HANDBOOKOF

TRANSPORT STRATEGY,POLICY AND INSTITUTIONS

Edited by

KENNETH J. BUTTONThe School of Public Policy,

George Mason University

DAVID A. HENSHERInstitute of Transport Studies,

University of Sydney

ELSEVIER

2005 6Amsterdam - Boston - Heidelberg - London - New York - OxfordParis - San Diego - San Francisco - Singapore - Sydney - Tokyo

CONTENTS

Introduction to the series v

Chapter 1

IntroductionKENNETH J. BUTTON and DAVID A. HENSHER 1

1. Introduction 12. Changing themes in transport strategy, policy, and institutions 23. The elements of transport strategies, policy, and institutions 64. The Handbook 7

Chapter 2

Market and Government Failures in TransportationKENNETH J. BUTTON 11

1. Introduction 112. Nature of market failures 12

2.1. Market power 132.2. Externalities 162.3. Excessive competition 182.4. Other market failures 20

3. Government intervention failures 213.1. Information issues 223.2. Regulatory capture 233.3. International coordination 25

4. Conclusions 26References 27

Chapter 3

Regulatory TransitionsWILLIAM B. TYE 29

1. Introduction 292. Origins of the regulatory transition problem 29

2.1. The regulatory transition problem defined 292.2. Regulatory and antitrust issues in the transition to deregulation in the

US rail industry 303. Issues in regulatory transitions 31

3.1 Importance of addressing explicitly the specific problems raised byregulatory transitions 31

3.2. Objectives for the regulatory transition 323.3. Three insights into the structure of transition problems 33

viii Contents

4. Ramsey pricing and maximum reasonable rates 345. Competition policy in the transition to deregulation 356. Pricing competitive access in the transition to deregulation 36

6.1 Significance of the access issue 36

6.2. The competitive access problem defined 37

6.3. Economic logic underlying alternative policies on competitive access 40

6.4. Implications of weak versus strong competitive neutrality to the

access pricing problem 41

7. Revenue adequacy and stranded costs 428. Conclusion 44References 44

Chapter 4

Economic Deregulation in the USAROBERT J.WINDLE 49

1. Introduction 492. Rationale for economic regulation 503. History of network deregulation 524. Results of network deregulation and continuing issues 565. Conclusion 60References 62

Chapter 5

Tendering of ServicesJOHN PRESTON 65

1. Introduction 652. Forms of tendering 653. Theoretical evidence on tendering 664. Empirical evidence on bus tendering 68

4.1. Evidence on the Scandinavian model 68

4.2. Evidence on hybrid models 72

4.3. Overview of bus tendering 73

5. Empirical studies of rail tendering/franchising 746. Overview 777. Conclusions 78References 80

Chapter 6

Performance Evaluation FrameworksDAVID A. HENSHER 83

1. Strategic thinking, competitive advantage, and effectiveperformance 83

Contents ix

2. Promoting a holistic framework: STO 853. A useful checklist of broad principles for selecting

performance measures 874. The traditional dimensions of performance evaluation 885. Broadening the performance evaluation framework to

capture the spirit of STO 906. Conclusion 94References 95

Chapter 7

Privatization in TransportCHRIS NASH 97

1. Introduction 972. Arguments for and against privatization 983. Alternative approaches to privatization 101

3.1. Simple privatization without other measures 1013.2. Privatization plus regulation 1013.3. Privatization plus deregulation 1023.4. Franchising 103

4. The success of privatization - the UK experience 1075. Conclusions 112References 113

Chapter 8

Coordination, Integration, and Transport RegulationDIDIER M. VAN DE VELDE 115

1. Introduction 1152. Theoretical perspective on coordination 116

2.1. Market failures and cut-throat competition 1172.2. Market failures and networks 118

3. Historical perspective on the coordination policy 1213.1. The shifting preferences for coordination instruments 1223.2. Phases 122

4. Coordination of public transport services 1274.1. From cooperation to integration 1274.2. Integration as the "good practice" of coordination in public

transport 1284.3. Transport planning 1294.4. Reforms 130

5. Conclusion 132References 134

x Contents

Chapter 9

Integrated Transport Systems: Public-Private InterfacesJOSE M. VIEGAS 135

1. Transport systems as integrators 1352. The features of integrated transport systems 1373. The difficulties and processes of transport system integration 1394. The involvement of private agents in integrated transport

systems: advantages and difficulties 1435. The instruments for integration and their deployment 1466. Conclusions 153References 154

Chapter 10

The History of Transport PlanningMAX G. LAY 157

1. Before mechanical power 1572. The age of steam 1593. After the car 1614. Melbourne case study 163

4.1. 1929 Melbourne Plan of General Development 1634.2. MMBW 1954 Town Plan 1644.3. MTS 1969 Transportation Plan 1644.4. From 1973 to date 165

5. Model applications 1656. Computing power 1667. The four-step LUTS 1678. Further developments 1699. Problems and solutions 171References 173

Chapter 11

The Evolution of Transport NetworksDAVID LEVINSON 175

1. Introduction 1752. A macroscopic perspective 1773. Microscopic models 181

3.1. The node location problem 1813.2. The link formation problem 1823.3. The link expansion (contraction) problem 184

4. Conclusions 187References 188

Contents xi

Chapter 12

Transport and Regional GrowthCHRIS JENSEN-BUTLER and BJARNE MADSEN 191

1. Introduction 1911.1. Definitions 192

1.2. Problems 193

1.3. Spatial issues 194

2. Approaches to the analysis of interactions between transportand the economy 1952.1. Traditional approaches 195

2.2. Approaches based upon the analysis of externalities 196

2.3. Social-accounting-matrix-based approaches 196

2.4. Computable general equilibrium models 199

3. Illustrating the central modeling issues 2023.1. The LINE model 202

4. The key dimensions 2115. Different modeling approaches: concrete studies 214

5.1. Transport modeling 214

5.2. Production function models 215

5.3. Accessibility models 216

5.4. Inter-regional SAM models 217

5.5. Land use/transport interaction models 218

5.6. LINE 218

5.7. Spatial CGE models 220

References 221

Chapter 13

Infrastructure PolicyROGER VICKERMAN 225

1. Introduction 2252. Infrastructure characteristics and policy objectives 2253. Infrastructure as public utility 2284. Private finance and provision of infrastructure 2305. Regulation of infrastructure 2326. Conclusions 233References 234

Chapter 14

Integrated Transport StrategiesANTHONY D. MAY, CHARLOTTE KELLY and SIMON SHEPHERD 237

1. Introduction 237

xii Contents

2. The meaning of integration 2373. Possible integration principles 2394. The concept of synergy 2405. The treatment of barriers 2416. Some examples 243

6.1. The London congestion charging study 2436.2. The PROPOLIS study of Dortmund 2456.3. The Edinburgh integrated strategy study 246

7. The application of sensitivity analysis 2488. General design guidance 2519. Conclusions 252References 253

Chapter 15

Long-term PlanningEDWARD WEINER and ELIZABETH S. RIKLIN 255

1. Introduction 2552. Background 2553. Overview of the transportation planning process 2564. Visioning and transportation goals 256

4.1. Transportation goals 2584.2. Performance measures 2584.3. Land use and transportation 2594.4. Public participation 260

5. Information 2606. Identify transportation needs 261

6.1. Assess current conditions 2616.2. Project future conditions 262

7. Develop and evaluate alternatives 2637.1. Generate alternative strategies and actions to address the gaps 2637.2. Evaluate alternative strategies and actions to address the gaps 2647.3. Identify the distribution of costs, benefits, and impacts 267

8. Prepare a long-term plan 2678.1. Long-term plan document 2678.2. Set priorities 2678.3. Establish financial plan 2688.4. Transportation improvement program 269

9. Monitoring and evaluation 26910. Conclusion 270Appendix 270References 272

Contents xiii

Chapter 16

Transportation Asset ManagementODD J. STALEBRINK and JONATHAN L. GIFFORD 275

1. Introduction 2752. Key functional areas of transportation asset management

systems 2753. TAM benefits 2764. Transportation asset management systems tools 2775. TAM development in Commonwealth countries 2786. TAM development in the USA 2797. Concluding remarks 282References 282

Chapter 17

Financing Transport InfrastructureRICO MAGGI 285

1. Introduction 2852. The evidence from past to present 2863. Financing transport infrastructure via pricing 2904. Public-private partnership 2945. Conclusions 296References 297

Chapter 18

A Banking Perspective on TransportNICHOLAS HANN and TIM MACK 299

1. Introduction 2992. A banker's view of the transport sector 2993. How bankers look at projects differently from economists 3024. Institutional models 304

4.1. BOOT/BTO/BLT 3044.2. Franchising 3054.3. The role of subsidy 306

5. Key issues for governments and bankers 3085.1. A service or an asset? 3085.2. Risk transfer and off balance sheet 3085.3. Certainty of cost 3095.4. Cost of capital 3095.5. Termination and step in rights 3105.6. Ramp up 3105.7. Shadow tolling 311

5.8. Revenue and value capture 311

xiv Contents

6. Financing structures and options 3116.1. Equity 3116.2. Leasing - finance leasing and operating leasing 3126.3. Mezzanine debt 3136.4. Bank debt 3136.5. Capital markets debt 3136.6. CPI indexed bonds 3146.7. Municipal/revenue bonds 3146.8. Securitization 3156.9. National Express Melbourne rolling stock financing 315

6.10. A tale of two airport rail links: Brisbane Airtrain and SydneyAirlink 317

6.11. London Underground 3187. Why use private sector finance? 3198. Has private investment in transport infrastructure been

successful? 3209. Trends in transportation finance 321

9.1. Evolving risk profile in privately funded road projects 3219.2. Commercial models 3229.3. Major barriers to private sector investment in public transport 322

10. Conclusions 323References 323

Chapter 19

Financial Analysis: Applications to Australian Toll Road EntitiesSTEWART JONES 325

1. Introduction 3252. Regulations governing financial disclosure 3263. The primary financial statements used in financial analysis 328

3.1. The statement of financial position 3283.2. The statement of financial performance 3293.3. The statement of cash flows 330

4. Background: Transurban and the Hills Motorway Group 3315. Financial analysis of TCL and HLY 3316. Financial ratio analysis 334

6.1. Assessing profitability 3346.2. Assessing cash flow from operations 3366.3. Assessing cash position 3386.4. Assessing liquidity 3406.5. Assessing capital structure 3416.6. Assessing debt servicing capability 342

Contents

6.7. Assessing turnover6.8. Assessing variability6.9. Assessing valuation fundamentals6.10. Assessing investment returns

7. ConclusionsAppendix. Financial statement summaries for TCL and HLY(2000-2002)References

344345346350351

353357

Chapter 20

Financing Transport Infrastructure: Public Finance IssuesPETER ABELSON 359

1. Introduction 3592. Instruments for raising and servicing capital 3603. Capital raising, user charges, risk, and ownership 363

3.1. Capital raising and user charges 3633.2. Capital raising and risk 364

4. Raising capital for new transport infrastructure 3654.1. Using current tax revenues 3654.2. Public borrowing 3674.3. Private sector financing 369

5. Privatization: re-financing transport infrastructure 3706. Conclusions 371References 373

Chapter 21

The World Bank and TransportKEN GWILLIAM 375

1. The World Bank Group 3751.1. The policy context for World Bank lending 3761.2. The World Bank process 3771.3. The lending instruments 378

2. Investment project appraisal at the World Bank 3792.1. The role of formal cost-benefit analysis 3792.2. The limitations of formal appraisal 381

3. The institutional and policy context 3823.1. Maintenance strategies 3823.2. The role of the private sector 385

4. Focusing on poverty impacts 3875. Summary 389References 390

xvi Contents

Chapter 22

Asset Management and Funding: Transport and Non-profitInstitutionsJAMES H. MILLER, JILL HOUGH and LYN HELLEGAARD 391

1. Introduction 3912. The role of non-profit corporations in passenger

transportation 3913. Characteristics of non-profit corporations 3934. Advantages and disadvantages of the private, non-profit form

of organization 3945. Case studies of non-profits 396

5.1. York County, Maine 3965.2. Bis-Man Transit Board, Bismarck, North Dakota 3985.3. Wheels of Wellness, Inc., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 3995.4. Missoula Ravalli Transportation Management Association, Missoula,

Montana 400Summary 402References 402

Chapter 23

Deregulation of US Air TransportationSTEVEN A. MORRISON 405

405405408408409412412414415416416417417417418418419

1.2.3.4.

5.

6.7.

IntroductionHistoryMethodologyEffects4.1. Route competition

4.2. Load factors

4.3. Fares

4.4. Network structure

4.5. Profits

4.6. Safety

Trouble spots5.1. Gates5.2. Perimeter rules

5.3. Dominated hub airports

5.4. Congestion

The futureSummary and conclusions

Contents xvii

References 420

Chapter 24

Regulatory Issues: The Role of International Maritime InstitutionsWAYNE K. TALLEY 421

1. Introduction 4212. Classification societies 4213. Flag states 4234. Coastal states 4255. The International Maritime Organization 426

5.1. IMO safety conventions 4285.2. IMO pollution conventions 4295.3. IMO recommendations and codes 430

6. The International Labour Organization 4317. The UN Conference on Trade and Development 432References 433

Chapter 25

Fostering Inland WaterwaysJACOB B. POLAK 435

1 Introduction 4352. Inland waterborne transport 4363. Regulation 4384. Effectiveness of regulating inland waterborne transport 4415. Deregulation 4426. Conclusion 444References 445

Chapter 26

Making Pricing Work in Public Transport ProvisionSERGIO R. JARA-DIAZ and ANTONIO GSCHWENDER 447

1. Introduction 4472. Costs in public transport 448

2.1. General aspects 4482.2. Cost structure 448

3. Optimal fares in public transport 4493.1. The optimal fare 4493.2. The financial result in the presence of scale economies 451

4. Returns to scale in public transport 4514.1. A microeconomic model 4514.2. Other relevant aspects 453

5. The impact of substitute modes and second-best fares 455

xviii Contents

6. The optimal fare and distance 4557. Summary and discussion 457References 458

Chapter 27

Transportation Mergers: The Case of the US RailroadsWILLIAM B. TYE and JOHN HORN 461

1. Introduction 4612. Current state of the rail industry 463

2.1. The effects of rail mergers in the USA 4632.2. Consequences of the Staggers Act 4652.3. "Three-to-two" issues 4662.4. "One-lump" theory 4682.5. Post-merger competitive access 4702.6. Merger benefits 471

3. Conclusions 472References 473

Chapter 28

Protecting the Captive Railroad ShipperKIMBERLY VACHAL and JOHN BITZAN 477

1. Introduction 4772. Identifying the captive shipper 4803. Implications of captivity for pricing and service 4834. Institutional alternatives 486References 488

Chapter 29

Cost-benefit AnalysisKENNETH G. WILLIS 491

1. Introduction 4912. Financial versus social costs and benefits 4913. Identification of costs and benefits 4924. Relevant costs and benefits 4925. Market prices and "shadow prices" 493

5.1. Monopolistic prices 4935.2. Unemployed resources 4945.3. Subsidies 4955.4. Public goods and externalities 4965.5. Taxation 4965.6. Marginal cost of public funds 4965.7. Constraints on use 4975.8. Summary 497

Contents xix

6. Social discount rate: opportunity cost versus time preference 4987. Decision rules 498

7.1. The net present value, internal rate of return, and benefit/cost ratio 4987.2. Social welfare 499

8. Timing of investments 5009. Multiple period investments and budget constraints 50010. Risk and uncertainty 50111. Issues in CBA 502

11.1. Framing and context 50211.2. Future costs 50311.3. Environmental costs 503

12. Conclusions 504Appendix. The sequence of investments in the presence of budgetconstraints 504References 506

Chapter 30

Multicriteria Evaluation of Transport PoliciesRON VREEKER and PETER NIJKAMP 507

1. Introduction 5072. Evaluating transport policies 5093. Multicriteria evaluation methods 512

3.1. Utility or value system approaches 5143.2. Programming methods 5153.3. Outranking methods 515

4. Applications of multicriteria analysis in transportation planning 5164.1. Multi-objective programming 5164.2. The Maastricht-Aachen Airport expansion 5184.3. The Cilcnto and Vallo di Diano National Park 520

5. Conclusions 523References 525

Chapter 31

Negotiated and Competitively Tendered Performance Based ContractsERNE HOUGHTON and DAVID A. HENSHER 527

1. Introduction 5272. Defining performance-based contracts 5283. Examples of the implementation of PBCs: the Hordaland

(Norway) and New Zealand models 5313.1. The Hordaland model 5313.2. The New Zealand model 5333.3. Assessment 534

xx Contents

4. A case study: PBCs in Sydney 5354.1. Model summary 5354.2. The case study 538

5. Ongoing issues to consider in contracting 543References 546

Chapter 32

Discriminant, Logit, and Neural Network Models for MeasuringFinancial Fitness: Application to the US Airline IndustryRICHARD D. GRITTA 547

1. Introduction 5472. Measures of financial fitness 548

2.1. The Altman Z score model 549

3. Application of the Altman Z score model to major US airlines 5504. Causes of the US airline industry's problems 5525. Other models of forecasting 554

5.1. The ZETA credit score model 5545.2. The AIRSCORE model 5565.3. Logistics regression analysis 5565.4. Neural networks 557

6. Conclusion 558References 559

Chapter 33

Voluntary Travel Behavior ChangePETER R. STOPHER 561

1. Introduction 5612. The social marketing approach (IndiMark) 563

2.1. Applications of the social marketing approach 565

3. The community development approach (Living Neighborhoods/Living Change) 5663.1. Applications of the community development approach 568

4. Evaluating voluntary travel behavior change 5694.1. How to measure change 5704.2. Issues of variability 5734.3. Choosing a control group 5734.4. Measurement error 5744.5. External evidence 5754.6. Diffusion effects 576

5. Evaluation of recent VTBC interventions 5776. Conclusions 578References 578

Contents xxi

Chapter 34

Non-motorized Transportation PolicyMATTHEW PAGE 581

1. Introduction 5812. Why walking and cycling are important 582

2.1. Walking and cycling are more efficient 5832.2. Walking and cycling are more sustainable 5832.3. Walking and cycling impose less danger on others 5842.4. Walking and cycling are healthy forms of transport 584

3. Policies toward non-motorized modes 5853.1. Development of walking policy in the UK 5883.2. Development of cycling policy in the UK 590

4. Discussion 5914.1. Differences from motorized traffic 5914.2. The importance of sensitive design 593

5. Conclusions 594References 595

Chapter 35

Flexible Transport SystemsJONATHAN L. GIFFORD 597

1. Introduction 5972. Predict and provide 5983. Control 5994. Flexibility 6015. Flexibility and the theory of options 604

5.1. Varying construction cost 6055.2. Varying demand 6075.3. Increasing uncertainty over demand 6075.4. The "bad news principle" 6085.5. Scale versus flexibility 6095.6. Investing under uncertainty: summary 610

6. Public policy implications 611References 611

Chapter 36

Stimulating Modal ShiftPETER BONSALL 613

1. Background 6131.1. Introduction 6131.2. Why should we want to alter the modal split? 613

ii Contents

2. Reducing the use of "undesirable" modes 6152.1. Taxes and charges 6152.2. Regulations and physical restrictions 619

3. Positive encouragement of the use of "desirable" modes 6203.1. Provision of facilities and services 6203.2. Financial inducements 622

4. Marketing 6244.1. Basic information and advice 6244.2. Presentation and marketing 625

5. Who can make it happen? 6286. Conclusion 632References 633

Chapter 37

Marketing Public TransportGENEVIEVE GIULIANO and SARA HAYDEN 635

1. Introduction 6352. Informing the public 636

2.1. Changing the image of public transport 6382.2. Information availability 638

3. Pricing strategies 6413.1. Free fare strategies 6413.2. Simplified fare structures 6423.3. Smart and accessible fare payment 643

4. Market segmentation 6454.1. Public-private partnerships 647

5. Conclusions 648References 648

Chapter 38

Implementing Intelligent Transportation SystemsBRIEN BENSON 651

1. Introduction 6512. Federal leadership 652

2.1. National program plan 6522.2. Systems architecture and national standards 654

3. Mainstreaming ITS 6574. Legal issues 658

4.1. Liability 6584.2. Privacy 659

Contents xxiii

4.3. Procurement 659

4.4. Intellectual property rights 6605. Road pricing 6606. Cell phone usage 6617. Education and training 6618. Conclusion 662References 663

Chapter 39

Optimization of Transport StrategiesANTHONY D. MAY, SIMON SHEPHERD and GUENTER EMBERGER 665

1. Introduction 6652. Optimization 667

2.1. The general optimization problem 6672.2. Optimization approaches 670

3. Application of formal optimization 6723.1. The strategic land use transport interaction model (MARS) 6733.2. Identification of optimal transport strategies in four European cities 6733.3. The Edinburgh case study 677

4. Summary and conclusions 682References 683

Chapter 40

Transport Policy within APECCHRISTOPHER FINDLAY and CHRISTOPHER KISSLING 687

1. Introduction 6872. APEC and transport policy 6873. APEC structure and operations 6894. Challenges for APEC 6915. Transport policy work 6926. Conclusion 698Appendix. APEC work on transportation 699References 703

Chapter 41

Transport Policy in the European UnionPERAN VAN REEVEN 705

1. Introduction 7052. European union 7053. Transport policy in the Treaty of Rome 707

3.1. Strong regulation of the transport sector in the member states 7073.2. The development of the common transport policy 709

xxiv Contents

4. The internal market for the provision of transportservices 7104.1. Airtransport 7114.2. Maritime transport 713

4.3. Rail transport 7144.4. Inland shipping 7154.5. Road transport 716

5. Antitrust and state aid in transport 7165.1. Antitrust 7165.2. State aid 718

6. Infrastructure policy and charging 7196.1. Infrastructure policy 7196.2. Charging for infrastructure use 722

7. The way forward 722References 724

Chapter 42

Transport Policy in Post-Communist EuropeJOHN PUCHER and RALPH BUEHLER 725

1. Introduction 7252. Trends in transport systems and travel 7263. Shifts in land use patterns 7314. Transport policies in the socialist era 7325. Transport policies transformed by fall of Communism 7346. Problems of modal shift in central Europe 7367. Further adjustments to transport policies 7378. Impacts of EU policies on the accession countries 7399. Conclusions and policy recommendations 740References 742

Chapter 43

Transport Policies in ASEAN CountriesANTHONY T.H. CHIN 745

1. Introduction 7452. Transport policy, economic growth and development 747

2.1. Low-income economies 7472.2. Medium-income economies 7522.3. High-income economies 756

3. Conclusion 760References 761

Contents xxv

Chapter 44

Transportation Policy in the USAEDWARD WEINER 763

1. Introduction 7632. Establishment of the US Department of Transportation 7633. The institutional and decision-making environment 764

3.1. The federal government 7643.2. State governments 7653.3. Local agencies 7653.4. Citizens' and community groups 765

3.5. The private sector 7683.6. International coordination 768

4. A comprehensive and coordinated decision-making process 7685. Major policy issues 769

5.1. Passenger and freight travel growth 7695.2. Funding 7705.3. Safety 7745.4. Energy needs 774

5.5. Environmental quality 7755.6. Land development 7765.7. Social equity 777

6. Conclusion 777References 777

Chapter 45

Transportation Policy in CanadaTREVOR D. HEAVER and WILLIAM G. WATERS II 779

1. Introduction 7792. The geographical, historical, and jurisdictional setting 7803. The MacPherson Commission and the National

Transportation Act 1967 7814. Developments in transport policy to 2000 783

4.1. The progress of regulatory reform (deregulation) 7834.2. The subsidization of unremunerative services 7884.3. Changes in the provision and finance of transport infrastructure

and related services 7904.4. Privatization of Crown corporations providing transport services 792

5. Challenges of Canadian transport policy entering thetwenty-first century 7935.1. The decline of transport regulation as a major policy issue 7935.2. The changing emphasis in cost recovery in provision of infrastructure 794

xxvi Contents

5.3. Urban transportation challenges 797

5.4. Environmental concerns in Canadian transport policy 798

5.5. The conflict of national transport policies 798

5.6. Security and border issues 799

5.7. The problem of low-density markets 800

6. The future of transport policy 801References 801

Chapter 46

Transportation Policy in New Zealand and AustraliaDEREK SCRAFTON 803

1. Introduction 8032. Transport policy in New Zealand: the 1980s and early 1990s 803

2.1. Encouraging fair competition in the transport sector 804

2.2. Minimizing public ownership of transport and related systems 804

2.3. Improving accountability within the transport system 805

2.4. Improving safety within the transport system 806

2.5. Outcomes 806

3. Transport policy in New Zealand: into the twenty-first century 8083.1. Assisting economic development 809

3.2. Assisting safety and personal security 809

3.3. Improving access and mobility 810

3.4. Protecting and promoting public health 810

3.5. Ensuring environmental sustainability 810

4. Australian transport policy: the constitutional framework 8115. Australian transport policy: recent developments 812

5.1. Railways 8125.2. Roads and road transport 814

5.3. Urban transport 815

5.4. Aviation 816

5.5. Maritime 817

6. The way forward 818References 819

Author Index 821

Subject Index 829