d h o p e s b y t h i s v i r t u e o r

    p e r f o r m a n c e o f d u t y , o r t h i s p e n a n c e , o r t h i s r i g h t e o u s n e s s ,

    # i l l I f m a k e t h e K a r m a , (I h a v e I n h e r i t e d ) t h a t i s n o t y e t

    m a t u r e , m a t u r e - t h o u g h t h e f o o l s h o u l d h o p e b y t h e s a m e m e a n s

    t o g e t g r a d u a l l y r i d o f K a r m a , t h a t h a s m a t u r e d - n e i t h e r o f

    t h e m c a n d o i t . T h e e a s e a n d p a i n , m e a s u r e d o u t as i t w e r e

    w i t h a m e a s u r e , c a n n o t b e a l t e r e d i n t h e c o u r s e o f t r a n s m i g

    r a t i o n , t h e r e c a n b e n e i t h e r i n c r e a s e n o r d e c r e a s e t h e r e o f ,

    \

    n e i t h e r e x c e s s n o r d e f i c i e n c y . J u s t a s a b a l l o f s t r i n g i s

    c a s t f o r t h , i t w i l l s p r e a d o u t j u s t . a s f a r , a n d n o f a r t h e r ^

    t h a n i t c a n u n w i n d , j ust , s o b o t h , f o o l s a n d w i s e a l i k e , w a n d e

    r i n g i n t r a n s m i g r a t i o n , e x a c t l y f o r t h e a l l o t t e d t e r m , s h a l l

    t h e n , a n d o n l y t h e n , m a k e a n e n d o f pa in .* *

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    2

    " Thus, Lord, did Makkhali of the cow pen, when

    asked what was the immediate advantage in the life of a

    recluse expound his theory of purification through transmig-

    1ration.

    2The same description occurs in Majjhima, HikSya*

    and the Buddha, after describing this theory; and a theory

    quite opposite to it, says that those, who do not accept

    cause and reason for the depravity and rectitude of beings

    are wrong and those who accept it, are, right. j

    To see the Buddha's own opinion in this matter

    would be quite interesting. He obviously believes that there

    does exist a reason and a cause for the depravity and rectitude

    of beings.

    If rupa were only to create misery and if it were

    completely devoid of happiness, then nobody.would be interested

    in it. Because there is a lot of pleasure in rupa and no misery,

    beings are interested in it, hence their contact with it follows,

    due to which they are depraved. The same is the case with

    Vedana, Samj^, Samskara and Vijnana.

    And also, if rupa were to create pleasure only va

    and were completely, devoid of misery, nobody would have a

    1. cf. Digha Nik ay a, Samannaphala Sutta.

    2. 2.10.1.

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    dislike for it. But Mahali, there is much misery in rupa and

    little happiness, hence beings have a dislike for it, and then

    being unattached to rupa, they become pure and this is the

    cause of the rectitude of beings . The same is the case withGt

    Vedna, Samjna, Samskara and VijnSna*

    UCCHEPAVADA

    In the Samannaphala Sutta, AjataSatru tells the

    Buddha what Ajita, with the garment of hair (Ajita Kesakambali)

    had said s ** There is no such thing, 0 kinj, as alms, or

    sacrifice or offering. There is neither fruit nor result of

    good or evil deeds. There is no such thing as this world or

    the next. There is neither father, nor mother, nor beings

    springing into life without them. There are In this world/

    no recluses or Brahmanas who have reached the highest point,

    who walk perfectly and who, having understood and realised by

    themselves alone, both - this world and the next make their

    wisdom known to others M .

    ** A human being is built up of the four elements .

    When he dies, the earth in him returns and relapses to the

    earth, the fluid to the water, the heat to the fire, the

    windy to the air and his faculties pass to the space. The

    four bearers on the bier as a fifth, take his dead body away

    *till they reach the burhing ground, men utter enlogies, but

    his bones are bleached and his offerings end In ashes. It is

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    a doctrine of fools, this talk of gifts. It is an empty, lie,

    mere idle talk, -when men say there is profit therein. Fools

    and wise alike, on the dissolution of the body, are cut off;

    annihilated, and after death, they are not

    Thus, Lord, did Ajita, of the garment of hair,

    when asked what was the Immediate advantage in the life of1

    a recluse, expound his theory of annihilation**.

    Part of this passage occurs in the Ma.jjhima

    Nikaya also, in almost the same words. And along with it

    a view quite opposite to it is also described there, according

    to which, there does exist something like alms and sacrifices

    and offerings. A thing like the fruit or result of good or

    evil deeds does exist. This world is there and so also the

    other world. There is the father and the mother and so also

    the beings springing into life, (aupapatikah sattvah).

    There do exist in the world, recluses (Sramanas) and Brahmanas;

    who have reached the highest point and who, having understood

    and realised by themselves alone, both this world and the next,

    make their wisdom known to others.

    The Buddha after stating the views, thus explains

    to his followers that those who believe that there is no such

    thing as alms or sacrifices or offerings, would give up the

    1. cf. Digha Nikaya, Samahnaphala Sutta.

    (Dialogues of the Buddha. Vol. I. p. 70-74.)

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    .263

    - go od d e e d s o f s p e e c h , m i n d a n d b o d y a n d a d o p t t h e e v i l o n e s .

    T h e y d o s o , b e c a u s e t h e y d o no t s ee a n y s i n i n t h e e v i l d e e d s

    a n d a n y v i r t u e i n g o o d d e e d s . E v e n i f t h e r e is t h e o t h e r w o r l d ,

    t h e y a r e o f t h e v i e w t h a t t h e r e is n o o t h e r w o r l d . A n d t h i s

    v i e w o f t h e i r s i s a w r o n g b e l i e f , i t is a f a l s e v i e w , a f a l s e

    t h e s i s . S u c h a v i e w i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o t h e s a y i n g s o f t h e

    A r h a t s w h o h a v e k n o w n t h e o t h e r w o r l d .

    A n d o n e w h o b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g l i k e

    a l m s a n d s a c r i f i c e s a n d o f f e rl n g s^ a n d a b a n d o n s e v i l d e e d s o f

    m i n d , b o d y a n d s p e e c h a n d a d o p t s t h e g o o d o n e s ; w h e n h e s a y s

    t h a t t h e r e i s t h e o t h e r w o r l d , h e i s r i g h t a n d h i s v i e w i s t h e

    r i g h t v i e w . H e i s p r a i s e d b y t h e w i s e p e o p l e i n t h i s v e r y

    b i r t h a s b e i n g o n e w h o h a s r i g h t c o n d u c t a n d f a i t h a n d a s a

    b e l i e v e r ( a s t l k a v a d l n ) , a n d t h e f o r m e r i s b l a m e d a s b e i n g

    o n e w h o h a s a b a d c o n d u c t a n d w r o n g f a i t h a n d a s a n o n - b e l i e v e r

    ( n a s t i k a v a d i n ) .

    T h e A s t i k a v a d i n , a f t e r l e a v i n g t h i s b o d y , i s b o r n

    i n h e a v e n a n d i s t h u s r e w a r d e d i n b o t h t h e w a y s ( i . e . i n th i s

    w o r l d , h e g e t s t h e w o r d s o f p r a i s e f r o m t h e w i s e a n d i n t h e

    o t h e r w o r l d h e g e t s t h e J o y s o f h e a v e n ) . W h i l e t h e o t h e r o n e,

    i. e. t h e N a s t i k a v a d i n is n o t p r a i s e d b u t i s b l a m e d i n t h i s

    w o r l d , a n d a f t e r l e a v i n g t h e b o d y a l s o , h e is b o r n i n h e l l .

    S o h e i s a l o s e r e v e r y w h e r e a n d d o e s n o t g a i n a n y t h i n g b y

    a d o p t i n g t h e f a l s e v i e w t h a t t h e r e i s n o t h i n g l i k e a l m s a n d

    s a c r i f i c e s a n d a l s o . . . . . . . n o o t h e r w o r l d .

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    In the Jamyutta Nikaya; (24.5) , .there is a Natthi

    Dinna Sutta, where the Buddha speaks about the same view in

    the same words and in the end concludes that such a wrong

    view arises because of the existence of rupa, because of

    v ^the existence of Vedana, Samina, Samskara and Vij nina.

    But all the rupa etc. are momentary and non

    eternal and one whd knows this is freed from doubts and

    hence does not adopt any such view. Gradually, by knowing

    the four truths, he becomes emancipated and is not born

    again.

    From the Samyutta Nikaya (42.13), it becomes

    dear that the Buddha himself does not come to a final

    conclusion anywhere; he merely says that even if the view

    that * alms and sacrifice etc. are there **- be right, a

    religious person ( irya Sravaka) is not affected thereby

    and even if the view that '* alms and sacrifices etc. are

    not there1* - be right, in that case also, he is equally

    unaffected, because he causes no evil and performs no evil.

    He gives up the false view and by adopting the right attitude,

    he experiences bliss and happiness.

    But the Buddha does say that the view that there

    is no other world is a false view. In fact, the Buddha

    considered some problems as Inexplicable (avyakata)- whether

    the Tathagata exists after death, or not, or both exists as

    well does not exist or neither exists nor does not exist -

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    is am instance in point. Thus, many a time, he says in respect

    of problems regarding this world, heaven, hell etc., that

    these are avylkata problems, to which, it is not possible

    to give an answer. Prom this, one may jump to the conclusion

    that he was an agnostic. Or we can also say that he did not

    answer such questions simply because their answers, in no

    way, promote the good of man. We have seen above that he

    admits the existence of paraloka. Could he have thought

    that belief in Paraloka is more in the interest of mankind

    than disbelief in it ?

    The Anguttara Nikaya (Pol. I. p. 349 and the

    Dhammasarlgani (p. 267) also refer to this view (ditthi).

    The words in which they refer to it are the same and the

    view set out therein is obviously that of Ajita.

    It is interesting to note the Buddha*q remarkt

    in the Anguttara Nikaya ( Vol. I. p. 266). Just as of all

    kinds of woven robes, a hair garment is known to be the

    least desirable, cold in cold weather, hot in hot, unpleasant

    to the touch, so of all maty assertions by recluses, the

    Makkhali theory is the most undesirable.**

    The question here arises is that could the Buddha

    have confounded^ Ajita Kesakamball with Makkhali Gosala ?

    Or is he just giving a simile ? Or could he be suggesting

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    that Goslla* s theory is even more dangerous than Ajita Kesakam-

    balin*s, though the latter*s garment was the most undesirable

    of all ?

    The Buddha, then stating the view of Makkhali,

    says that according to Makkhali, there is no Karma and no

    action, so also no power, nor energy, nor strength, nor vigour.

    Eventhough all the Arhats and Samadisambuddhas (the enlightened

    ones) who flourished before, were believers in Karma, action

    and energy, yet Makkhali rejects this view? that is to say

    he does not believe in these. All those that will flourish in

    future, will also be believers in Karma, action and energy.

    Even I myself, am a believer in Karma, action and energy. But

    Makkhali rejects this view of mine, saying that there is no

    Karma, no action, no energy**.

    The Buddha thus seems to be a believer in Karma

    and this is quite a fact. Even though he establishes the

    non-existenc^ of the soul,he does explain the origin of suffe

    ring in the light of the theory of dependent.origination; where

    due to the impressions of the past, a man is presently involved

    in thirst (tpSna) and clinging (upMSna), which become the

    cause of rebirth and old age and death etc.

    In the Simannaphala Sutta, Ajita*s view is called

    TJcehedavada (the doctrine of annihilation). It is obvious

    from the above details that, he regards the body and the soul

    to be one and the same and that soul is not something different

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    from the body. He speaks of the annihilation.of the soul.

    No soul remains after death, because all the four elements

    viz, earth, water, fire, and air of which the body consists,

    finally return to the earth, water, fire and air and nothing

    remains, nothing is left. So when nothing remains, the talk

    of gifts aid alms is a fools talk, all the offerings end in

    ashes. No other world is there and not even this world. This

    is his view and in the Sutrak^tanga, we find exactly the same

    description, the only distinguishing point being that the

    name given to this view there is Tajjlvatacchariravada.

    What was then the view of the Buddha ? If he did

    not believe in the theory of annihilation (Ncchedevada), then

    did he believe in eternalism ( Sasvatavada) ? No, not the

    least. The Buddha in fact, held the doctrine of the Middle

    Path, There is a dialogue in the Samyutta Nikaya, where he

    tries to establish his own view as against nihilism and eter

    nalism. There Acela Kasyapa asks the Buddha.

    * Is sorrow Gautama due to oneself ? (Sayamkatam ? 5

    * Not so, 0 Kalyapa, said the lord, nIs it then, 0 Gautama,

    due to another ? (parakatam ?) * Not so, 0 Kasyapa , replied

    the Lord. *Is it then due to oneself as well as due to another ?'*

    That is not the case, said the Buddha. Is it, 0 Gautama,

    neither due to oneself, nor due to another ?'* This also is not

    the case, said Gautama.

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    K a s y a p a t h e n a s k s t he B u d d h a w h e t h e r s o r r o w is

    e x i s t e n t o r n o t. G a u t a m a s a ys t h a t s o r r o w d o e s e x i s t . A n d

    jo

    w h e n E a S y a p a b e i n g s to d o u b t t he v e r y k n o w l e d g e o f G a u t a m a

    r e g a r d i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e a n d c a u s e o f s o r r o w , G a u t a m a t e l l s

    h i m t h a t K a s y a p a s h o u l d n o t d o u b t t h u s b e c a u s e h e ( th e B u d d ha )

    r i g h t l y k n o w s t h e t r u t h . H e t h us e x p l a i n s i t t o K a l y a p a .

    ** If he, wh o suf fer s is the same as he wh o does,

    t h e n 0 K a s y a p a , i t i s a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e s o r r o w i s d u e t o

    o n e w h o w a s e x i s t e n t a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e a ge n t i s a d m i t t e d

    / /

    as et er na l (Sasvata)**.

    * If, again, someone does and someone else suffers,

    then, 0 Kas yap a, it is admi tted that one suffers due to the

    a c t s d o n e b y a n o t h e r a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e ag e n t is a d m i t t e d

    as ext inc t (TTechedam etam) Th e Ta th ag at a avoids bot h the

    e n d s a n d p r e a c h e s t h e l a w b y a d o pt i n g t h e m i d d l e c o u r s e . A v i d y l

    c a u s e s s a m s k a r a , s a m s k a r a c a u s e s V i j n a n a a n d s o o n . T h u s

    o r i g i n a t e s t h i s S k a n d h a ^ a g g r e g a t e) o f a b s o l u t e s o r r o w . B y

    the to ta l ce ssa tio n of Sams kar as , (ten den cies) , Yi jn an a

    ( C o n s c i o u s n e s s ) c e a s e s a n d s o o n. T h u s t he s k h a n d h a o f

    abs olu te s orrow ceases . (ef. Sam yut ta Nik iya 12.17).

    I n t h e A n a m d a s u t t a o f t h e S a m y u t t a N i k ay a , V a t s a -

    got ra asks Gau tam a ifi As ti ta is existe nt. But the Bud dh a

    g i v e s n o a n s w e r . H e a g a i n a s k s i f N a s t i t a is e x i s t e n t an d

    1 . 4 4 . 1

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    the Buddha still does not answer.- When Vatsagotra goes away,

    Inanda asks Buddha why he gave no answer to Va^tsagotra.

    The Buddha, then, explains to him that if he had told him

    that there is Astita, that would be eternallsm. If he had

    told him that there is lastita, that would be nihilism. ** In

    accepting the former,** says the Buddha* ** I would not have

    been able to teach that all dharmas are devoid of soul (i. e.

    Anatma). If I told him that Nastita is there, he would be

    more misled as he would be inclined to think that I had a soul

    before, which, now, is not there.

    Thusy to avoid both the extreme views, the

    Buddha thought it proper to preach the middle path, which

    was devoid of these two extremes. This will be even clearer

    to us when we examine the Buddha* s attitude towards the eight

    inexplicable problems (avyakata panha).

    A jit a expounded TJccheda^da, and he taught the

    extinction of soul, of the world and of acts He denied the

    eternity of all these three things. Soul, according to him,

    lasts as long as the body does and not thereafter, and, when

    there is no soul after death, there would be no world also.

    And since according to Ajita, there are no alms or sacrifices

    or offerings in the true sense of the term, he also can be

    called an Akriyivadin.

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    We now come to the Taj jiv ata echarira vid a, the

    Nastikavada, and the Sasvatavada, which are closely connected

    with the TJechedavada of A jl ta .

    TAJJIVATACCHARIRAVADA :

    Whether the sonl and the body are one and the same

    or the sonl is different from the body is an important problem

    in the fie ld of philosophy. Buddha is always found in a mood

    to avoid giving an answer to th is question. He brushes i t aside

    as an inexplicable problem and believes that such questions are

    not at all useful for the final good.

    Moreover, he says, " I f one, 0 Bhikkhu, were to

    maintain that self is identical with the body, then there would

    be no use of endeavouring for release. And i f one were to

    maintain that the self is different and the body is different,

    then also , 0 Bhikkhu, there would be no use of endeavouring

    fo r re lease . Having avoided 0 Bhikkhu, both these extremes,

    the Tathigata preaches the law by adopting the middle course. n

    (Samyutta Hlkaya, IS.12).

    The Buddha has thus evaded any definite answer to

    th is question. But the Tajjlvatacehariravadins held that the

    soul is id entical with the body. This was a very famous here-

    t ic a l doctrine? and i t could possibly have been the view of

    the Carvakas, who held th at af te r the body, no soul p ers is ts .

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    In the Jaliy a su tta in the Bigha Nikaya, Ja liya goes to the

    Buddha? ana asks him whether the soul and the body we*e

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    A J i t a 1 s v i e w c o m e s t o m e a n t h a t t h e r e i s n o t t h e

    o t h e r w o r l d , n o r a r e t h e r e b e i n g s r e b o r n o t h e r w i s e t h a n f r o m

    p a r e n t s , n o r i s t h e r e t h e f r u i t o r r e s u l t o f d e e d s w e l l d o n e

    o r i l l d o n e . A n i t a ' s v i e w i s q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h e v i e w o f

    P a y a s l . P l y a s i w a s t h u s a m a t e r i a l i s t i c t h i n k e r l i k e t h e

    C i r v a k a s a n d t h e B u d d h i s t a s w e l l a s t h e J a i n a S c r i p t u r e s

    g i v e , i n d e t a i l , t h e a r g u m e n t s w h i c h h e p u t f o r t h t o p r o v e

    h i s v i e w . P l y a s i h e l d t h a t t h e s o u l i s n o t a n e n t i t y d i s t i n c t

    f r o m t h e b o d y . A s a m a n , d r a w i n g a s w o r d f r o m t h e s c a b b a r d ,

    c a n s a y, ** t h i s i s t h e s w o r d a n d t h i s i s t h e s c a b b a r d , * s o,

    w e a r e n o t a b l e t o s e p a r a t e t h e s o u l f r o m t h e b o d y . T h e

    S u t r a k r t a n g a , a s w e s h a l l s e e , d e s c r i b e s t h i s a t l e n g t h , g i v i n g

    a s e r i e s o f e x a m p l e s . W e c a n s a y t h a t A j i t a a n d P a y a s i , o r

    t h e T J e e h e d a v a d i n s , t h e N a s t i k a v a d i n s a n d t h e " fa j j I v a t a c c h a r l r e t -

    a v a d i n s w e r e a l l r e g a r d e d a s A k r i y a v a d i n s b y M a h a v l r a , a s t h e y

    u p h e l d t h e d o c t r i n e o f n o n - a c t i o n .

    In the Brahmajala Jutta the view of some recluses

    a n d B r a h m a n a s i s d e s c r i b e d , w h o i n s e v e n w a y s , m a i n t a i n t h e

    c u t t i n g o f f , t h e d e s t r u c t i o n , t h e a n n i h i l a t i o n o f a l i v i n g

    being. They held th at, n Since th is so ul has form, i s b uil t

    u p o f t h e f o u r e l e m e n t s , a n d is t h e o f f s p r i n g o f f a t h e r a n d

    c $m o t h e r , i t i s

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    Some hold that * the whole soul is not then completely

    annihilated for there is a further soul, divine, having form,

    belonging to the sensuous plane, feeding on solid food. That

    you neither know, nor pereceive. But I ( i. e. the Buddha)

    know and have experiended it. And since this soul, on the

    dissolution of the body, is cut off, and destroyed, does

    not continue after death,then it is, that the soul is completely

    annihilated.'

    Five more views are also described according to

    which the whole soul is not then annihilated. But according

    to the first view, a soul made of mind, remains. According

    to the second view, there remains a soul, which reaches up

    to the plane of infinity of space. According to the third,

    there remains a soul which reaches up to the plane of infinity

    of Consciousness. According to the fourth, a soul,v remains

    that passing quite beyond the plane of infinity of consciousness,

    knowing that there is nothing, reaches up to the plane of

    no-obstruction. And according to the fifth view, there remains

    a soul passing quite beyond the plane of no-obstruction. And

    when this remaining soul is annihilated, only then, one can

    say that the soul is completely annihilated and not before

    that. All these views are undoubtedly the views of the TJcche-

    davadins. As these TJcchedava3ins preach the complete annihil

    ation of the soul, they maintain that the soul and the world

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    are produced without a cause. According to them, no cause

    persists as everything results in complete annihilation. The

    holder of such views are called Fortuitous Originists in the

    Brahmajala sutta and the Buddha describes them thus :

    ** There are brethren certain gods called Unconscious

    Beings. As soon as an idea occurs to them, they fall from that

    state. Now, it may well be, brethren, that a being, falling

    from that state* should come hither and having come Either, he

    might go forth from the household life into the h&meless state.

    And having thus become a recluse, he, by reason of ardour

    civ

    and so on , (as in the other cases) reabees up to such rapture

    of heart that rapt in heart, he calls to mind how that idea

    occurred tbohim but not more than that. He says to himself

    '* Fortuitous in origin are the soul and the world. And why

    so ? Because formely I was not, but now a m . Habing not been,

    I have come to be.*6

    This, is the first state of things, on account of

    which, starting out from which, some recluses and Brahmanas

    become t Fortuitous Originists and maintain that the soul and

    the world arise without cause.

    In the second case, some recluse or Brahmaija is

    addicted to logic and reasoning. He gives utterance to the

    following conclusion of his own, beaten out by his argumentations

    and based on his Sophistry : f* The soul and the world arose

    without a cause.*

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    2/o

    We can see that the fundamental problem here. Is

    ' Is there any cause of the world ? And If there is one,

    what is it ? n

    Many admit that the effect is produced only when

    there is a cause. But s t i l l , there are some who think that

    there is no particula r cause, to which we could ascribe the

    production of the world. Sim ilarly, according to them, the

    destruction of things is also without any cause.

    I t may be noted, that the Buddha opposed TJccheda-

    vada as strongly as he opposed ^asvatavada. * Such views,

    as he observes , * aris e , because there i s rupa, because there

    is saffijna, because there is samskara, and also vedana and

    Vijhana.* w But a true Xryasravaka, says the Buddha, is

    never inclined to such fals e views, because he sees and knows

    that rupa is momentary, samjha is momentary and so also are

    samskara, Vedana, and vijnana. And because he sees and knows

    i t , he is not affected thereby and is f in ally emancipated.*

    S A S V A T A V A D A s-

    In the Brahmajala Sutta, the Buddha describes the

    view of the E te rn alists (Sasvatavadins) in these words :

    " There are recluses and Brahmanas,> brethren, who reconstruct

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    276

    the Ultimate beginnings of th ings, whose speculations are

    connected with the ultim ate pas t; and who on eighteen grounds,put forward, various assertions regarding the past. And

    about what, with reference to what, do these venerable ones

    do so ? "

    There are, bretheren., recluses and Brahmanas,

    who are e te rn a lis ts (Sassatavadji); and who on four grounds,

    proclaim that both the soul and the world are eternal. And

    about what, with reference to what, do these venerable

    ones do so ?

    In the f i r s t place , brethren , some recluse or

    Brahmana, by means of ardour, of exertion, of application,

    of earnestness, of care ful thought reaches up to such rapture

    of heart that rapt in hea rt, he ca lls to mind, his various

    dwelling plaees in times gone by, in one b ir th or in two, or

    in th ree , or in four, or in five, or ten , or twenty, or

    th ir ty , or fo rty , or f if ty , or a hundred, or a thousand,

    or in several hundreds or thousands or lakhs of births to the

    effect that **There I had such and such a name, was of such

    and such a lineage and caste, lived on such and such food and

    experienced such and such pains and pleasu res, had such and

    such a span of years. And when I f e l l from thence, I was

    reborn in such and such a name, in such and such lineage.and

    caste , living on such and sudh good, experiencing such and

    such pains and pleasures, with sueh and such a span of years.

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    IT,Fi7 ry

    j U t t

    And when I fell from thence, I was reborn here . '* Thus does

    he recollect, in full detail, both of conditio n and of

    custom, his various dwe lling places in times gone by. And.

    he says to himself; * Et ern al is the soul, and the world,

    giving bir th to nothing new, is steadfast as a mounta in-

    peak, as a pillar firmly fixed, and though these living

    creatures t ransmigrate and pass away, fall from one state of

    existenc e and spring up i n another, yet they are for ever and

    ever. And why must that be so ? Becau se I, by means of ardour,

    of exertion, of appl icat ion , of earnestne ss, of careful

    thought, can reach up to such rapture of heart, that rapt in

    heart, I can call to mind in full detail, both of condition

    and of custom, my various places in times gone * by, by that

    is it, that I kn ow this, that the soul is eternal; and that

    the world , giving birth to nothing new, is stead-fast as a

    Amountain peak, as a pillar firmly fixed and that though these

    living crealjires transmigra te and pass away, fall from one

    state of existence^ and spring up i n another yet they are for

    ever and ever.**

    This, brethren, is the first state of things on

    account of which, starting from which, some recluses and

    Brahmanas are eternalists and maintai n that both the soul

    and the world are eternal.'

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    In the second case, he calls to mind the previous

    births which extend over a still longer period up to ten worldt

    aeons and in the third case, such a period as extends up to

    forty world aeons.

    And in the fourth case, as the Buddha describes,

    ** some r ecluse or Brahmana is addicted to logic and reasoning.

    He gives utter ance to the following conclusion, bea ten out ,

    by his argumentations and based on his sophistry : - '* Eternal

    is the soul and the worl d, giving birt h to nothing new, is

    steadfast as a mou nta in peak, as a pill ar firmly fixed; and

    these living creatures, though they transmig rate and pass

    away, fall from one state of existence and spring up in

    another. Ye t they are fo r eve r and ever**.

    16This brethren , is the fourth state of things on

    er r

    the ground of which, stpating from which , some recluses and

    Brahm anas are /eternalists and mai nta in that the soul and the

    wo rld are etern al.1*

    These, brethren,, are those recluses and Brahmanas'*

    says the Bud dha, * wh o are ete rn al is ts , and In fou r ways

    maintain that both the soul and the world are eternal. For

    whos oever of the recluses and Brahmanas are such and maintain

    this, they do so in these four ways, or in one, or in the

    oth er of the same, and outside the^e, there is no wa y in

    which this opinion is arrived at'*.

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    ' Th e above is the descriptio n, whic h occurs in the

    Brahmajala Sutta of the Di gh a Niklya.

    It is stated i n the Maj jhima Niklya (I. 2.1) that

    the self (atta) accord ing to the Eter nali sts (Sass atavadi ns),

    is the speaker, the feel er and the enjoy er of the fruits of

    good and evil actions, is permanent (nic ca), steady (dhru va),

    ete rna l (sassata) and is unchangab le (aparinamadhamma) and is

    stead- fast like the so-called eterna l objects, vizs the Sun,

    Moon, ocean, earth and mountain**.

    Besi des this, wher ever the inexplicable questions

    are discuss ed, the view of the eterna lists, is referred to.

    But as we have seen, the Budd ha , not only disagrees with this

    view, but he also refuses to give an answ er to the question,

    ** Are the wo rld and the soul eternal or non-eterna l ?**

    W h e n in the Samyetta Nikaya, Vatsagotra comes to

    ( '3lfcV

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    280The former then asks why the holders of the other views descri-

    bed the world to be eternal. Moggalana explains i '* Yatsa,

    those heretics C HftlWWFT ) thinks,

    n The eye is mine, I am the eyes, the eyes are myself; the

    ears are mine, I am the ears, the ears are myself* And the1 o

    same is the case with the organs of ^dour, ta ste and with

    the body. And so, on being asked, he answer that The

    world is permanent.

    But the Buddha does not hold that eye is the soul

    ........ e tc . so when asked, he gives absolutely no reply to

    the question.

    Yatsa , then goes to the Buddha and asks the same

    question why he regards it as an unanswerable question and

    why the other heret ics hold the world to be ete rn al. The

    Buddha says that those people recognise rupa as the self,

    or know the se lf as having form or know the self in rupa,

    and th ink sim ilarly of Vedana, Samj9na, ^Tamskara and

    Vijnana. So, on being asked, they say th at the world is

    permanent.

    In the Jamyutta Nikaya, 24.9, there is a Sassata ,

    Di$thi Sutta where the Buddha explains that because there is

    rupa, because there is Yedana, because there is samjna and

    so also , Samskara and * YijUana, a fa lse view is created ,

    that the world is eternal.

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    , - ],

    But he, who knows, -that in fact, rupa is

    anitya, Vedana is anitya and the same is the case with

    samjna, samskara and vijnlna, is not affected thereby and

    is finally emancipated.

    This same is stated by the Buddha in Sainyutta

    Niklya 22.15 (Etam Mama Sutta) in the form of an answer

    to the question as to how this false view is created that

    some think in this way5

    that which is soul, the same is

    the Loka, ** so after leaving the body, I will be permanent

    fixed, eternal, unehangable" ?

    The Buddha upholds the doctrine of Ksanikavada.f f

    Therefore ^asvatavlda is a doctrine, quite unacceptable& to

    him. Yet he never says/ that the world is non-eternal'.

    Because that would result in TJcchedavada, which is also

    quite an extreme view* and so unacceptable. Consequently,

    he adopted the Middle Path. In a dialogue with Kasyapa,f

    he, in answer to the question of Kasyapa 1 what is Dukkha ?

    says that if he who suffers is the same as he who does one

    may hold s * the sorrow is due to one who was existent

    (before) then the agent is admitted as eternal, hence

    follows eternalism. Similarly, if that he who does and

    he who suffers are quite distinct, one may hold, ** Someone

    else does it and another one experiences^, it; hence sorrow

    is not due to ones ownself, (which was existent before);

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    but due to another. ** Here follows $nnihilationalism. But

    TathSgata, avoiding both these ends, preaches the law by

    adopting the middle path. Because of Avidya, arise saftsktras

    ........... and thus all the Dukkha is created. And by the

    SecwiSKeorfiJ _cessation of tend=@e4e -(Samsfea^aa), Vijnana ceases and so

    , on, finally the whole aggregate of absolute sorrow ceases.

    In the Tripitakas, Baka Brahma is described as

    an Upholder of Sasvatavada. In the Majjhima Nikaya (1.49.1-3)

    (Brahma Nimantanika Sutta), the Buddha relates that once,

    when he was in the Subhagavana of tlkattha; a Brahma, named

    Baka, was inclined to the view that brahmaloka is permanent,

    3

    fixed , eternal, pure and unchaning. It is liable neither

    to birth, nor to death there is no further going out to it.

    The Buddha told Baka Brahma that he was plunged

    in ignorance as he regarded what is impermanent as permanent,

    what, is changing as fixed, what is non-eternal as eternal,

    what is impure as pure. Even if there was a further going

    out, he said that there was no further going out w .

    Thus, it is quite clear that the Buddha was not

    '-s '_in favour of the Sasvatavada. The Samyutta Nikaya, giving

    the same view of Baka Brahma, adds that Baka Brahma holds

    that the BrahmaHloka is neither destroyed, nor is it produced

    again, and this only is the final release. The Buddha calls

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    i t a s i n fu l v ie w , p a p a d i t th l ; and s ay s t h a t t h i s ( i . e .

    th e Brahma Loka) i s n ot th e f i n a l r e l e a s e b a t i t i s

    n o n -e t e rn a l and so l i a b l e t o d e s t ru c t i o n ; and t h e f i n a l

    r e l e a s e i s q u i te d i f f e r e n t from i t .

    I t i s however, very in te re s t i n g to compare

    the view of Baka Brahma with that of the Pancamahabhutavadins

    whieh i s desc r ibed in th e Su t rakrtar iga (chap te r 14 th) .

    The Pancamahabhutavadins ho ld th a t : 'Th ere are

    f i v e e l e me n t s ................ everything down to a blade of grass

    co n s is ts of them. These f iv e e lements are not c re a te d f

    d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , n o r made, th e y a r e n ot e f f e c t s ,

    nor pr od uc ts , they are w i thou t beginning and end.............

    are Independent of a d i re c t in g cause or everything e ls e , u

    th e y a r e e t e rn a l .

    They thu s rega rd them as permanent, e te rn a l and

    devoid of produ ct ion or d es t ru c t io n . The Loka, aec joding

    to them, co n s is ts of them and hence is e te rn a l . Gould i t

    be t h a t Baka Brahma i s h ere meant to S ig n ify some acary a ,

    from among th e Pancam ahabhutavadins ? The views ar e

    s t ri k i n g l y s im i la r .

    A K B T A Y A D A j -

    Akrtavada is the view held by Pakuda Kaccayana .

    I t Is d escr ibe d by A ja tsa t r j j in the Samannaphala S u t ta as

    f o l l o w s : -

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    nThe foil-swing seven things are neither made nor .

    commanded to he made, neither created nor caused to he created,

    they are barren, (so that nothing is produced out of them),

    steadfast as a mountain peak, as a pillar firmly fixed.

    They move not'neither do they vary, they trench

    not one upon another? nor avail ought as to ease or pain

    or both. And what are the seven ? The four elements - earth,

    water , fire and air - and ease and pain and the soul as a

    seventh. So there is neither slayer nor causer of slaying,

    hearer or speaker, knower or explainer. When one with a

    sharp sword cleaves a head in twain, no one thereby deprives

    any one of life . a sword has only penetrated into the interval

    between seven elementary^ substances**.

    ** Thus did Pakuda KacdSyana, when asked what was

    the immediate advantage in the life of a recluse, expound the

    matter by expounding something else**.

    * The Samyutta Nikaya 94.8 $ depicts the same view

    in these very words. Then it describes how Pakuda held that

    "Even if one may think that *r'by this virtue or this perfor

    mance of duty, or this penance, or this rightousness,will

    I make the Karma ( I have inherited), that is not yet

    mature, mature- or one may hope by the same means to get rid

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    of Karma th a t has m atured, n e ith e r of them can do i t . The

    ease an d 'pa in , a re not measured out w i th a measure , therei s n e i t h e r i n c re a s e , n o r d e c re as e t h e re o f? n e i th e r e x c e s s ,

    n o r d e f i c i e n c y . J u s t a s when a h a l l o f s t r i n g i s c a s t f o r t h ,

    i t w i l l s p re ad ou t j u s t a s f a r and no f a r t h e r , t h a n i t ca n

    unwind, ju s t so , both fo o ls and w ise , a l ik e , wandering

    i n t ra n s m i g r a ti o n , e x a c t ly f o r th e a l l o t t e d te rm , s h a l l

    then make an end of pain

    According to the Buddha such a view arises because

    th ere is rupa , because th er e is vedana , because the re are

    Sam jna, Samskgra and Y ijn an a. An Ary asravak a knows them to

    be im permanent and hence i s not a ffe c te d th e re b y , t i l l he

    f i n a l l y g e t s e ma n c ip a t e d .

    V

    The name give n to t h is ph ilosophy of Pakuda, is

    Ak rtavada or S a tta Kaya Vada. He regarded seven th in g s, v iz .

    e a r t h , W a te r, f i r e , a i r , e a s e , p a in and s o u l a s e t e r n a l ,

    imp erishable and immutable by th e i r very na tu re . In th is

    r e s p e c t , Pakuda sounds t o be a n g t e rn a l i s t . The E t e rn a l i s t s ,

    as we have seen above, Regarded the world and the soul as

    e t e r n a l .

    A W I S C A Y A 7 A P A j -

    This i s the view of San jaya B e la t th ip u t ta , who

    can be said to be a sc e p tic or an A gn os tic. In the Samaiffiaphala

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    286

    "Sutta, Ijutasatru describes what -ganjaya told him when asked

    about the immediate fruit fof the life of a recluse. He

    thus replied :

    1,1 If you ask me whether there is another world -

    well, if I thought there were, I would say so. But I

    dont say so. And I dont thirik it is thus or thus. And

    I dont deny it. And I dont say there neither is, n6r is

    not another world. And if you ask me about the beings

    produced by chance, or whether there is any fruit, any

    result, of good and bad actions, or whether a man who has

    won the truth, continues or not after death - to each or

    any of these questions, do I give the same reply. Thus

    Lord, did Sanjaya of the Belattha clan, ,when asked what

    ftwas the immediate advantage in the' life .4f:a recluse, show

    j

    his manner of prevarication.

    Buddha.in the Brahmajala Sutta, uses the expre

    ssion Eel wrigglers (vaca vikkhepika^O for the people

    who hold such a view . He there describes it thus : There

    are, brethern, some recluses or brahmaiias, who wriggle

    like eels and when a question is put to them on this or that,

    they resort to equivocation, to eel-wriggling and this in

    four ways.

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    J n In the first place, some recluse or br&hmana does

    not understand the good in its real nature, nor the evil.

    And he thinks: ** I neither know the good, as It really is,

    nor the evil. That being so, were I to pronounce this to

    be good or that to be evil, I might be influenced therein

    by my feelings or desires, by ill will or resentment. And

    under these circumstandes, I might be wrong, and my having

    been wrong might cause me the pain of remorse, might become

    a hindrance to me. Thus fearing and abhorring being wrong

    in an expressed opinion, he will neither declare anything

    to be good nor to be bad, but on a question being put to

    him on this or that, he resorts to eel wriggling, to

    equivocation and says, " I don't take it thus, I dont take

    It the other way. But I advance no opinion. And I don't

    deny your position. And I don't say it is neither the one,

    1nor the other."

    This is the first case, and what is the second ?

    He, thinking that I neither know ......or resentment".'* Under

    these circumstances, I might fall into that grasping condition

    of heart which causes rebirth and the sense of remorse might

    become a hindrance to me". Thus fearing and abhorring the

    falling into that state, he will neither declare anything to

    be good and so on, as above.

    1. Digha Nikaya, BrahmajTla Sutta

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    288

    I n t h e t h i r d c a s e , o w i n g t o t h e s a me k i n d o f

    t h o u g h t , h e t h i n k s t h a t I n e i t h e r k n o w t h e g o o d , a s i t

    r e a l l y i s , n o r t h e e v i l . N o w t h e r e a r e r e c l u s e s a n d

    b r a h m a n a s w h o are cl eve r, subtle, e x p e r i e n c e d i n co ntr ov e r y,

    hai r split ters , wh o go about, methiriks, break ing to pieces

    b y t h e i r w i s d o m , the sp e cu l a t i o n s of ot h e rs . W e r e I t o

    p r o n o u n c e | h i s to be g o o d o r t ha t t o be e v i l , t h e s e m e n

    m i g h t j o i n is sue w i t h m e, c a l l u p o n f o r m y reasons; po in t

    o u t m y e r r o r s . A n d o n t h e i r d o i n g so , I m i g h t be u n a b l e

    t o e x p l a i n . A n d t h a t m i g h t c a u se m e t h e p a i n o f r e m o r s e , a nd

    the sense of remorse mig ht b ecome a hind ranc e to me *.

    T h u s f e a r i n g a n d a b h o r i n g t h e j o i n d e r o f is s u e ,

    h e w i l l n e i t h e r d e c l a r e a n y t h i n g t o b e g o o d a n d s o o n.

    I n t he f o u r t h c a s e, s o m e r e c l u s e o r b r a h m a n a i s

    d u l l , s t u p i d . A n d i t i s b y r e a s o n o f h i s d u l l n e s s , h i s

    s t u p i d i t y , t h a t w h e n a q u e s t i o n o n t h i s o r t h a t is pu t

    t o h i m , h e r e s o r t s t o e q u i v o c a t i o n , t o w r i g g l i n g li k e a n

    eel and says ,** If you a sk me wh et her there is ano the r

    w o r l d - w e l l , i f I t h o u g h t i t w e r e , I w o u l d s a y s o b u t I

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    '* There is not another world. There are ehanee

    beings. There are no such beings. There both are and are

    not such beings. There ne ither are nor are not such beings.

    There is f ru i t , or re su lt of good and bad actions. There

    is no such f ru it . There both is and is not such f ru i t.

    There neith er is nor is not such f ru i t . A man who has

    penetrated the tru th , continues to exist offer death.

    He does not continue , he both continues and does not

    continue, he neither continues nor not continues'*.

    '* These are those recluses and brahmanas who

    wriggle like eels and when a question is put to them, on

    th is or th a t, resort to equivocation, to eel-wriggling

    and that in four ways. For wh^scTfvr do so they do so

    in these four ways, or in one or the other wa$, in

    which they do soMr.

    Jacobi is rig ht when he says( th at " I t is

    evident th at the Agnostics examined a l l modes of expression

    of the existence or non-existence of a thing and if it

    were anything transcendental or beyond human experience,2

    they negated a l l these modes of expression.12*

    1. Digha Nikaya;

    Brahma Jala Sutta.

    2. SIS. Vol. XLV,p. m i l .

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    290Dr. Barua says, Sanjaya may be called an **Intell-

    ectu al coward because, even when he was unable to form aclear theory he would not confers his inability to think, but

    he would instead say th a t, * i f I were to know th at i t is such,

    I would t e l l i t to be so to you but I don't hold i t to be ei ther

    this way or that way and therefore do not say that it is either1 Wt - O j v \ Stf'V Hifirf- #

    th is way or that way.'* Qr may be we a-he was very in te lligen t

    and c r i t ic a l in his outlook and must have been convinced

    that such questions are not capable of having any definite

    answer, and if they had a defin ite answer at a l l , they would

    have been solved at once and the whole process of philosophical

    controversies would have come to an end. But we see that i t

    is not so, and d iffer en t solutions are given by d ifferen t

    philosophers and s t i l l the problems remain unsolved and continue

    to puzzle people throughout the ages.

    Even the Buddha does not like to give any definite

    answer to such questions and he tactfully evades them as

    unanswerable; or so to say, useless fo r a monk in the path

    of getting final emancipation from paih.

    Thus, when the great Buddha refused to answer

    such questions, Sanjaya is obviously ju s ti fi e d i f he refuses

    to answer the same; though the philosophical approach of the

    two thinkers is quite d iffe re n t. In fa c t, as BarjJa notes,

    1

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    * he by suspending his judgements on certain great questions

    of human mind, came to indicate that their final answer lay

    beyond the domain of speculation*. He further continues,

    * Both MahayIra and Buddha were unanimous in declaring

    that there are certain mooted questions' of cosmology,

    ontology, theology and eschatology on which a man is unable,k

    constituted as he 4s , to pronounce a bold, authoritative

    1or dogmatie opinion.*

    1. See * A history of Pre-Buddhlstie Indian philosophy

    p, 331 by Barua.

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    THEORY OF RIGHT UNANSWERABLE PROBLEMS s-

    Bnddha declared some questions as unanswerable

    (avyakata), In the Digha Nikaya, Potthapada discusses about

    trance. Then, in the course of further discussion; Pottha

    pada asks Buddha several questions :

    (1) Is the world eternal ?

    Is this alone the truth and any other view

    mere folly ?

    Buddha replies, ** That, Potthapada, is a matter

    on which I have expressed no opinion T Potthapada

    then in the same terms, asks the following questionst-

    (2) Is the world non-eternal ?

    (S) Is the world finite ?

    (4) Is the, world infinite ?

    (5) Is the soul same as the body ?

    (6) Is the soul one thing and the body another ?

    (7) Does one who has gained the, truth live again after death ?

    (8) Does he not live again after death ?

    (9) Does he both live and not live again after death ?

    (10) Does he neither live nor not live again after death ?

    And to each of these questions, the exalted

    one ga**e the same answer and said, * That too Potthapada

    is a matter on which I have expressed no opinion**.

    1. Digha Nikaya, Patthapada Sutta.

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    ** But why has the exalted one expressed no opinion

    on that asks Potthapada . To that, the great Buddha

    replied : ** This question is not ealjseulated to profit, it

    is-not concerned with the Norm (i. e. the Dhamma) , it does

    not redound even to the elements of right conduct, nor to

    detachment, nor to purification from lusts, nor to quietude,

    nor to the tranquillisation of heart, nor to real knowledge^,

    nor to the insight ( of the higher stages of path), nor to

    Nirvina. Therefore it is that I expressed no opinion upon it."1

    In the Brahmajala Jiutta Buddha refers to sixty-

    two views out of which eighteen are regarding the past, and

    forty-four are regarding the ftetuae. its they are similar to

    the views expressed in these ten question it Is necessary to

    give a brief account of them.

    Sasvatavada

    Among the eighteen views regarding the past,

    some hold that the soul and the world are eternal. The four

    grounds, on which they hold so, are already explained

    above in the exposition of Sasvatavada.

    Sasvata - A sasvatavada s. . . . .. . .

    Then there is the view of those who are eternalists

    with regard to some things and are tefon-eternalists with regard

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    to others. The y also, on four grounds, main tain that n the

    soul and the world are partly eternal and partly not'*.

    '* Th ere comes a time wh en sooner or later, after

    the lapse of a long long period this wor ld system passes away.

    And when this happens, beings have mostly been reborn in the

    wo rld of Radiance and there they dwell, made of mind; f eeding

    on joy, radiating light from themselves , traversing the air,

    continu ing in glory, and thus they rema in for a long long

    period of time.

    How, there comes also a time whe n sooner or later,

    this worl d system begins to re-evolve. Wh en this happens, the

    Palace 8f Brah ma appears, but it is empty. And some being or

    other, eith er because his span of years has expire d or his

    merit is exhausted, falls from that world of Radiance, and

    comes to life in the Palace 8f Brahma. And there he also

    lives, made df mind, feeding on joy, radiating light^from

    himself, traversing the air, continuing in glory and thus does

    he rema in for a long long time. Ho w there arises in hi m from

    his dwelling there so long alone, a dissatisfaction and a

    longing t '* 0 would that other beings mig ht come to joi n

    me in this place f.* And just then, either because their span

    of years has expired or the ir merit is exhausted, other beings

    fall fro m the world of Radiance and appear in the place of

    Br ah ma as companions to him and in all respects like him.'*

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    ** On this, brethers, the one who was first

    reborn, thinks thus to himself s'* I am Brahma, the

    Great Brahma, Supreme one, the Mighty, the All-seeing,

    the Ruler, the lord of all, the Maker, the Creator,

    the Chief of all? appointing to each his place, the

    Ancient of his days, the father of all that are and are

    to be^these other beings are of my ereation. And why is

    that so ? A while ago, I thought, ** Would that they might

    come . And on ngr mental asjpiration. behold that beings

    came.**

    '* And those beings themselves, too think thus:

    '* This must be Brahma, the Great Brahma, the Supreme, the

    mighty, the All-seeing, the Ruler, the Lord of all, the

    Maker, the creator, the Chief of all^ appointing to each

    his place,' the ancient of days, the Father of all that

    are and are to be . And we must have been created by him.

    And why ? Because as we see, it was he who was here first

    and we came after that**.

    nOn this, brethren, the one, who first came

    in to existence, is of longer life, and more glorious,

    and more powerful than those who appeared after him. And

    it might well be, hrethren^that some being, on his falling

    from that state should come hither. And having come hither

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    he might go forth from the household s tate to the homeless

    s t a te . And having thu s become a re c lu se , he by reas on

    o f a rd o u r o r e x e r t io n o f a p p l ic a t io n y a f e a rn e s tn e s s , 6 f

    -ca re fu l thoug ht , reaches up to such rap ture o f h e a r t , th a t ,

    rap t in h e a r t , he c a l l s to mind h i s l a s t dwe l ling p la ce , ,

    bu t not th e p revious o n es. He says to h im s e lf , ** That

    i l l u s t r io u s Brahma, the Great Brahma, the su pre m e. . . . the

    ch ie f o f a l l , appo in t ing to each h i s p lace the Anc ien t o f

    e>yi\da ys , the F ath er of a l l th a t a re and are to be by when we

    were cr ea ted , he is s te a d fa s t , iTmautable, e te rn a l , of a

    na ture th a t knows no change, and he w il l remain so fo r eve*?

    and e v e r. But we, who have been c re a te d by him have come

    h i th e r , as be ing impermanent, m utable , l im i ted in du ra t io n

    o f l i f e . 1*

    ** T h i s i s t h e f i r s t s t a t e , s t a r t i n g o ut o f w h ic h,

    some re c lu se s and brahmaijas, being E te rn a li s ts as to some

    th in g s and N o n -E te rn a l is t s a s t o o th e r s , m a in t a in t h a t th e

    so ul and the whole world a re parlor e te rn a l and pa rt ly no t*.

    In the second s ta te , some gods c al le d the ** D eW -

    W u^ he d by pleasure** ( HqflW T ) come

    h i th e r on t h e i r f a l l i n g from th e fo rme r s t a t e . Here a s i n

    the f i r s t ea se , they become rec lu ses and acqu ire the power

    o f r e c o l le c t in g t h e i r l a s t b i r t h , b ut o nly t h e l a s t o ne .

    And one such would say to h im se lf : " Those gods who a re

    not debauched by p lea su re , a re s te a d fa s t , *immutable ,

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    e te rn a l, of a natu re th a t knows no change and they w il l remain

    so fo r ever and ev er . But we who f e l l from th a t s ta te , having

    lo st our sd lf- c o n tr o l, though being debauehed by pleasu re -

    we have come h ith e r as being impermanent, mutable, lim ite d

    in durat ion of l i fe ." '

    i In the th ir d case , the gods, Debauched in Mind'*

    ( JB*. i l p W W ) on fa l l in g from th e ir former

    s ta te , come h ith e r and having become re c lu se s, shou ld, as\

    in the othe r cases, acquire the power of reco llec ting the

    las# b ir th but only the l a s t one. And such a one th ink s to

    himself in the same way, th a t the sd gods who are not debaucheda i

    in mind do not co n tinu ity burn w ith envy aga ins t each oth er ,

    . so th e ir hea rts do not become evil-dispo sed^o ne^ towards

    oth er s , nor th e ir bodies feeble and th e ir minds im bec ile.

    Therefore they f a l l not from th a t sta te ; they are steadf a s t ; immutable, e te rn a l, of a natu re th a t knows no change

    and they w il l remain so fo r ever and ev er. Itat we were

    corrup ted in mind and f e l l from th a t s ta te and have come

    h ith e r being impermanent, immutable, lim ited in du ratio n

    of l i f e . 1*'

    In the fourth case some Sramana and Brahmana is

    add icted to lo gic and reasoning . He gives utte ran ce to the

    follow ing conec lusion of hi s own, bea ten out by h is arguments

    and based on so ph istr y . This which is ca lled eye and ea r

    and nose, and tongue, and body is a s e lf whieh is impermanent,

    u n sta b le, not e te rn a l, subject to change. But th is which

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    i s c a l l ed he a r t , o r mind, o r consciousness i s a s e l f which

    is permanent, s t e a d fa st , e te rn a l and knows no change and

    i t w i l l r ema in fo r e v e r an# fo r e v e r " .

    In these fo ur ways, the re clu se s and Brlhmaijas

    who a re sem i-E tem ai l s t s m a in ta in th a t the sou l and the world

    are in some resp ec ts e te rn a l and in some, n o t" . (D ia l , of

    Buddha p. 30-35).

    Santa- Anantavada :-

    There are E x ten slo n ists who in fou r ways se t

    f o r t h t h e i n f i n i t y o r th e f i n i te n e s s o f th e w o rld .

    Some re c lu se o r Brahmana, by means of ard o u r,

    o f e x e r t i o n , o f a p p l i c a t i o n , o f e a r n e s t n e s s , o f c a r e f u l

    thou gh t , reaches up to such rap ture o f h e a r t , dw e l ls^ in

    the w or ld , imagin ing i t f in i t e and he says thus to h imse l f :

    " F in i te Is the world so th a t a pa th could be t race d round

    i t . And why is th is so ? S inc e, I , by means of ar d o u r,

    o f e x e r t i o n , .................. . can reach up to such rapture of h e a r t ,

    t h a t r a p t i n h e a r t , I d w e l l i n t h e w o rld p e rc e iv in g i t t obe f i n i t e - by th a t I know t h i s . '* T h is i s th e f i r s t case

    th e seco nd c as e a l s o i s s im i la r t o t h i s , d i f f e r i n g o nly

    in conc lus ion which runs thus : In f in i t e i s the w or ld ,

    w ithou t a l im it . Thdse rec lu se s and Brahma^as who say i t

    i s f i n i t e , so t h a t a p a th c ou ld be t r a c e d round i t , a r e

    wrong.*,

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    The third case is also similar, save that the

    conclusion there is that he imagines the world limited in

    the upward and downward directions but infinite across,

    and the person declares both the former conclusions to. be

    xtfrong.*

    In the fourth case, some recluse or Brahmana

    is addicted to logic and reasoning. He gives utterance to

    the following conclusion of his own \ beaten out by his

    arguments and based on his Sophistry : '* This world is

    neither finite nor yet infinite. Those recluses and Brahma-

    nas who maintain either the first or the second, or the

    third conclusion are wrong, neither is the world finite

    nor is it infinite16. (Dial of the Buddha p. 35,36).

    These are the eight views regarding the past.

    Then there are forty four views regarding the future. Among

    them, those who hold the doctrine of a conscious existence

    after death maintain it in sixteen "ways, that the soul

    after death is. conscious . They say thus of the soul1*. The

    soul after death, not subject to decay and conscious, Cl)

    tphas form, (2) is formless, (3) has and has not form,(4)-

    ^neither has form, nor has not form, (5) is finite, (6) is

    infinite, (7) is both} (8) is neither, (9) has one mode

    of consciousness.(lo) has various modes of consciousness1 S*

    (11) has limited consciousness,(12) has infinite consciousness^

    (13) is altogether happy?(14) is altogether1 miserable, (15)-

    both (16) is neither.

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    .300 Then there are the recluses and Brahmanas, who in

    eight ways maintain that the soul after death is unconscious

    They say thus of the soul : n The soul, after death, not

    subject to decay and unconsciousness (1) has form (2) is

    formless (3) has and has not form (4) neither has nor

    has not form (5) is finite (6) is infinite (7) is both

    (8) is neither. 1

    Similarly there are those recluses and Brahmanas

    who maintain in these dame eight ways that the soul after death

    is neither conscious nor unconscious.

    Then there are Annihilationalists who in seven

    ways maintain the cutting off, the destruction, the anni

    hilation of a living being. This same is the view of the

    Ucchedavadins, which we have discussed above.

    So also there are the -wrigglers?? who, when

    asked, wriggle like eels and do not give a definite answer

    in the affirmative or in the negative. Then there are some

    views regarding the doctrine of happiness In this life and

    regarding complete Salvation etc., of which we need not give

    details as they are not quite similar to the views we have

    to ddal with.

    We find in the Brahmajala sutta all these views

    in detail. All are called extremists, who hold extreme views,

    e. g. - the world is eternal, or that the world is non-eternal

    and so on.

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    ' Qfii

    Buddha himself never suggests any solution to

    the disputed problems. For him, all the|e were equally

    heretical views. The relationship between these views and

    heretical views given in the Nyaya Sutras will be examined

    later on.

    The fifth and the sixth questions pertain to

    the Taj j ivataccharlravada. Buddha hardly gives any details

    regarding it but we shall see that the Jaina canonical

    literature treats it at length and while dealing with it,

    we will show the characteristics of this view there.

    The last four views are also mentioned in the

    Majjhima Nikaya (3.2), and in the Samyutta Nikaya, 16.12,

    22. 86, 44. 1.

    In the Potthapada Sutta Buddha explains why he

    does not answer these questions. So also in the Cula

    MSlunkya Sutta in the Majjhima Nikaya (2.13), he says that

    it is not so that only after one forms a belief in the

    eternity or non eternity of the world that righteous conduct

    (brahmacarlyavaso) is possible. Buddha then declares that

    it is not on the truth of any of these alternatives that the

    practice of religious life depends.** There is still birth,

    there is old age, there is death, grief, lamentation,

    suffering, sorrow and despair of which I preach the destruction

    1even in this present life**.

    1. Majjhima Nikaya 2.2.3.

    I

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    Therefore, he asks his disciples to hear in mind,

    what he has not determined, as undetermined. And why did

    Buddha not say anything about these problems ? The answer

    he himself gives is that he did so because ** these are not

    useful, are not concerned with the principle of religious

    life, ant do. hot tend to revulsion, absence of passion,

    cessation, tranquility, insight, enlightenment, and

    1 - Nirvana.'*'

    In the same breath, Vatsagotra asks Buddha if

    he accepts any of the ten views which were then in vogue.

    The Buddha says that the view that the world is eternal is

    a false one and it is not useful for the final emaneipation. ,

    Then the Buddha says the same thing as regards the view that

    the world is non-eternal, that it is finite, that it is/

    infinite, that the soul is different from the body.

    InMajjhim Nik ay a (2.22). Buddha giving an example

    explains to Vafesagotra that the body with which one might define

    a Tathagata, passes away, is cut off the roof, uprooted like

    a palm^ree, made non-existent, not liable to rise again in

    the future. A Tathagata (soul) released from what is called

    body etc. is profound, immeasurable, hard to fathdm, like

    the great ocean. It does not fit in With the case to say

    that he is reborn or not reborn or both reborn and not reborn

    or .neither reborn nor not reborn.**

    1. Majjhima Nikaya, 2.22

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    fhe Majjhim Nikaya (3.2) ( Ncxiq gctf ) gives

    different views regarding the condition of the soul after

    ddath. The views regarding the eternity or non-eternity

    of the soul and the world, regarding the finiteness of the

    world etc. etc., are also given there. But they need not

    be mentioned here as they are treated in almost the same way,

    as described earlier.

    The Khuddaka Nikaya and the Dhammasangani also

    .mention these views (ditthis^.

    Tn the Samyutta Nikaya 92.5, Vatsa asks Buddha,

    why some hold that the world is eternal or that it is non

    eternal and so on. Buddha explaining this to him, says

    that, those people regard Rupa to be the soul, soul as

    being endowed with Rupay soul as being in the rupa.- This is

    the case with Vedana, samjna, samskara and njnana also.

    This is^ why when asked, they state that the soul and the

    world are eternal,

    _ 2The Samyutta Nikaya describes each of their views

    in a separate Sutta. And then, in 33.1, it is stated that

    because of rupa because of Vedahi, because of Samjna,

    1. cf. Kuddakanikaya Pali, p. 142.

    and Dhammasangani pali, pp. 247, 262, 272 &285.

    2. Samyutta Nikaya 24.10-24-96).

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