Hazardous Waste Hazardous Waste ManagementManagement

CEV 414 ECEV 414 E

Every year, billions of tons of solid wastes are Every year, billions of tons of solid wastes are discarded into our environment. These wastes range discarded into our environment. These wastes range in nature from common household trash to complex in nature from common household trash to complex materials in industrial wastes, range in nature from materials in industrial wastes, range in nature from common household trash to complex materials in common household trash to complex materials in industrial wastes, such as hospitals and laboratories. industrial wastes, such as hospitals and laboratories.

Waste is defined as 'any material that are no longer Waste is defined as 'any material that are no longer desired and has no current or substance that has been desired and has no current or substance that has been discarded or otherwise designated as a waste material, discarded or otherwise designated as a waste material, or one that may become hazardous by interaction or one that may become hazardous by interaction with other substances with other substances

Hazardous waste may either be in the form of solid, liquid, Hazardous waste may either be in the form of solid, liquid, semi-solid or contained gaseous material (UNEP 1982). semi-solid or contained gaseous material (UNEP 1982).

Turkey had also extricated several catastrophes similar to Turkey had also extricated several catastrophes similar to other countries. other countries.

In 1970, hazardous wastes were imported to be utilized as a In 1970, hazardous wastes were imported to be utilized as a fuel from foreign countries. People were unaware of the fuel from foreign countries. People were unaware of the adverse effects of the gas formed through burning. adverse effects of the gas formed through burning.

In 1980 a ship named unaware of the adverse effects of the gas In 1980 a ship named unaware of the adverse effects of the gas formed through burning. In 1980 a ship named Petersberg had formed through burning. In 1980 a ship named Petersberg had spent 2 moths in Marmara and Black sea to discharge its spent 2 moths in Marmara and Black sea to discharge its wastes wastes

It was not the legislation’s or governmental acts but the common It was not the legislation’s or governmental acts but the common sense of people that terminated the improper actions. sense of people that terminated the improper actions.

Great number of fish and other living organisms were found Great number of fish and other living organisms were found dead at the sea shore of Marmara Sea between Kartal and dead at the sea shore of Marmara Sea between Kartal and Kadıköy region. Kadıköy region.

Drums that were full of hazardous waste were found in Black Drums that were full of hazardous waste were found in Black Sea near Samsun. Sea near Samsun.

Hekimbaşı uncontrolled landfill area was exploded and 40 Hekimbaşı uncontrolled landfill area was exploded and 40 people died in Istanbul. people died in Istanbul.

A gold mine project, which used cyanide extraction and A gold mine project, which used cyanide extraction and proposed waste dam is still being problem to make proposed waste dam is still being problem to make Environmental Impact Assessment Report due to lacking in Environmental Impact Assessment Report due to lacking in regulations and their enforcements. Growing concern about the regulations and their enforcements. Growing concern about the environment in Turkey has focused attention in recent years on environment in Turkey has focused attention in recent years on the need for vigorous Government action. the need for vigorous Government action.

In consequence, substantial administrative measures have been In consequence, substantial administrative measures have been introduced to improve the environmental concern and to provide a more introduced to improve the environmental concern and to provide a more efficient and rational basis for the management of wastes from all sources.efficient and rational basis for the management of wastes from all sources.

In 1995 Control of Hazardous Waste legislation has been passed to In 1995 Control of Hazardous Waste legislation has been passed to provide a control over wastes that are generated (Control of Hazardous provide a control over wastes that are generated (Control of Hazardous Waste Regulation-27.08.1995).Waste Regulation-27.08.1995).

The Control of Hazardous Waste Legislation of Turkey has been based The Control of Hazardous Waste Legislation of Turkey has been based on the idea of regulatory approach of EPA. The Turkish legislation then on the idea of regulatory approach of EPA. The Turkish legislation then becomes a reproduction of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act becomes a reproduction of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). (RCRA).

Studies have not been made to see whether the legislation is suitable for Studies have not been made to see whether the legislation is suitable for Turkey or not. Thus the legislation cannot be carried out to protect Turkey or not. Thus the legislation cannot be carried out to protect environment due to inappropriate technical evaluations, misplaced environment due to inappropriate technical evaluations, misplaced definition of effects, contradictions and intersections among the lists in definition of effects, contradictions and intersections among the lists in terms of criteria, source, characteristics, as well as subjective descriptions. terms of criteria, source, characteristics, as well as subjective descriptions. Practices which will lead to environmental protection legislation's have to Practices which will lead to environmental protection legislation's have to be based on political proposals, project planning as well as legal be based on political proposals, project planning as well as legal alterations for their ease of applicability. alterations for their ease of applicability.

ClassificationClassification Classification with Respect to CharacteristicsClassification with Respect to Characteristics Solid waste has to be examined whether it exhibits a Solid waste has to be examined whether it exhibits a

characteristic that makes it hazardous. characteristic that makes it hazardous. AAllll persons who generate a solid waste have to persons who generate a solid waste have to

ascertain whether their wastes exhibit one or more of ascertain whether their wastes exhibit one or more of the characteristics as follows: Ignitability, the characteristics as follows: Ignitability, Corrosivity, Reactivity, Toxicity (Hall and others Corrosivity, Reactivity, Toxicity (Hall and others 1993, UNEP 1983, EPA 1990a). 1993, UNEP 1983, EPA 1990a).

IgnitabilityIgnitability The hazardous waste characteristic of ignitability was The hazardous waste characteristic of ignitability was

established to identify solid wastes capable during established to identify solid wastes capable during routine handling of causing a fire, or provoking a fire routine handling of causing a fire, or provoking a fire once started. once started.

A solid waste is deemed to exhibit the characteristics A solid waste is deemed to exhibit the characteristics of ignitability if meets one of the four descriptions. It of ignitability if meets one of the four descriptions. It is determined using the test method specified in is determined using the test method specified in ASTM Standard D-93- 79 or ASTM Standard D-ASTM Standard D-93- 79 or ASTM Standard D-3278 (EP A 1990a, DEPE 1992, Meyer 1989). 3278 (EP A 1990a, DEPE 1992, Meyer 1989).

CorrosivityCorrosivity Corrosive substances may exhibit extremes of acidity Corrosive substances may exhibit extremes of acidity

or basicity or a tendency to corrode steel. Wastes or basicity or a tendency to corrode steel. Wastes capable of corroding metal could escape their own capable of corroding metal could escape their own containers and liberate other wastes. containers and liberate other wastes.

In addition, wastes with a pH at either the high or low In addition, wastes with a pH at either the high or low end of the scale can harm human tissue and aquatic end of the scale can harm human tissue and aquatic life and may react dangerously with other wastes. It is life and may react dangerously with other wastes. It is determined using the test method specified in EP A determined using the test method specified in EP A 600/ 4- 79-020. 600/ 4- 79-020.

ReactivityReactivity Reactive substances are those, which are extremely Reactive substances are those, which are extremely

unstable and have a tendency to undergo violent unstable and have a tendency to undergo violent chemical change or explode during stages of its chemical change or explode during stages of its management. management.

The regulation lists several situations where this may The regulation lists several situations where this may happen which guarantee specific consideration like the happen which guarantee specific consideration like the behavior of the substance when mixed with water, behavior of the substance when mixed with water, when heated etc. Instead of developing a precise when heated etc. Instead of developing a precise scientific description of this characteristic, EPA has scientific description of this characteristic, EPA has publicized a descriptive, prose definition as a suitable publicized a descriptive, prose definition as a suitable test protocols for measuring reactivity are unavailable test protocols for measuring reactivity are unavailable (EPA 1990a, 1990b, Meyer 1989). (EPA 1990a, 1990b, Meyer 1989).

ToxicityToxicity One of the most significant dangers posed by hazardous One of the most significant dangers posed by hazardous

wastes is the leaching of toxic constituents (of land disposed wastes is the leaching of toxic constituents (of land disposed wastes) into the ground water (Christensen 1971, EPA wastes) into the ground water (Christensen 1971, EPA 1981). 1981).

EPA designed the (Toxicity Characteristic) TC Toxicity, to EPA designed the (Toxicity Characteristic) TC Toxicity, to identify wastes that pose a threat to human health or the identify wastes that pose a threat to human health or the environment resulting from ground water contamination by environment resulting from ground water contamination by simulating the leaching process that occurs in a municipal simulating the leaching process that occurs in a municipal landfill. landfill.

EP A treats mixtures of a characteristic hazardous waste and EP A treats mixtures of a characteristic hazardous waste and a solid waste differently than it does a mixture of a listed a solid waste differently than it does a mixture of a listed hazardous and solid waste. Toxicity can be determined by hazardous and solid waste. Toxicity can be determined by fish bioassay tests. Toxicity value defined by LC50. fish bioassay tests. Toxicity value defined by LC50.

The LC50 for a contaminant is the concentration being The LC50 for a contaminant is the concentration being lethal to 50 per cent of an exposed population of test fish lethal to 50 per cent of an exposed population of test fish with a given time. For estimation of with a given time. For estimation of LCso LCso values, various values, various procedures using different test species and experimental procedures using different test species and experimental conditions can be found in literatureconditions can be found in literature

(EPA 1990a, 1990b, OECD 1982, Council on (EPA 1990a, 1990b, OECD 1982, Council on Environmental Quality 1971, Manahan 1990). Environmental Quality 1971, Manahan 1990).

The entire volume of a mixed waste is treated as The entire volume of a mixed waste is treated as hazardous if; the listed hazardous waste in the mixture hazardous if; the listed hazardous waste in the mixture was not listed separately due to its hazardous was not listed separately due to its hazardous characteristics or mixture does not consist of certain characteristics or mixture does not consist of certain specified hazardous wastes. specified hazardous wastes.

Building Up Criteria to Define Hazardous WasteBuilding Up Criteria to Define Hazardous Waste Waste can have the potential of being hazardous due to; Waste can have the potential of being hazardous due to;

substances present in the waste, their concentration, their substances present in the waste, their concentration, their chemical reactivity, physical form in which the substances chemical reactivity, physical form in which the substances are present, quantity and recurrent rate of arising of are present, quantity and recurrent rate of arising of potentially hazardous material, mobility and persistence of potentially hazardous material, mobility and persistence of the potentially hazardous materials in the environment in the potentially hazardous materials in the environment in which they are placed, targets available in that environment which they are placed, targets available in that environment and their vulnerability to the potentially hazardous and their vulnerability to the potentially hazardous materials, possibility of remedial measures and their costs.materials, possibility of remedial measures and their costs.

The short-term acute and long-term environmentally The short-term acute and long-term environmentally hazardous properties of a waste are a function of the hazardous properties of a waste are a function of the chemical species present. In some cases, wastes have well-chemical species present. In some cases, wastes have well-defined dangerous properties and are unequivocally defined dangerous properties and are unequivocally hazardous. Such wastes generally result from the use of hazardous. Such wastes generally result from the use of commonly encountered chemical compounds. The majority commonly encountered chemical compounds. The majority of wastes considered, however are likely to be complex of wastes considered, however are likely to be complex mixtures, which do not readily lend themselves to chemical mixtures, which do not readily lend themselves to chemical characterization (UNEP 1982, EPA 1990a, 1990b, Hall and characterization (UNEP 1982, EPA 1990a, 1990b, Hall and others 1993). others 1993).

CompositionComposition Concerning the composition of the waste, the Concerning the composition of the waste, the

individual components of a waste should be known individual components of a waste should be known before a complete assessment of its hazard potential before a complete assessment of its hazard potential is made. is made.

This knowledge however is often very difficult and This knowledge however is often very difficult and may be impossible in practical terms, particularly for may be impossible in practical terms, particularly for solid wastes. To demand, either directly or by solid wastes. To demand, either directly or by implication, that all waste be analyzed for all implication, that all waste be analyzed for all potentially hazardous species is quite impractical potentially hazardous species is quite impractical (UNEP 1982). (UNEP 1982).

Physical FormPhysical Form Three major categories of wastes based upon their physical Three major categories of wastes based upon their physical

forms are; forms are; organic materialsorganic materials, , aqueous waste aqueous waste and and sludge sludge (UNEP (UNEP 1982). 1982).

These forms largely determine the course of action taken in These forms largely determine the course of action taken in treating and disposing of the wastes.treating and disposing of the wastes.

It is relatively easy to deal with wastes that are not mixed with It is relatively easy to deal with wastes that are not mixed with other kinds of wastes. The physical form of the waste as relevant other kinds of wastes. The physical form of the waste as relevant to a consideration of both potential acute or long-term to a consideration of both potential acute or long-term environmental hazards. environmental hazards.

In general, liquid or sludge waste is more liable to cause water In general, liquid or sludge waste is more liable to cause water pollution problems than is solid waste. Where an inhalation pollution problems than is solid waste. Where an inhalation hazard exists, as with asbestos, fibrous waste is inherently more hazard exists, as with asbestos, fibrous waste is inherently more dangerous than is matrix-bonded asbestos waste, e.g. asbestos dangerous than is matrix-bonded asbestos waste, e.g. asbestos cement. Small particle size by itself may confer hazard on a cement. Small particle size by itself may confer hazard on a material that is non- hazardous in larger pieces; many finely material that is non- hazardous in larger pieces; many finely divided metals are acutely hazardous while the massive material divided metals are acutely hazardous while the massive material is harmless. is harmless.

Solids formed by cooling from the molten state may often have Solids formed by cooling from the molten state may often have their potential hazard much reduced, e.g. metal slags are often their potential hazard much reduced, e.g. metal slags are often considered non-hazardous despite often relatively high considered non-hazardous despite often relatively high concentrations of toxic metals (UNEP 1982). concentrations of toxic metals (UNEP 1982).

QuantityQuantity The quantity of the waste and its recurrent rate of arising The quantity of the waste and its recurrent rate of arising

are important. The handling and disposal of a few hundred are important. The handling and disposal of a few hundred kilograms of a particular waste as and isolated arising may kilograms of a particular waste as and isolated arising may demand totally different solution to the disposal of similar demand totally different solution to the disposal of similar material arising on a regular basis in quantities, which material arising on a regular basis in quantities, which may be orders of magnitude greater or smaller. may be orders of magnitude greater or smaller.

Some countries have introduced requirements that a waste Some countries have introduced requirements that a waste must be present at more than a predefined minimum must be present at more than a predefined minimum quantity before it is considered hazardous. This approach quantity before it is considered hazardous. This approach is administratively convenient as it reduces the amount of is administratively convenient as it reduces the amount of paperwork associated with the regulatory process, but has paperwork associated with the regulatory process, but has certain dangers (UNEP 1982). certain dangers (UNEP 1982).

The potential for environmental damage at a waste The potential for environmental damage at a waste disposal site is c1early related not only to the concentration disposal site is c1early related not only to the concentration of the substance released but also to the total quantity of the substance released but also to the total quantity released at a given time (Kolaczkowski and Crittenden released at a given time (Kolaczkowski and Crittenden 1987, Exner 1 989).1987, Exner 1 989).

Acute HazardAcute Hazard The acute hazard posed by the waste may be The acute hazard posed by the waste may be

expressed in terms of oral, inhalation or dermal expressed in terms of oral, inhalation or dermal toxicity, flashpoint, explosivity, concentration of toxicity, flashpoint, explosivity, concentration of known corrosive species, etc. Physical characteristics, known corrosive species, etc. Physical characteristics, such as vapor pressure and boiling point, may be such as vapor pressure and boiling point, may be important. important.

To avoid dangerous interactions with co-deposited To avoid dangerous interactions with co-deposited materials, highly reactive materials, e.g. powerful materials, highly reactive materials, e.g. powerful oxidants, should also be considered. However, unless oxidants, should also be considered. However, unless toxicity tests are performed on the waste itself, acute toxicity tests are performed on the waste itself, acute hazards posed by the waste can only be predicted by hazards posed by the waste can only be predicted by the hazards of its components. the hazards of its components.

Long-term HazardLong-term Hazard The long-term hazard posed by the waste will depend The long-term hazard posed by the waste will depend

upon the chosen disposal route. upon the chosen disposal route. For example, such properties as volatility, water For example, such properties as volatility, water

solubility and solubility in organic chemicals will solubility and solubility in organic chemicals will influence the mobility of wastes deposited in landfill. influence the mobility of wastes deposited in landfill. The persistence of a particular material will depend The persistence of a particular material will depend upon its vulnerabİ1İty to various natural breakdown upon its vulnerabİ1İty to various natural breakdown mechanisms like microbiological, photochemical, mechanisms like microbiological, photochemical, oxidation/reduction, etc. oxidation/reduction, etc.

The toxicity of a deposited material and its The toxicity of a deposited material and its metabolites and organoleptic factors, such as taste metabolites and organoleptic factors, such as taste and smell, are relevant.and smell, are relevant.

Exclusive List of Hazardous Wastes.Exclusive List of Hazardous Wastes. One alterative approach to the problem of adequately One alterative approach to the problem of adequately

defining what constitutes a hazardousdefining what constitutes a hazardous waste is to draw up a list of known wastes, which waste is to draw up a list of known wastes, which

present no significant short-term handling or long-present no significant short-term handling or long-term environmental hazards, and to define hazardous term environmental hazards, and to define hazardous waste by exclusion, as any wastes not listed.waste by exclusion, as any wastes not listed.

While one advantage of the exclusive list approach is While one advantage of the exclusive list approach is that it is relatively simple to ensure that the listed that it is relatively simple to ensure that the listed materials are not hazardous, materials not listed and, materials are not hazardous, materials not listed and, marginally so. In addition, when reliance is placed marginally so. In addition, when reliance is placed upon qualitative, subjective criteria, different upon qualitative, subjective criteria, different interpretations will inevitably possible. interpretations will inevitably possible.

Thus, waste producers, waste disposers and Thus, waste producers, waste disposers and regulatory authorities are denied the certainty they regulatory authorities are denied the certainty they need.need.

Inciusive List of H azardouInciusive List of H azardouss‘‘ Wastes Wastes More widely employed for regulatory purposes are listings of More widely employed for regulatory purposes are listings of

hazardous waste, either with or without accompanying hazardous waste, either with or without accompanying criteria. This approach is currently used in Belgium, criteria. This approach is currently used in Belgium, Denmark, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Denmark, France, the Federal Republic of Germany, the Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom and the United Netherlands, Sweden, United Kingdom and the United States. States.

The lists comprise wastes from certain industries, wastes The lists comprise wastes from certain industries, wastes containing specific components or specific waste streams containing specific components or specific waste streams identified by the processes from which they originate. The identified by the processes from which they originate. The United States also uses this approach but combines it with United States also uses this approach but combines it with prescribed test procedures, such that hazardous wastes are prescribed test procedures, such that hazardous wastes are so defined by their presence in a list of waste materials or so defined by their presence in a list of waste materials or providing certain results when subjected to the test protocol providing certain results when subjected to the test protocol (EP A 1980, EP A 1990a, 1990b, Hall and others 1993).(EP A 1980, EP A 1990a, 1990b, Hall and others 1993).

The inclusive list offers a greater degree of certainty but The inclusive list offers a greater degree of certainty but suffers from the disadvantage that exclusions may well be suffers from the disadvantage that exclusions may well be significantly hazardous. The greater the degree of specificity, significantly hazardous. The greater the degree of specificity, the more the list approaches catalogue proportions (UNEP the more the list approaches catalogue proportions (UNEP 1983).1983).

§ 261.31 Hazardous wastes from non-specific sources.

F001 .. The following spent halogenated solvents used in degreasing: Tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene, methylene chloride, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, carbon tetrachloride, and chlorinated fluorocarbons; all spent solvent mixtures/blends used in degreasing containing, before use, a total of ten percent or more (by volume) of one or more of the above halogenated solvents or those solvents listed in F002, F004, and F005; and still bottoms from the recovery of these spent solvents and spent solvent mixtures. (T)

F006 ... Wastewater treatment sludges from electroplating operations except from the following processes: (1) Sulfuric acid anodizing of aluminum; (2) tin plating on carbon steel; (3) zinc plating (segregated basis) on carbon steel; (4) aluminum or zinc-aluminum plating on carbon steel; (5) cleaning/stripping associated with tin, zinc and aluminum plating on carbon steel; and (6) chemical etching and milling of aluminum. (T)

§ 261.32 Hazardous wastes from specific sources.Wood preservation: K001 ...... Bottom sediment sludge from the treatment

of wastewaters from wood preservingprocesses that use creosote and/or pentachlorophenol.(T)

Inorganic pigments:K002 .......Wastewater treatment sludge from the

production of chrome yellow and orange pigments.(T)

K003 ..... Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of molybdate orange pigments ...... (T)

K004 ..... Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of zinc yellow pigments ................. (T)

K005 ...... Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of chrome green pigments ............ (T)

K006 ...... Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of chrome oxide green pigments (anhydrous and hydrated).(T)

K007 .....Wastewater treatment sludge from the production of iron blue pigments ..................... (T)

K008 ......Oven residue from the production of chrome oxide green pigments ............................ (T)

P021 592–01–8 Calcium cyanideP021 592–01–8 Calcium cyanide Ca(CN)2P189 55285–14–8 Carbamic acid, [(dibutylamino)-

thio]methyl-, 2,3-dihydro-2,2-dimethyl- 7-benzofuranyl ester.

P191 644–64–4 Carbamic acid, dimethyl-, 1-[(dimethyl-amino)carbonyl]- 5-methyl-1H- pyrazol-3-yl ester.

P192 119–38–0 Carbamic acid, dimethyl-, 3-methyl-1- (1-methylethyl)-1H- pyrazol-5-yl ester.

P190 1129–41–5 Carbamic acid, methyl-, 3-methylphenyl ester.

P127 1563–66–2 Carbofuran.P022 75–15–0 Carbon disulfideP095 75–44–5 Carbonic dichlorideP189 55285–14–8 Carbosulfan.

U002 67–64–1 Acetone (I)U003 75–05–8 Acetonitrile (I,T)U004 98–86–2 AcetophenoneU005 53–96–3 2-AcetylaminofluoreneU006 75–36–5 Acetyl chloride (C,R,T)U007 79–06–1 AcrylamideU008 79–10–7 Acrylic acid (I)U009 107–13–1 AcrylonitrileU011 61–82–5 AmitroleU012 62–53–3 Aniline (I,T)U136 75–60–5 Arsinic acid, dimethyl-U014 492–80–8 AuramineU015 115–02–6 Azaserine

Management Strategies for Management Strategies for IdentificationIdentification

Management strategies also play an important role in defining a Management strategies also play an important role in defining a hazardous waste. These steps may include; the source of the waste, hazardous waste. These steps may include; the source of the waste, generators, waste transport, waste storage, appropriate treatment generators, waste transport, waste storage, appropriate treatment technologies, Final disposal. technologies, Final disposal.

Once a waste is identified as hazardous, quantities must be tracked. Once a waste is identified as hazardous, quantities must be tracked. In order to identify whether a solid waste is hazardous or not, In order to identify whether a solid waste is hazardous or not, generator should have to refer to lists or various tests. Effective generator should have to refer to lists or various tests. Effective identification and labelling by the generators are essential for identification and labelling by the generators are essential for control. Mismanagement of Hazardous Waste leads to a 'cradle to control. Mismanagement of Hazardous Waste leads to a 'cradle to grave' control system (UNEP 1983). grave' control system (UNEP 1983).

This system regulates the hazardous waste from the time it is first This system regulates the hazardous waste from the time it is first generated through the transport to final treatment or disposal. Some generated through the transport to final treatment or disposal. Some hazardous wastes require special control from the time of generation hazardous wastes require special control from the time of generation through their transportation, temporary storage, treatment and through their transportation, temporary storage, treatment and disposal. disposal.

Hazardous wastes should be identified and disposed Hazardous wastes should be identified and disposed of in a manner that will most effectively protect the of in a manner that will most effectively protect the environment. The quick and dirty approach is still environment. The quick and dirty approach is still employed today by putting wastes in open dumps, employed today by putting wastes in open dumps, landfills or in warehouses. Hazardous wastes can landfills or in warehouses. Hazardous wastes can either be tracked according to the amount that is either be tracked according to the amount that is generated (EPA 1990a, DEPE 1992, Phifer and generated (EPA 1990a, DEPE 1992, Phifer and McTigue 1989):McTigue 1989):

1.Small quantity generators, 2.Large quantity 1.Small quantity generators, 2.Large quantity generatorsgenerators

or can be classified according to their sources:or can be classified according to their sources: Point sources, 2.Diffuse sources.Point sources, 2.Diffuse sources.

Industrial hazardous wastes are a unique problem Industrial hazardous wastes are a unique problem because they are transportable, and pose hazard either because they are transportable, and pose hazard either in short or long term basis. Thus it will be appropriate in short or long term basis. Thus it will be appropriate to further classify the wastes: to further classify the wastes:

Industrial hazardous waste generatorsIndustrial hazardous waste generators Non-industrial hazardous waste generators.Non-industrial hazardous waste generators. Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes have Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) codes have

been employed to identify groups of hazardous waste been employed to identify groups of hazardous waste generators. The office of Management and Budget generators. The office of Management and Budget Manual establishes these codes. Manual establishes these codes.

However in some cases they were found to be However in some cases they were found to be inadequate. The manual and codes do not identify inadequate. The manual and codes do not identify individual facilities or potential generators. They are individual facilities or potential generators. They are often not descriptive or inclusive as is necessary for a often not descriptive or inclusive as is necessary for a complete hazardous waste survey. complete hazardous waste survey.

Collection and TransportCollection and Transport

These play an important role particularly in terms of These play an important role particularly in terms of disposal cycle and in control. disposal cycle and in control.

Most incidents of improper disposal of hazardous Most incidents of improper disposal of hazardous waste have occurred during transport and may result waste have occurred during transport and may result from disposal contracts between the waste generator from disposal contracts between the waste generator and hauler rather than between the waste generator and hauler rather than between the waste generator and disposer. and disposer.

Thus, any reduction of cost for disposal (e.g. by Thus, any reduction of cost for disposal (e.g. by means of improper dumping) will increase the profit means of improper dumping) will increase the profit of waste haulage firm. of waste haulage firm.

Management, Treatment and Management, Treatment and Disposal Disposal

Waste ReductionWaste Reduction Waste sorting and RecyclingWaste sorting and Recycling Waste transfer and Transboundry Waste transfer and Transboundry

movementmovement Energy and Material recoveryEnergy and Material recovery Thermal Processing/ Waste Thermal Processing/ Waste

IncinerationIncineration Ultimate Disposal/ H.W. SitesUltimate Disposal/ H.W. Sites

Physical TreatmentPhysical Treatment

Lagooning and tank storage are Lagooning and tank storage are widely used to seperate oil and water widely used to seperate oil and water from mixed wastesfrom mixed wastes

Solidification fixation processes are Solidification fixation processes are generally used as pretreatment prior generally used as pretreatment prior to landfill disposalto landfill disposal

Air flotation and various filtration and Air flotation and various filtration and centrifugation techniquescentrifugation techniques

Chemical TreatmentChemical Treatment

Cyanide OxidationCyanide Oxidation Heavy Metal PrecipitationHeavy Metal Precipitation Hexavalent Chromium ReductionHexavalent Chromium Reduction Acid neutralizationAcid neutralization

Biological TreatmentBiological Treatment

The in-plant biological treatment of The in-plant biological treatment of dilute aqueous effluents is well dilute aqueous effluents is well established, and m.o. Have been established, and m.o. Have been developed to selectively degrade developed to selectively degrade specific toxic chemicalsspecific toxic chemicals

Composting may also be useful for Composting may also be useful for certain organic chemical productscertain organic chemical products

DisposalDisposal

LandfillLandfill IncinarationIncinaration Dumping at seaDumping at sea Underground disposalUnderground disposal Deep-well disposal Deep-well disposal

Coast of Waste Treatment and Coast of Waste Treatment and DisposalDisposal

Table 4. Cost to Western Europan Chemical Industry for treating and disposing Table 4. Cost to Western Europan Chemical Industry for treating and disposing of waste by different methods : Spring 1979of waste by different methods : Spring 1979 Methods Methods Cost Range Cost Range US $ /tonnesUS $ /tonnes Simple Disposal to land 1-20Simple Disposal to land 1-20 Disposal to land in a site lined with plastic sheet Disposal to land in a site lined with plastic sheet 10-50 10-50 Underground disposal to dropping into old wells or mines 20-150Underground disposal to dropping into old wells or mines 20-150 Land disposal after encapsulation either by mixing the waste 10-Land disposal after encapsulation either by mixing the waste 10-

100100 with cement or other agent or by incarcerating whole drumswith cement or other agent or by incarcerating whole drums in cement in cement Coastal sea dumping from ships or 5-15 Coastal sea dumping from ships or 5-15 Deep-ocean dumping beyond the continental shelf 10-150Deep-ocean dumping beyond the continental shelf 10-150 Simple incineration (without significant heat recovery) Simple incineration (without significant heat recovery) 30-150 30-150 Incineration with alkaline stack scrubbing Incineration with alkaline stack scrubbing 100-350 100-350 Incineration onboard ship at sea Incineration onboard ship at sea 50-35050-350 All types of chemical treatment and, in particular :All types of chemical treatment and, in particular : Destruction of cyanide by hypochlorite Destruction of cyanide by hypochlorite 300-500 300-500 Reduction of chromic acid Reduction of chromic acid 100-300 100-300 Destruction of cyanide (catalytic) Destruction of cyanide (catalytic) 200-500 200-500

WEIGHBRIDGE, ENTRY CONTROL

BASINS FOR LIQUIDS

ENTRY OF CONTAINERS

TANKS FOR LIQUIDS

BASINS FOR SLUDGES

STORAGE OF SOLIDS

CONTAINER CLEANING

DETOXIFICATION NEUTRALIZATIONSEPARATION OF

SOLIDSSEPARATION OF

EMULSIONSDEHYDRATION,

DECANTING

WASTEWATER TREATMENT

FACILITY

TANKS FOR PROCESSES

INCINERATION

LANDFILL

RECYCLING

Hazardous Waste DefinitionHazardous Waste Definition ““Hazardous wasteHazardous waste““ is a/any specialized and listed waste; is a/any specialized and listed waste;

– which has acute or chronic hazard potential described as which has acute or chronic hazard potential described as “Flammable” ,”Toxic”, “Corrosive” and/or “Reactive” criteria,“Flammable” ,”Toxic”, “Corrosive” and/or “Reactive” criteria,

– Which should be managed with all together with the social, Which should be managed with all together with the social, political and economical aspects of the eco-system instead of political and economical aspects of the eco-system instead of convantional tratment and disposal techniques because of its convantional tratment and disposal techniques because of its composition, constituents, physical form, fate and transport in composition, constituents, physical form, fate and transport in the environmentthe environment

– Which may be in forms of solid, liquid, slurry, sludge and Which may be in forms of solid, liquid, slurry, sludge and pressurized gaspressurized gas

– Which may be a/any hazardous substance that has been Which may be a/any hazardous substance that has been discarded or otherwise designated as a waste material, or one discarded or otherwise designated as a waste material, or one that may become hazardous by interaction with other subtances that may become hazardous by interaction with other subtances

A RATING SYSTEM FOR A RATING SYSTEM FOR DETERMINATION OF DETERMINATION OF

HAZARDOUS WASTESHAZARDOUS WASTES

Ilhan Talinli , Rana Yamanturk, Egemen Ilhan Talinli , Rana Yamanturk, Egemen Aydin, Sibel BasakcilardanAydin, Sibel Basakcilardan

Introduction Introduction

Hazardous wastes, the main drawbacks of Hazardous wastes, the main drawbacks of industrialized world, are still keeping their industrialized world, are still keeping their importance because of their potential hazard to importance because of their potential hazard to human health and environment, when human health and environment, when improperly treated, stored, transported and/or improperly treated, stored, transported and/or disposed. disposed.

The unique solution for that kind of wastes is The unique solution for that kind of wastes is to manage and control them from the point of to manage and control them from the point of generation to ultimate disposal. generation to ultimate disposal.

The legislators of each country should create The legislators of each country should create regulations enforcing the safe management of regulations enforcing the safe management of the hazardous waste. the hazardous waste.

These regulations should appoint the hazardous These regulations should appoint the hazardous waste generator as a legal entity who must waste generator as a legal entity who must ensure that the waste is managed in accordance ensure that the waste is managed in accordance with its regulatory standards [1].with its regulatory standards [1].

But a generator who will comply a regulatory But a generator who will comply a regulatory program demands a far more precise definition program demands a far more precise definition of the term “hazardous waste”.of the term “hazardous waste”.

The term “hazardous waste”, originated from US The term “hazardous waste”, originated from US Environmental Protection Agency, does not have Environmental Protection Agency, does not have a unique and universally accepted definition but a unique and universally accepted definition but the identification of hazardous waste in each the identification of hazardous waste in each country is based on the four characteristics 1) country is based on the four characteristics 1) ignitability 2) corrosivity 3) reactivity 4) toxicity ignitability 2) corrosivity 3) reactivity 4) toxicity [2].[2].

Although every country has its own regulatory Although every country has its own regulatory program, the most common violation of the rules, program, the most common violation of the rules, whether willful or inadvertent, is because of the whether willful or inadvertent, is because of the definition of the waste as hazardous waste [3]. definition of the waste as hazardous waste [3].

In most of the countries, the board responsible In most of the countries, the board responsible from the hazardous waste management defines from the hazardous waste management defines the hazardous waste by using two different the hazardous waste by using two different mechanisms (1) by listing (2) by identifying mechanisms (1) by listing (2) by identifying characteristics and these definitions are characteristics and these definitions are commonly based on the Subtitle C of Resource commonly based on the Subtitle C of Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) which is the most extensive study done about which is the most extensive study done about hazardous waste management. hazardous waste management.

Using lists to define hazardous wastes presents Using lists to define hazardous wastes presents certain advantages and disadvantages. certain advantages and disadvantages.

The main advantage is that lists make the hazardous The main advantage is that lists make the hazardous waste identification easier for generators. On the waste identification easier for generators. On the other hand, hazardous waste lists simply can not other hand, hazardous waste lists simply can not include all hazardous wastes. include all hazardous wastes.

Another disadvantage is their lack of flexibility. Lists Another disadvantage is their lack of flexibility. Lists determine a waste as hazardous if it falls within a determine a waste as hazardous if it falls within a particular category or class. particular category or class.

The actual composition of the waste is not considered The actual composition of the waste is not considered as long as the waste is listed. Thus, the lists can as long as the waste is listed. Thus, the lists can regulate some wastes that do not pose a significant regulate some wastes that do not pose a significant health threat or a really hazardous waste may be not health threat or a really hazardous waste may be not found in the lists [4]. found in the lists [4].

Determination of hazardous waste by detecting Determination of hazardous waste by detecting the characteristics of the waste is another the characteristics of the waste is another method which needs proper analyses to define method which needs proper analyses to define the waste as a hazardous waste.the waste as a hazardous waste.

At first, all the hazardous characteristics At first, all the hazardous characteristics including phytotoxicity, teratogenicity, including phytotoxicity, teratogenicity, bioaccumulation, mutagenicity are thought to bioaccumulation, mutagenicity are thought to be in characteristics of the hazardous waste, be in characteristics of the hazardous waste, but because of the difficulties in testing but because of the difficulties in testing protocols of these characteristics mentioned protocols of these characteristics mentioned above EPA decided to use 4 common above EPA decided to use 4 common characteristics to identify the hazardous waste. characteristics to identify the hazardous waste.

Although EPA introduces the test protocols for Although EPA introduces the test protocols for ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity, there ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity, there are still gaps which enable a hazardous waste to be are still gaps which enable a hazardous waste to be determined as conventional waste. determined as conventional waste.

The main gap is seen in toxicity testing, which only The main gap is seen in toxicity testing, which only 43 of the toxic chemicals are subject to the TCLP test 43 of the toxic chemicals are subject to the TCLP test [5]. Thus, if a waste does not bear any of the 43 [5]. Thus, if a waste does not bear any of the 43 chemicals, the waste is not considered as hazardous, chemicals, the waste is not considered as hazardous, which may be a really hazardous waste. which may be a really hazardous waste.

The other example is ignitability which does not have The other example is ignitability which does not have a test method for non-liquid wastes. The gaps for the a test method for non-liquid wastes. The gaps for the determination of the hazard potential of hazardous determination of the hazard potential of hazardous waste mixtures are also noticed and an index is waste mixtures are also noticed and an index is prepared to serve as a guide for people who produce, prepared to serve as a guide for people who produce, store, transport, dispose, recycle and/or regulate store, transport, dispose, recycle and/or regulate hazardous waste [6]. hazardous waste [6].

Although lists and characteristics analyses are nearly Although lists and characteristics analyses are nearly the same in all countries, the differences in the same in all countries, the differences in regulations make the determination subjective which regulations make the determination subjective which creates a serious problem in management of these creates a serious problem in management of these wastes. wastes.

In order to eliminate the subjectiveness of lists and In order to eliminate the subjectiveness of lists and characteristics tests, a quantitative determination characteristics tests, a quantitative determination system is stated in this study. system is stated in this study.

Overall Rating Value (ORV) calculates and quantifies Overall Rating Value (ORV) calculates and quantifies a/any waste as regular (conventional) waste, non-a/any waste as regular (conventional) waste, non-regular (solid) waste or hazardous waste by using regular (solid) waste or hazardous waste by using variables such as Ecological Effect (Ee) (ignitability, variables such as Ecological Effect (Ee) (ignitability, reactivity, corrosivity, toxicity), Combined Potential reactivity, corrosivity, toxicity), Combined Potential Risk (CPR) (carcinogenic effect, toxic characteristics, Risk (CPR) (carcinogenic effect, toxic characteristics, infectious characteristics, persistency), Physical Form infectious characteristics, persistency), Physical Form (f), Listing (L) and Quantity (Q) of the hazardous (f), Listing (L) and Quantity (Q) of the hazardous waste.waste.

Rating System

N

Y

Discarded Material

Hazardous Waste

AssessCPR

ReuseRecycleRecover

Regular Waste

Non-Regular Waste

Y

Y

YHas it hazard criteria?

Y

NWaste

Can it be reused, recovered and/or recycled?

N

Is it defined in your wastewater, municipal solid waste and/or air pollution control regulations?

Hazardous Waste Determination

N

Check H.W. Lists

N

To install the rating system formulation, following assumptions To install the rating system formulation, following assumptions are postulatedare postulated

1. If a/any discarded material has been defined as a/any 1. If a/any discarded material has been defined as a/any waste, the determination of the waste should be done waste, the determination of the waste should be done such as wastewater, municipal solid waste and air such as wastewater, municipal solid waste and air emission. The term “non-regular waste” has been emission. The term “non-regular waste” has been considered as intermediate waste which differentiates considered as intermediate waste which differentiates hazardous and conventional waste defined in hazardous and conventional waste defined in regulations. If a waste is non-regular waste, next step is regulations. If a waste is non-regular waste, next step is determination of hazardous waste. In Equation 1; the determination of hazardous waste. In Equation 1; the component “D” represents the boundary of the non-component “D” represents the boundary of the non-regular waste in the scale. Wastes such as hospital and regular waste in the scale. Wastes such as hospital and radioactive wastes have been neglected in this inquiry radioactive wastes have been neglected in this inquiry because they have their own control regulations and because they have their own control regulations and these wastes are already identified as non-regular these wastes are already identified as non-regular wastes.wastes.

2. Listing methodology of the hazardous 2. Listing methodology of the hazardous waste and their lists published in different waste and their lists published in different countries cannot be neglected, thus the countries cannot be neglected, thus the “L” component is additionally taken into “L” component is additionally taken into account in order to determine hazardous account in order to determine hazardous waste. waste.

3. Ecological effects (Ee) includes 3. Ecological effects (Ee) includes primarily impacts from waste associated primarily impacts from waste associated with their one or more hazard with their one or more hazard characteristics such as toxicity, characteristics such as toxicity, ignitability, corrosivity and reactivity.ignitability, corrosivity and reactivity.

Physical forms of the waste are also Physical forms of the waste are also rated according to behaviors of the waste rated according to behaviors of the waste in nature.in nature.

4. Accumulative and synergistic effects and 4. Accumulative and synergistic effects and uncertain potential risks are included in uncertain potential risks are included in combined potential risk (CPR) parameter. combined potential risk (CPR) parameter.

Components of this parameter are human Components of this parameter are human health toxicity, carcinogenetic effects, health toxicity, carcinogenetic effects, infectious risks, and persistency associated infectious risks, and persistency associated with biodegradability, solubility, and with biodegradability, solubility, and bioaccumulation. bioaccumulation.

Physical forms of the waste and exposure Physical forms of the waste and exposure mode are also taken into account during mode are also taken into account during evaluation of these risks.evaluation of these risks.

5. Four critical components explained above 5. Four critical components explained above are considered as cumulative functions of are considered as cumulative functions of “Overall Rating Value” (ORV) due to the “Overall Rating Value” (ORV) due to the higher values of these components, the higher higher values of these components, the higher ORV.ORV.

On the other hand, the amount of the waste is On the other hand, the amount of the waste is obviously a basic characteristic of the waste in obviously a basic characteristic of the waste in this rating system, thus it should be a this rating system, thus it should be a multiplier of the other components. multiplier of the other components.

Rating system equation (Eq. 1) is composed of Rating system equation (Eq. 1) is composed of a cumulative-linear function coupled with 8 a cumulative-linear function coupled with 8 sub-equation run the points obtained from sub-equation run the points obtained from ranking tables for each parameter ranking tables for each parameter

Model FormulationsModel Formulations ORV = DORV = D ++ LL ++ [Ee +( CPR ) x f][Ee +( CPR ) x f] x Q x Q (1) (1)

Ee = I + C+ R + T Ee = I + C+ R + T (2) (2)

I=iI=inn (3) (3)

C=cC=cnn (4) (4)

R=rR=rnn (5) (5)

T=tT=tnn (6) (6)

CRP = Cr + P + In + Pe CRP = Cr + P + In + Pe (7) (7)

P= pmP= pm (8) (8)

Pe = (Bd )Pe = (Bd )slsl x ( Bac )-1 x ( Bac )-1 (9 (9))

The aim of the proposed formulation is to The aim of the proposed formulation is to quantify the hazard characteristics and to quantify the hazard characteristics and to determine the hazardous wastes with easy and determine the hazardous wastes with easy and understandable numbers in a simple scale. understandable numbers in a simple scale.

Calculated ORVs from Eq. (1) are matched Calculated ORVs from Eq. (1) are matched with range of the “hourglass” scale in order to with range of the “hourglass” scale in order to point whether the waste is regular, non-regular point whether the waste is regular, non-regular or hazardous waste. or hazardous waste.

D is the decision factor that differentiates D is the decision factor that differentiates defined regular waste from undefined wastes. defined regular waste from undefined wastes. The rating values for decision factor are listed The rating values for decision factor are listed in Table 1.in Table 1.

Table 1Table 1

Regulatory definition of the waste D

Undefined waste in certain regulations 50

Defined waste in certain regulations 0

L defines list value of the rating system. L defines list value of the rating system. Knowing the source and composition of the Knowing the source and composition of the waste is an important aspect for determination waste is an important aspect for determination of the hazard characteristics of a waste and of the hazard characteristics of a waste and their listing accordingly. their listing accordingly.

USEPA’s lists depend on both HW from USEPA’s lists depend on both HW from specific source or non-specific source and specific source or non-specific source and discarded commercial chemical products. discarded commercial chemical products. Therefore they are taken as the basis of the Therefore they are taken as the basis of the rating values listed in Table 2 to reflect the rating values listed in Table 2 to reflect the importance of the lists. However, the lists do importance of the lists. However, the lists do not depend on the amount of the waste not depend on the amount of the waste generate generate

Table 2Table 2

Rating Values for Hazardous Waste ListsRating Values for Hazardous Waste Lists

List Type1 List Code1 L

HW from specific sources K 100

HW from Non-Specific sources F 75

Discarded commercial chemical products2 P, U 50

Not listed - 0

Equation 2 expresses the ecological effects Ee in Equation 2 expresses the ecological effects Ee in terms of ignitability I, corrosivity C, reactivity R, and terms of ignitability I, corrosivity C, reactivity R, and toxicity T. toxicity T.

In order to establish dimensionless data, all In order to establish dimensionless data, all parameters are graded in rating value tables, thus the parameters are graded in rating value tables, thus the unit variability is eliminated. “I” is the corrected unit variability is eliminated. “I” is the corrected ignitability value obtained from Eq. (3) in which “i” ignitability value obtained from Eq. (3) in which “i” is the dimensionless ignitability value of the rating is the dimensionless ignitability value of the rating system. Flash point (0C) used to grade “i” values system. Flash point (0C) used to grade “i” values should be determined using the test method specified should be determined using the test method specified in ASTM Standard D-93- 79 or ASTM Standard D-in ASTM Standard D-93- 79 or ASTM Standard D-3278 [7, 8, 9]. “C” is the corrected corrosivity value 3278 [7, 8, 9]. “C” is the corrected corrosivity value obtained from Eq. (4) in which “c” is the obtained from Eq. (4) in which “c” is the dimensionless corrosivity value of the ratingdimensionless corrosivity value of the rating system. system.

The test method specified in EPA A600/4-79-The test method specified in EPA A600/4-79-020 is used to determine corrosivity value 020 is used to determine corrosivity value (mm/yr). Reactive substances which are (mm/yr). Reactive substances which are extremely unstable and have a tendency to extremely unstable and have a tendency to undergo violent chemical change or explode undergo violent chemical change or explode during stages of its management is available during stages of its management is available from descriptive, prose definition which EPA from descriptive, prose definition which EPA has publicized. However, a suitable test has publicized. However, a suitable test protocol is unavailable [7, 9, 10].protocol is unavailable [7, 9, 10].

Referring to this definition reactivity is Referring to this definition reactivity is quantified in Eq 5 where “r” is the quantified in Eq 5 where “r” is the dimensionless reactivity value of the rating dimensionless reactivity value of the rating system. system.

It is necessary to include toxicity since It is necessary to include toxicity since leaching toxic constituents (of land leaching toxic constituents (of land disposed wastes) into the groundwater is disposed wastes) into the groundwater is one of the most significant dangers posed one of the most significant dangers posed by hazardous wastes [11, 12]. by hazardous wastes [11, 12].

Therefore, leaching procedures such as Therefore, leaching procedures such as TCLP and EPT can be used for hazardous TCLP and EPT can be used for hazardous waste in solid and sludge form to obtain waste in solid and sludge form to obtain mobility of the organic and inorganic mobility of the organic and inorganic compounds [13]. compounds [13].

Eq. 6 determines the corrected toxicity value Eq. 6 determines the corrected toxicity value “T” where “t” is the dimensionless toxicity “T” where “t” is the dimensionless toxicity value of the rating system. LC50 value value of the rating system. LC50 value obtained from bioassay test is used to grade obtained from bioassay test is used to grade the toxicity in the rating system. the toxicity in the rating system.

The physical form correction factor “n” The physical form correction factor “n” reflects the effect of the form of the waste on reflects the effect of the form of the waste on the intensity of the hazard criteria. The rating the intensity of the hazard criteria. The rating values of components of ecological effect, values of components of ecological effect, which also prevent unit variability, are shown which also prevent unit variability, are shown in Table 3.in Table 3.

Table3Table3Rating Values for Components of Ecological Rating Values for Components of Ecological EffectsEffects

I C R TForm of the

waste(n)

Flash point1 (C0)

iCorrosivity2

(mm/yr)c Reactivity3 r

LC504

(mg/l)t

<60 40>6.35

or pH<2 and pH>12.5

40

Unstable-readily reactive

40 <0.1 40 G 1.4

60-90 30 Reacts with water 30 0.1-10 30 Lq 1.3

90-120 20Generates cyanide and sulphur gas at pH=2.0, pH=12.5

20 10-100 20 S, SL 1.2

120-200 10 <6.35or

2<pH<12.50

Explodes with water

10100-1000

10 SO 1.1

>200 0 Non-reactive 0 >1000 0

1 Specified by using the test method defined in 1 Specified by using the test method defined in ASTM standard D-3278ASTM standard D-3278

2 Abrasion characteristics at 550 C specified by 2 Abrasion characteristics at 550 C specified by using the test specified in NACE (National using the test specified in NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers) Standard TM-Association of Corrosion Engineers) Standard TM-O1-69.O1-69.

3 There is no suitable test protocols for measuring 3 There is no suitable test protocols for measuring reactivity.reactivity.

4 Extraction procedure (EP), toxicity characteristics 4 Extraction procedure (EP), toxicity characteristics (TC) and toxicity characteristic for leaching (TC) and toxicity characteristic for leaching procedure (TCLP) methods described by EPA. [13]procedure (TCLP) methods described by EPA. [13]

Lq: Liquid, G: Gas, S: Sludge, SL: Slurry, SO: SolidLq: Liquid, G: Gas, S: Sludge, SL: Slurry, SO: Solid

Combined potential risks CPR are Combined potential risks CPR are represented as a function of toxicity risks represented as a function of toxicity risks for human health “P”, carcinogenic effect for human health “P”, carcinogenic effect “Cr”, Infectious characteristics “In”, and “Cr”, Infectious characteristics “In”, and Persistency “Pe”, in Eq (7). Persistency “Pe”, in Eq (7).

The quantification of the toxic risk to human being is The quantification of the toxic risk to human being is almost similar to the quantification of the almost similar to the quantification of the environmental risk (LC50), and is given by LD50 environmental risk (LC50), and is given by LD50 which is the lethal dose to 50 percent of an exposed which is the lethal dose to 50 percent of an exposed population of humans within a given time [14]. LD50 population of humans within a given time [14]. LD50 for quantifying the toxic characteristics P are for quantifying the toxic characteristics P are tabulated in Table 4. tabulated in Table 4.

It is important to notice that only an individual It is important to notice that only an individual material shall be considered in the combined potential material shall be considered in the combined potential risk if its existence in the waste is acknowledged. The risk if its existence in the waste is acknowledged. The constant m defines the effect of exposure mode on the constant m defines the effect of exposure mode on the intensity of the toxic characteristics. Main three intensity of the toxic characteristics. Main three exposure modes are considered as inhalation, oral exposure modes are considered as inhalation, oral intake and skin contact. The risks they pose can be intake and skin contact. The risks they pose can be graded respectively.graded respectively.

Table 4Table 4Rating Values for Combined Potential Risks Eq (7)Rating Values for Combined Potential Risks Eq (7)

P1 Cr2 In3 Pe4

LD50

(mg/kg)p

Exposure*

m Risk level CrInfectious

characteristics except

hospital waste

10 Persistency is a

function of bioaccumulation, biodegradation

and solubility of materials for CPR.Eq (9), Table (5)

0.1 40I 1.3

1/105 100

0.1-10 30 1/106 10

10-100 20

OI, IN 1.2

1/107 1

100-1000

10Non

carcinogenic

0Non infectious 0

>1000 0 SC 1.1

*Exposure modes: I: Inhalation, OI:Oral Intake, IN: *Exposure modes: I: Inhalation, OI:Oral Intake, IN: Ingestion, SC: Skin contactIngestion, SC: Skin contact

1 Health based risk specific doses for acutely toxic 1 Health based risk specific doses for acutely toxic constituents.constituents.

2 Risk specific levels for carcinogenic constituents as 2 Risk specific levels for carcinogenic constituents as chronic toxicity reference levels.chronic toxicity reference levels.

3 Animal carcass, animal feces, used sanitary pads, 3 Animal carcass, animal feces, used sanitary pads, biotic chemical by productsbiotic chemical by products

4 Bioaccumulation cannot be established 4 Bioaccumulation cannot be established experimentally, it may be predicted by its experimentally, it may be predicted by its physicochemical properties and stability. Depend on physicochemical properties and stability. Depend on the characteristics of individual substance and the characteristics of individual substance and situation; biodegradability may be given as percent of situation; biodegradability may be given as percent of its degradation. its degradation. [14][14]

Evaluation method of the carcinogenity Evaluation method of the carcinogenity of the hazardous wastes is far from a of the hazardous wastes is far from a quantitative approach. quantitative approach.

The classification for the existence is The classification for the existence is based on the predicted occurrence of based on the predicted occurrence of cancer for instance in one person from cancer for instance in one person from hundred thousand (10-5) [9, 14]. Values hundred thousand (10-5) [9, 14]. Values used in the rating system for Cr according used in the rating system for Cr according to this classification are given in Table 4. to this classification are given in Table 4.

The infectious characteristics of a hazardous waste depend The infectious characteristics of a hazardous waste depend upon criteria of being contaminated with relatively high upon criteria of being contaminated with relatively high fractions of disease causing material or an accumulated disease fractions of disease causing material or an accumulated disease causing waste. causing waste.

Medical and hospital wastes are not covered within the context Medical and hospital wastes are not covered within the context of hazardous waste management but tracked under special acts of hazardous waste management but tracked under special acts and managed accordingly. and managed accordingly.

The infectious risk has to be foreordained with the sources of The infectious risk has to be foreordained with the sources of waste. waste.

Dimensionless infectious risk value of the rating system, “In”, Dimensionless infectious risk value of the rating system, “In”, is involved in rating system and listed in Table 4 for other than is involved in rating system and listed in Table 4 for other than conventionally managed wastes that need special care due to conventionally managed wastes that need special care due to their infectious characteristic.their infectious characteristic.

Persistency is a function of biodegradability, Persistency is a function of biodegradability, bioaccumulation, and the solubility characteristics of bioaccumulation, and the solubility characteristics of which the persistency rating equation Eq (9) consists. which the persistency rating equation Eq (9) consists.

The ability of the degradation, “Bd”, of a chemical The ability of the degradation, “Bd”, of a chemical material within the environment or living cell is material within the environment or living cell is generally directly proportional to the solubility. This generally directly proportional to the solubility. This effect is reflected within Eq (9) with the exponential effect is reflected within Eq (9) with the exponential expression of dimensionless solubility value of the expression of dimensionless solubility value of the rating system “Sl”.rating system “Sl”.

The possessed risk in the non-biodegradable material The possessed risk in the non-biodegradable material is their adverse effect on human health when reached is their adverse effect on human health when reached either trough food chain or water. The living either trough food chain or water. The living organisms in water can only degrade soluble organisms in water can only degrade soluble materials; otherwise, the prevailing case will be the materials; otherwise, the prevailing case will be the accumulation of substances. Quantification of accumulation of substances. Quantification of bioaccumulation is not possible [14]. bioaccumulation is not possible [14].

Depending on descriptive classification of Depending on descriptive classification of bioaccumulation characteristic of a matter, bioaccumulation characteristic of a matter, dimensionless bioaccumulation value of the dimensionless bioaccumulation value of the rating system Bac, Bd and Sl values are also rating system Bac, Bd and Sl values are also given in Table 5. given in Table 5.

Table 5Table 5

Evaluation of Persistency Values Eq(9)Evaluation of Persistency Values Eq(9)Sl Bd Bac

Solubilityg/

100ml

Sl Biodegradability % Bd Nature Bac

Very Soluble >50 0.5 Readily >90% 1 Non bioaccumulative

1Soluble 5-10 0.5 Moderately 70 %- 90 3

Slightly soluble <5 1 Slightly >50% 5

Bioaccumulative 2Insoluble 1 Non-biodegradable <10 % 10

Miscible in all proportions

1.5

The physical form of the waste should be a The physical form of the waste should be a function for the evaluation of the combined function for the evaluation of the combined potential risk because of fate of the waste in potential risk because of fate of the waste in the environment is relevant to its physical the environment is relevant to its physical form. For instance, different risk assessments form. For instance, different risk assessments should be made for waste in solid form or gas should be made for waste in solid form or gas form. form.

The physical state factor “f” is determined and The physical state factor “f” is determined and placed in equation with the rating values placed in equation with the rating values summarized in Table 6 in order to reflect the summarized in Table 6 in order to reflect the afore statement.afore statement.

Table 6Table 6

Rating Values for Physical FormRating Values for Physical Form

Physical Form f

Gas 1.4

Liquid 1.3

Sludge-Slurry 1.2

Solid 1.1

The multiplier Q, which is quantity rating value, The multiplier Q, which is quantity rating value, is set in consideration of quantity of the waste is set in consideration of quantity of the waste and its recurrent rate of arising. and its recurrent rate of arising.

The handling and disposal of a few hundred The handling and disposal of a few hundred kilograms of a particular waste may demand kilograms of a particular waste may demand totally different solution to the disposal of totally different solution to the disposal of similar material arising on a regular basis in similar material arising on a regular basis in quantities, which may be orders of magnitude quantities, which may be orders of magnitude greater or smaller. greater or smaller.

Selected “Q” value from Table 7 is the last asset Selected “Q” value from Table 7 is the last asset to put in Eq (1) for the evaluation of “ORV”. to put in Eq (1) for the evaluation of “ORV”.

Table 7Table 7

Rating values for quantityRating values for quantity

Quantity (kg/month) Q

>10000 1.4

10000-5000 1.3

5000-1000 1.2

<1000 1.1

Scaling of Rating SystemScaling of Rating System Projection of the ORVs, which are obtained from the model equations Projection of the ORVs, which are obtained from the model equations

for hazardous waste determination, is considered with an “hourglass” for hazardous waste determination, is considered with an “hourglass” scale that shown in Figure 2.scale that shown in Figure 2.

Hazardous Waste

Non-regular Waste

Regular Waste

0

50

∞

∞

While upper side of the hourglass represents the While upper side of the hourglass represents the regular wastes, lower part represents both non-regular regular wastes, lower part represents both non-regular and hazardous waste. Bottleneck points the zero level and hazardous waste. Bottleneck points the zero level which separates regular waste from non-regular waste. which separates regular waste from non-regular waste.

While 50 point level is upper limit for non-regular While 50 point level is upper limit for non-regular waste decision, it is minimum value for hazardous waste decision, it is minimum value for hazardous waste determination. These levels have been waste determination. These levels have been interpolated by minimum and maximum values of Eq. interpolated by minimum and maximum values of Eq. (1)’s components. Interval of zero to 50 determines a (1)’s components. Interval of zero to 50 determines a waste as a non-regular waste. In this situation, a waste waste as a non-regular waste. In this situation, a waste is neither hazardous nor regular. Besides hazardous is neither hazardous nor regular. Besides hazardous waste lists are prepared associated with this non-waste lists are prepared associated with this non-regular waste definition in the regulations. Every regular waste definition in the regulations. Every additional value such as “L”, “Ee”, and “CPR” to this additional value such as “L”, “Ee”, and “CPR” to this level makes the wastes “hazardous waste”. Calculated level makes the wastes “hazardous waste”. Calculated ORVs with Eq. (1) and their remarks for 16 waste ORVs with Eq. (1) and their remarks for 16 waste samples are summarized in Table 8.samples are summarized in Table 8.

Results and DiscussionResults and Discussion The “ORV” values have been obtained in Table 8 for The “ORV” values have been obtained in Table 8 for

seventeen real samples in detailed and they can be seventeen real samples in detailed and they can be interpreted as follows:interpreted as follows:

Although first four samples have no “Ee” and “CPR” Although first four samples have no “Ee” and “CPR” values controlled by referred test methods, neither values controlled by referred test methods, neither regular nor hazardous waste lists include these regular nor hazardous waste lists include these wastes. Thus, they are determined as non-regular wastes. Thus, they are determined as non-regular waste.waste.

Foundry sand and metal slag may be landfilled in Foundry sand and metal slag may be landfilled in situ or on site if it cannot be reused such as road situ or on site if it cannot be reused such as road construction. Huge amount of fly ash sludge should construction. Huge amount of fly ash sludge should be disposed to controlled landfill area after be disposed to controlled landfill area after solidification. If plastic and rubber scraps cannot be solidification. If plastic and rubber scraps cannot be recycled, their air pollution controlled incineration is recycled, their air pollution controlled incineration is recommended because of their high calorific value.recommended because of their high calorific value.

Table 8Table 8

Application of the rating system to the waste Application of the rating system to the waste samplessamples

Samples numbered as 5, 7, and 9 in sludge form Samples numbered as 5, 7, and 9 in sludge form have high toxic and corrosive characteristics in have high toxic and corrosive characteristics in terms of “Ee” values according to TCLP test terms of “Ee” values according to TCLP test method and acidic pH (pH<2). method and acidic pH (pH<2).

Their “Ee” components have correlated values Their “Ee” components have correlated values which are 120, 120, and 167 respectively and which are 120, 120, and 167 respectively and relatively increasing “CPR” values causing relatively increasing “CPR” values causing increasing “ORV” values. increasing “ORV” values.

Ultimate disposal is recommended after Ultimate disposal is recommended after detoxification and corrosivity control for these detoxification and corrosivity control for these wastes.wastes.

Sample 6 named boron oils and lubricants as Sample 6 named boron oils and lubricants as spent hazardous materials from foundry has spent hazardous materials from foundry has low “Ee” but high “CPR” values because of its low “Ee” but high “CPR” values because of its persistency and non-biodegradability. In spite persistency and non-biodegradability. In spite of high flash point of this sample, it can be of high flash point of this sample, it can be assumed as flammable material due to high assumed as flammable material due to high calocorrosivity control for these wastes.calocorrosivity control for these wastes.

calorcalorific values of organic constituents. Thus, ific values of organic constituents. Thus, if floatation isn’t a proper treatment if floatation isn’t a proper treatment alternative, incineration should be considered alternative, incineration should be considered for solution of its ultimate disposal.for solution of its ultimate disposal.

Samples numbered as 11 and 14 in sludge form Samples numbered as 11 and 14 in sludge form have nearly same “Ee” and “CPR” values have nearly same “Ee” and “CPR” values based on mainly toxic and reactive hazard based on mainly toxic and reactive hazard criteria because there are cyanide and other criteria because there are cyanide and other reactive materials in their composition. Despite reactive materials in their composition. Despite nearly same “Ee” and “CPR” values, nearly same “Ee” and “CPR” values, differences between ORVs can be explained by differences between ORVs can be explained by big difference between amounts (Q) of them. big difference between amounts (Q) of them.

Thus, a very careful handling is required for Thus, a very careful handling is required for management these wastes such as dewatering, management these wastes such as dewatering, detoxification, solidification/stabilization, and detoxification, solidification/stabilization, and ultimate disposal to spent mines or hazardous ultimate disposal to spent mines or hazardous waste sites.waste sites.

In samples numbered as 8, 10, 12, 13, common In samples numbered as 8, 10, 12, 13, common hazard criteria is toxicity (T) caused by chromium, hazard criteria is toxicity (T) caused by chromium, sulfide, organic and inorganic pigments and solvents sulfide, organic and inorganic pigments and solvents concentrated in treatment sludges. concentrated in treatment sludges.

High LC50 values and toxic characteristics (TC) are High LC50 values and toxic characteristics (TC) are determined by TCLP and EPT procedures for both determined by TCLP and EPT procedures for both individual material and overall leached water. individual material and overall leached water.

Concentrations of these materials such as chromium Concentrations of these materials such as chromium and some solvents increase the CPR value when they and some solvents increase the CPR value when they are assessed with TLV and TWA limits. Direct are assessed with TLV and TWA limits. Direct solidification/stabilization or detoxification in their solidification/stabilization or detoxification in their leachate and then disposal methodologies can be leachate and then disposal methodologies can be recommended for these wastes.recommended for these wastes.

Discarded chemicals from university Discarded chemicals from university laboratories (sample 15) show a mixed laboratories (sample 15) show a mixed waste characteristic having all hazard waste characteristic having all hazard criteria (I, T, C, R).criteria (I, T, C, R).

Therefore, it has high “Ee” value. Therefore, it has high “Ee” value. Incineration has been applied for this Incineration has been applied for this waste in hazardous waste site after waste in hazardous waste site after carefully sorting, storing, and carefully sorting, storing, and transportation to the site.transportation to the site.

Acrylonitrile spills during Marmara Acrylonitrile spills during Marmara Earthquake (sample 16) has been assessed as Earthquake (sample 16) has been assessed as accident of a hazardous material. accident of a hazardous material.

Significant amount of this spilled commercial Significant amount of this spilled commercial material threats the environment especially material threats the environment especially soil and water and human health as a soil and water and human health as a hazardous waste. “Ee” and “CPR” values are hazardous waste. “Ee” and “CPR” values are very high due to its high hazardous very high due to its high hazardous characteristics. characteristics.

Soil remediation and clean up procedures Soil remediation and clean up procedures should be applied in contaminated area.should be applied in contaminated area.

2, 4 D Acid production waste (sample 17) contains a 2, 4 D Acid production waste (sample 17) contains a lot of hazardous constituents such as cyclohexanone, lot of hazardous constituents such as cyclohexanone, gasoline, alcohols, 2, 4 D and PCBs as liquid form of gasoline, alcohols, 2, 4 D and PCBs as liquid form of hazardous waste.hazardous waste.

Besides, it is published as a hazardous waste in more Besides, it is published as a hazardous waste in more than one list (USEPA K, F, U). It has also maximum than one list (USEPA K, F, U). It has also maximum “Ee” and “CPR” values because of its obvious “Ee” and “CPR” values because of its obvious hazardous specifications such as toxicity and hazardous specifications such as toxicity and reactivity. reactivity.

Management alternatives for this waste can be Management alternatives for this waste can be considered as chemical treatment by adsorption, considered as chemical treatment by adsorption, extraction, and oxidation or its direct incineration in extraction, and oxidation or its direct incineration in air pollution controlled incinerator on site. air pollution controlled incinerator on site.

Breakpoints or determination levels in Breakpoints or determination levels in “hourglass” scale have been obtained with “hourglass” scale have been obtained with investigation of real wastes and according to investigation of real wastes and according to their values of hazard criteria. their values of hazard criteria.

However, neither high nor low ORVs However, neither high nor low ORVs represent a/any hazardous waste as important, represent a/any hazardous waste as important, significant or moderate but they show that significant or moderate but they show that these are exactly regular, non-regular or these are exactly regular, non-regular or hazardous waste. hazardous waste.

On the other hand, a waste which has a higher On the other hand, a waste which has a higher ORV than another one has more attention ORV than another one has more attention required for its management.required for its management.

ConclusionsConclusions The “ORV” and “hourglass” scale proposed here is a simple The “ORV” and “hourglass” scale proposed here is a simple

solution of the problem related to whether a waste solution of the problem related to whether a waste hazardous or not. This rating system is not only to hazardous or not. This rating system is not only to determine waste type but also helps to listing procedures determine waste type but also helps to listing procedures showing management alternatives according to main showing management alternatives according to main components of the model i.e. “Ee” and “CPR”. For instance, components of the model i.e. “Ee” and “CPR”. For instance, if there is a high “Ee” value caused by toxicity and/or, firstly if there is a high “Ee” value caused by toxicity and/or, firstly waste should be detoxified and/or neutralized as a waste should be detoxified and/or neutralized as a management strategy and then it can be disposed. Similarly, management strategy and then it can be disposed. Similarly, incineration should be first management alternative for an incineration should be first management alternative for an ignitable waste that has a low flash point. On the other ignitable waste that has a low flash point. On the other hand, due to “CPR” value depends on estimation of the long hand, due to “CPR” value depends on estimation of the long term effects, risk minimization methodology should be term effects, risk minimization methodology should be applied for management of the waste. “CPR” value is applied for management of the waste. “CPR” value is basically used for determination of the waste.basically used for determination of the waste.

The proposed rating system is open for upgrading with The proposed rating system is open for upgrading with modification into a refined version eliminating subjective modification into a refined version eliminating subjective procedures used in law or regulations. In this case, this procedures used in law or regulations. In this case, this system may be recommended to rewrite subjective and system may be recommended to rewrite subjective and problematic hazardous waste regulations and lists.problematic hazardous waste regulations and lists.

NomenclatureNomenclature

ORV: Overall Rating ValueORV: Overall Rating Value Ee: Ecological EffectEe: Ecological Effect CPR: Combined Potential RiskCPR: Combined Potential Risk L: Listing ValueL: Listing Value D: Decision FactorD: Decision Factor f: Physical State Factorf: Physical State Factor Q: Quantity Rating ValueQ: Quantity Rating Value TCLP: Toxicity Characteristic Leaching ProcedureTCLP: Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure I: Corrected Ignitibility ValueI: Corrected Ignitibility Value C: Corrected Corrosivity ValueC: Corrected Corrosivity Value R: Corrected Reactivity ValueR: Corrected Reactivity Value T: Corrected Toxicity ValueT: Corrected Toxicity Value i: Dimensionless Ignitibility Valuei: Dimensionless Ignitibility Value c: Dimensionless Corrosivity Valuec: Dimensionless Corrosivity Value r: Dimensionless Reactivity Valuer: Dimensionless Reactivity Value t: Dimensionless Toxicity Valuet: Dimensionless Toxicity Value Cr: Dimensionless Carcinogenic Effect ValueCr: Dimensionless Carcinogenic Effect Value P: Corrected Toxic Risks for Human Health ValueP: Corrected Toxic Risks for Human Health Value In: Dimensionless Infectious Characteristics ValueIn: Dimensionless Infectious Characteristics Value Pe: Persistency ValuePe: Persistency Value p: Dimensionless Toxic Risks for Human Health Valuep: Dimensionless Toxic Risks for Human Health Value Bd: Dimensionless The Ability of Degradation ValueBd: Dimensionless The Ability of Degradation Value Sl: Dimensionless Solubility ValueSl: Dimensionless Solubility Value Bac: Dimensionless Bioaccumulation ValueBac: Dimensionless Bioaccumulation Value HW: Hazardous WasteHW: Hazardous Waste

EPT: Extraction Procedure ToxicityEPT: Extraction Procedure Toxicity n: Correction Factor Depend on Waste Formn: Correction Factor Depend on Waste Form LC50: Lethal Concentration to 50% of an Exposed Population of Fishes within LC50: Lethal Concentration to 50% of an Exposed Population of Fishes within

a Given Timea Given Time Lq: Lq: LiquidLiquid G: G: GaseousGaseous S: SludgeS: Sludge SL: SlurrySL: Slurry SO: SolidSO: Solid EP: Extraction ProcedureEP: Extraction Procedure TC: Toxic CharacteristicsTC: Toxic Characteristics LD50: Lethal Dose to 50% of an Exposed Population of Humans within a LD50: Lethal Dose to 50% of an Exposed Population of Humans within a

Given TimeGiven Time m: m: ExposureExposure Mode Mode I: InhalationI: Inhalation OI: Oral IntakeOI: Oral Intake IN: IngestionIN: Ingestion SC: Skin ContactSC: Skin Contact NRW: Non-Regular WasteNRW: Non-Regular Waste TLV: Threshold Limit ValueTLV: Threshold Limit Value TLW: Time Weighted AverageTLW: Time Weighted Average