benzene 143, 427–8, 604, 609air quality standard 610emissions 483urban concentrations 610

bi-directional fluxes 324biodiversity 572, 584biogeochemical cycles 90–123biomarkers 23biomass burning 236biosphere 15, 56, 91, 112black smoke 147blackbody 159Boltzmann constant 37, 326boundary layer 255, 316

changing conditions 261in climate models 540complex surfaces 263convective 257flat terrain 256flow 264neutral 258stable 259

Brewer spectrophotometer 465Brewer–Dobson circulation 173, 188,

204bromoform 113

Cape Grim 167–8, 345, 347carbohydrate 22carbon

cycle 90, 357isotope ratio 24

carbon dioxide 18–20, 90, 124–6budget 91, 126emissions 342, 626sources 91stabilization 369

carbon monoxide 20, 93, 131, 403,604

Index

management assessment 607management in Berlin 605management in London 605monitoring station 446review 606

Air Quality Management Area 603,607

aircraft as a measurement platform464

airglow 13Aitken particles 229albedo 53, 60, 62, 68alkene oxidation 181aluminum 577, 580, 582amino acids 16ammonia 97

budget 98deposition 324sources 98

aqueous phase 211photochemistry 219

Arctic haze 65, 388–94composition 393deposition 394particles 393properties 391source 390

area sources 504Atmospheric Dispersion Modeling

System 522, 622atmospheric dynamics 530atmospheric energy 35–58atmospheric stability 49, 51, 279atmospheric structure 35–58averaging times 270Azores high 72

balloon-borne instruments 464Beer–Lambert Law 43, 446, 460

1,3-butadiene 143, 604, 611emissions 143, 483

accretion hypothesis 8accumulation mode 229acid deposition 384acid rain 384acidification 386, 571activity rate 479adiabatic cooling 47, 48, 279advection 285aerosols 145, 215, 228–54

absorption 244carbonaceous 146climate forcing 240–8cloud interactions 242composition 232emissions 233monitoring 454optical properties 245radiative properties 243, 353, 539scattering 244secondary emissions 234size distribution 230sources 124–55, 230–8sulphate 351volcanic emissions 234, 352

air pollutioneconomic effects 414global 339–75legislation 418meteorology 255–74policy 367–8regional scale 376–98urban scale 399–438

air qualityaction plans 603London 613management 562–628

Handbook of Atmospheric Science: Principles and ApplicationsEdited by C.N. Hewitt, Andrea V. Jackson

Copyright © 2003 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd

630 Index

carbon monoxide (cont’d)air quality standard 133budget 94, 132concentrations 133, 608–9effects 133emissions 483, 511at roadside sites 608sources 94, 132in the UK 607in urban areas 609

carbon tetrachloride 109carbonate 21carbonyl disulfide 100, 102carbonyl sulfide 100–2

chemistry 102cations in soil 581cell division 24Charney–Phillips grid 534chemiluminescence 452chlorofluorocarbons 107, 189

concentrations 108emissions 140replacement compounds 108, 140,

346sources 108

chloroform 110chloromethane 111circulation 60CLAW hypothesis 105Clean Air Act 137, 615climate 59–89

Africa 86Antarctic 66Arctic 64Asia 74Australia 82–chemistry feedbacks 205, 358–60Europe 72model evaluation 547–51modeling 525–61modeling tools 551–4North America 74polar 62south America 83sub-tropical 76tropical 75

cloudcondensation nuclei 246–8properties 246in climate models 540

cold front 302comets 18condensation 50, 278conduction 46

continuity equation 157, 167convection 46, 296

in climate models 541Convention on Long-Range

Transboundary Air Pollution376–7, 420, 474, 562, 591

conveyor belt 303CORINE program 475Coriolis force 76, 282, 295, 297–9Criegee intermediates 180critical levels 562–602

ozone 564sulfur and nitrogen 564

critical limits 568acidity 578heavy metals 586nitrogen 572

critical loads 387, 562–602acidity 577assessment 597cadmium 589exceedances 593heavy metals 587methods 565nitrogen 570, 573–7, 594use in policy assessment 591

crop yield reduction 380cryosphere in climate models 545cyanobacteria 23–5cyclones 306

data assimilation 551denitrification 135deposition

aerodynamic resistance 316critical loads 387dust modeling 515modeling 389nitrogen 571ozone 383of particles 324–9, 412to plants 318resistance model 315, 389surface resistance 318velocity 315, 323, 325Wesley model 319–22

design manual for roads and bridges520, 622

dichloromethane 110dienes 182differential absorption LIDAR 460diffusion samplers 442dimethyl sulfide 100, 103, 234, 246

chemistry 104–5

oxidation scheme 106sources 103

dinitrogen pentoxide 176dioxin 144dispersion 255–74, 406

complex terrain 271–3equation 267flat terrain 271modeling 503–24, 620–3modeling, accuracy of 624modeling, meteorological data 504road traffic modeling 517

dissolution of gases 216DOAS 448Dobson spectrophotometer 465Doppler broadening 45, 446, 469droplet radius 213drought 83, 86dry deposition 314–29

measurement 327–9

early atmosphere 4ecosystem effects 566, 575–6eddy accumulation 328eddy covariance 327Ekman layer 289–90El Niño 78–80El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

80–4emission

factors 479, 623inventories 405, 473–502inventories Europe 474inventories Japan 477inventories UK 476

emissionsagriculture 493aircraft 490airports 489area sources 491carbon monoxide 511from chimneys 510cold start 488in dispersion models 503dust 493landfill 492London 483, 487London and Tokyo compared

494–9National Emissions Ceiling

Directive 596natural 493power station 507rail 489

Index 631

road vehicle 483shipping 490

energybudget 52–5consumption 402transfer 55

equinox 59ethylene dibromide 113Eulerian modeling 383, 533European Environment Agency 475European Monitoring and Assessment

Programme 379, 384, 388, 474,592

eutrophication 386evolution 3, 26

Ferrell cells 60Fick’s Law 443flame ionization detector 453forest effects 572, 579Fourier transform spectroscopy 448

Gaia hypothesis 15, 27gas chromatography 453gas constant 35, 276gas-filter correlation spectroscopy

451Gaussian plume 268General circulation models 526–9global air pollution effects 365–7global warming international response

368–9gradient technique 328gravity waves 196

in climate models 542greenhouse effect 11, 19, 52, 87, 124,

129, 240–8, 340greenhouse gases 11, 341

lifetimes 359future 362

groundwater pollution 580groundwater quality 582

Hadley circulation 55–6, 60, 85Halley Bay 190halocarbons 138, 344

emissions 138as greenhouse gases 138lifetimes 139as ozone depleters 138

halogenchemistry 184, 223chlorofluorocarbons 107cycle 105, 117

organohalogens 107future concentrations 363inorganic 114inorganic chemistry 116

halons 109heat budget 53heavy metals 585Henry’s Law 101, 216–19, 320, 330–1

constant 217–18Herzberg continuum 41heterogeneous chemistry 211,

238–40humidity 211hydrochlorofluorocarbons 108, 346hydrogen cyanide 127hydrogen sulfide 100, 102

chemistry 103sources 103

hydrostatic equation 36hydroxyl 94, 100, 113, 160, 170, 172

Icelandic low 72ideal gas 35IMAGES model 131indoor air quality 409industrial source models 522, 621inner planets 6, 11integrated assessment modeling

355–6Intergovernmental Panel on Climate

Change 241, 351, 360, 544, 554intertropical convergence zone 84–5inversion 65irradiance 37isoprene 94, 131, 328

emissions 95

jetstream 60, 81, 86Junge layer 201

katabatic wind 69Kirchhoff’s Law 43, 538Köppen classification 63, 64Kyoto Protocol 126, 347, 370

La Niña 80Lagrangian modeling 383, 533land surface in climate modeling 547lapse rate 36, 44, 48

dry adiabatic lapse rate 49saturated adiabatic lapse rate 50

Last Glacial Maximum 550latent heat 46

of vaporization 47

lead 404, 427, 604, 611–12LIDAR 457–61, 466lightning 135line sources 504London smog 171long-range transport 389Lorenz grid 534Los Angeles 171

Mace Head 114, 175, 179mass balance equation 157material damage 415–17Mauna Loa 91, 176, 345mesopause 36mesosphere 36meteorology 275–313

monitoring 461–3methane 17, 92, 127, 162, 343

budget 93chemistry 161–2cycle 357emissions 128–9sources 93, 127–8

methyl bromide 112budget 115

methyl chloride 111budget 115

methyl chloroform 109methyl iodide 114

budget 115MIE scattering 458, 469mineral dust 232, 352

dispersion modeling 513modeling

climate 525–61sulfur dioxide 616

molar mass 35monitoring 439–72monoterpenes 95–6, 131, 236, 328monsoon 80, 81, 82Montreal Protocol 107, 109, 139, 204,

346, 364, 368, 370mountain atmospheric flow 304municipal waste incinerator emissions

511

National Air Quality InformationArchive 606, 618

net primary productivity 92nighttime chemistry 176nitrate radical 178nitric acid 177, 204, 239, 331, 408nitric oxide 98nitrification 135

632 Index

nitrite 223nitrogen cycle 96nitrogen dioxide 98, 604

modeling 521in urban areas 612–14

nitrous oxide 96, 344budget 97sources 97

nondispersive infrared analysis 450North Atlantic

drift 63Oscillation 72

Norwegian cyclone model 300nuisance assessment 513

occlusion 301occultation technique 468oceans in climate models 544odor assessment 506organoiodine compounds 114origin of life 16, 18outgassing 12oxides of nitrogen 98, 164, 382, 403

budget 99, 134chemistry 385dispersion modeling 507emissions 385, 483, 507emissions in London 498emissions in Tokyo 499emissions trends 136measurement by

chemiluminescence 452passive sampling 444role in atmosphere 134sources 134UK emissions 135–6in urban areas 612–14

oxidizing capacity 159oxygen 20–9, 140, 408, 618–19

and evolution 28ozone

air quality standard 379, 420–alkene chemistry 180budget 157, 168–9chemistry 380column 189concentrations 40damage 27, 58depleting substances 139depletion 191, 197–201, 347depletion future 204, 364deposition 320, 323, 383destruction 164effects on human health 141, 378

effects on materials 142effects on vegetation 142, 379formation 40, 141, 164, 167isopleth diagram 165and life 25measurement by TOMS 467in the paleoatmosphere 26profile 26, 40, 157, 174, 347protection 26role of hydrocarbons 169spring maximum 173

paleoclimate 546paleosol 22particles

particulate material 145, 228–54,604, 616–18

sources 146Pasquill class 264, 505perchloroethene 110peroxide 167–8, 221–3, 320, 331peroxy radical 160, 180peroxyacetylnitrate (PAN)

concentration 142formation 142, 172

persistent organic pollutants 145photochemical smog 140, 171photochemistry 156, 174, 382

in climate models 543rates of photolysis 159, 161tropospheric 156–87tropospheric budget 170

photostationary state 161photosynthesis 14, 21, 22, 29, 57, 91phytoplankton 103, 105, 107, 112,

131planets 5plume 266

buoyant 267dispersion 267Gaussian 268

PM10 147, 403, 604, 617concentrations 618emissions 148, 483, 618health effects 147sources 148

PM2.5 147, 403point sources 503polar high 71polar stratospheric clouds 201polar vortex 192polychlorinated biphenyls 145polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

144, 603, 619

population 401potential temperature 48, 278precipitation 65, 68pressure 61

broadening 45field, global 70profile 35

primitive atmosphere 9

radiationabsorption 38–40, 538balance 59, 75blackbody 37, 38–9, 43, 52infrared 39–40longwave 42modeling 537net 54outgoing 39solar 37–8, 158terrestrial 38–9transfer 42, 45, 56ultraviolet 25, 41

radiative forcing 350future 362

radical chemistry 160radiosonde 464rainwater 212Raymond scattering 459remote sensing 248, 308–9, 456,

463–70, 551respiratory system 411–12road pricing 421Rocky mountains 69Rossby number 282, 285Rossby waves 61, 69, 192, 295,

303–6rotation of the Earth 59roughness length 265, 316

Sahel 86sampling techniques 440satellites 467, 551scale height 276scavenging coefficient 329–31SCIAMACHY 469screening models 509sea breeze circulation 266, 277sea-level rise 367, 555sea-salt aerosol 231sea-surface temperature 73secondary organic aerosol 234, 246secondary pollutants 140semigeostrophic theory 287sensible heat 47

Index 633

soildust 146models 567quality 582, 589vegetation models 569

solar flux 15, 35solar radiation 158soot 236, 617, 349, 403, 413South Pole 68Southern Oscillation 79Southern Oscillation index 83space shuttle 250spectroscopy 447Stefan–Boltzmann constant 37Stokes number 326stratopause 36stratosphere 36

chemistry 188–210circulation 189heterogeneous chemistry 202–4oxygen-only chemistry 196residual circulation 190structure 190–troposphere exchange 173, 194water vapor 195

street canyon 406sulfur 99

budget 100chemistry 182, 220, 385cycle 99, 183emissions 385

sulfur dioxide 99–100, 403, 604, 614budget 100chemistry 101, 240concentrations 137deposition 320, 323emissions 483monitoring 615role in atmosphere 136sources 137UK emissions 137

urban concentrations 425–6sulfur hexafluoride 346sulfuric acid 100–1Sun 37sunspot 37surface reactions 204synoptic analysis 308synoptic charts 308synoptic observations 309synoptic-scale meteorology 275–313

tapered element oscillatingmicrobalance 455

target loadscadmium 590heavy metals 588

temperaturechanges 353–5, 555structure 49

tephigram 281thermodynamics 48thermosphere 37total suspended particulate matter

403, 413Toxic Organic Micropollutants Survey

619trade winds 77trichloroethene 110tropical storms 78tropopause 36, 194troposphere 36

aqueous phase chemistry 211–27

UK Air Quality Objectives 505,603–4

UK Air Quality Strategy 505UKMO climate model 538, 545uncertainty estimating 625United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change369, 475

units of concentration 441urban air pollution

developing countries 430–2Europe 424Japan 429North America 428

urban chemistry 171urban heat island 406urban planning 421urbanization 400

visibility 417volatile organic compounds 94, 126,

129, 165, 382, 618analysis 453anthropogenic emissions 129biogenic 130, 169, 404lifetimes 97sources 97UK emissions 130

volcanic gases 12vorticity 194, 286, 294

in street canyon 407Vostok ice core 340

Walker circulation 77, 78, 85washout ratio 330water

content 212soluble particles 215vapor 342

weather systems 299weathering 22wet deposition 329–34Weybourne atmospheric observatory

179wind

rose 514shear 270, 283