hallucinogens and rock art (eva hopman)

8/13/2019 Hallucinogens and Rock Art (Eva Hopman)

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I. Introduction

an& theories e ist on the Palaeolithic art- and es%eciall& on cave and rock

art. ho )ade the art- which )aterials were used to %aint4 h& was rock art

)ade at this ti)e4 5he uestion I will $e tr&ing to answer in this essa& is the

following

Is it possi"le that the paintings in caves an& on roc4 in the (alaeolithic perio&

5ere inspire& "y the images seen in a state in&uce& "y hallucinogens6

I have co)e to this uestion $& wondering what )oved the Palaeolithic

%eo%le in (uro%e to create their cave %aintings. *o)e of the %aintings don8t

see) to 9)ake sense8. Is it %ossi$le that the sha)ans- or whoever %ainted the

art- ate a certain t&%e of root or )ushroo) and saw things in an altered state

of consciousness that ins%ired to create these things4

In order to answer these uestions- we will have to look at other hunter:

gatherer societies that have )ade rock art- since no ethnogra%hic

infor)ation is left a$out the Palaeolithic %eriod in (uro%e. It is of course

te)%ting to link other %ri)itive cultures to the Palaeolithic %eo%le fro)

(uro%e- $ut it is i)%ortant to $e careful what to conclude. 5he cultures welook at live far a%art and are ver& different in so)e wa&s; we should kee% that

in )ind. However- considering that the $iological essence of )an is alwa&s

the sa)e- no )atter what culture- so)e things can $e concluded uite

safel&.


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start to stand for the)selves and gain so )uch in )eaning that the& start tolive their own life. 5he changes in the )ind and the e traordinar& states ofconsciousness that are $eing su))oned $& hallucinogens- are so far fro)ever&da& life- that it is i)%ossi$le to descri$e the e %eriences in these ter)s.*o)eone who is under the influence of a hallucinogen leaves the world he isfa)iliar with and is no longer su$,ect to the values of that world; he hasentered a different di)ension and lives in a different ti)e.

5he hallucinations caused $& to ic %lants and the other )anners of co)ing

into an altered state of consciousness as descri$ed earlier- are no real

hallucinations. Rather- the e %eriences are correctl& descri$ed as pseu&o

hallucinations . 5he difference is that %seudo hallucinations can $e

recogni?ed as a direct conse uence of the altered state of consciousness-

while those in real hallucinations are not se%arated fro) realit& $& the )ind.

influence on the )ental and $odil& functions

of hu)ans are what we call hallucinogens . *o)e fungi also $elong to this

grou%. 5he& are $asicall& %oisonous organis)s that are )ostl& not har)ful for

hu)ans when used in the right a)ounts. A ver& s)all grou% of ani)als also

%roduce to ins that can have hallucinator& effects- such as the Bufo alvarius

="olorado River toad>. 5his toad discards a %oison fro) the skin when

touched- that can $e dried and can $e s)oked or taken orall& = he vaults of

Ero5i& DonlineE>. However- this toad and si)ilar toads live onl& in areas outside

of the reach of the Palaeolithic %eo%le- and it is unlikel& the& would ever have

gotten their hands on the). 5here are also the s&nthetic hallucinogens- $ut I

assu)e I don8t have to e %lain that these as well were $e&ond the reach of

the Palaeolithic %eo%le.


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ost of the %ri)itive hunter:gatherer cultures =actuall&- ever& culture-

whether it is %ri)itive or not> that still e ist toda& are at least fa)iliar with

hallucinogens. 5he %lants are often considered to $e sacred or even gods

the)selves. It is likel& that in a world where science %la&s a su$ordinate role-

%lants with %owers that can 9%lace8 a %erson in a different world will have a

great s%iritual )eaning. 5he %lants are often %art of rituals and the like- as will

$e descri$ed later in this essa&. 5his cha%ter will $e on the different t&%es of

hallucinogens that )ight have $een availa$le to the Palaeolithic %eo%le. It is

likel& that for a culture such as in the Palaeolithic %eriod- and $asicall& )ost

other hunter:gatherer cultures- all the %lant life around was known in great

detail. 5he %lants %la& an i)%ortant role as a source of food- $uilding

)aterial- tools- )edicine and also ingredients in rituals. It is not unrealistic tostate that the direct effects of %resent hallucinogens when ingested were

known to the Palaeolithic %eo%le.

5he cli)ate in the Palaeolithic %eriod changes fro) ti)e to ti)e. 5here

were conditions )uch colder than those toda&- $ut also conditions )uch

war)er than those toda&. Palaeolithic art was )ostl& )ade in the C%%er:

Palaeolithic %eriod- in the %leniglacial %eriod. e know this- thanks to the

archaeo$otan& research done on Palaeolithic sites. In this cli)ate- )ostl&

her$s and grasses- as%en and a )inorit& of %ines were growing =. 5he

cli)ate was uite cold- and in the north of


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and in the #Jlling =a$ove>.

In (lants of the Go&s =*chultes F Hof)ann- 1 7> the Amanita muscaria

is descri$ed as a %ossi$le )ushroo) to have grown in a cli)ate as descri$ed

a$ove. It grows in o%en forests or on the edge of a forest )ade out of %ine

trees and as%en or $irch trees. 5he )ushroo) grows %rett& )uch ever&where

in the world- and is $etter known as the red fl& agaric. 5his )ushroo) was

%ro$a$l& also the ingredient to the !oma of ancient India. *o)e other

)ushroo)s in the A)anita genus are not %s&cho:active and contain a

deadl& %oison. It is not reco))ended for an&one who is not a )ushroo)

e %ert to %ick )ushroo)s and consu)e the). 5he effects a consu)er of the

A)anita )uscaria )a& e %erience are eu%horia- %ain relief- rela ation-

internal dialogue- s&nesthesia =the s)elling of words or the seeing of sounds>-

clarit&- internal focus- socia$ilit& and so)eti)es se ual feelings = he vaults of

Ero5i& DonlineE>. 5hese effects %rett& )uch su) u% the usual effects of a 9tri%8-

an altered state of consciousness induced $& so)e hallucinogens- like '*

and %siloc&$in )ushroo)s. In the tri% )ostl& different stages can $e

recognised- each with different effects.

5here are a lot of cos)o%olitan )ushroo)s in this world that could also

have grown in Palaeolithic ti)es- like the )ushroo)s of the (anaeolus or the

(silocy"e genus. 5here are )an& %s&cho:active )ushroo)s with the active

ingredient %siloc&$in; too )an& to na)e here. 5he& all have si)ilar effects like

the Amanita - onl& look a lot less attractive =)ostl& thin long ste)s with a

%oint& hood- in a $rown or white colour>.Another %ossi$le %lant to inha$it the Palaeolithic %lains and forests

)ight have $een the Hyoscyamus 7iger =- )e)$er of the Hen$ane

fa)il&. ost )e)$ers of this fa)il& %ossess so)e kind of %oison that

so)eti)es also has ingredients that can induce hallucinations. 5his %lant was

widel& used in the iddle:Ages $& =su%%osed> witches and sorcerers =*chultes


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F Hof)ann- 1 7>. It can grow in regions that have strong winters- so likel& it

could also have grown in the Palaeolithic landsca%e of iddle: and *outh:

(uro%e. 5he %lant8s %oison causes the user to lose consciousness; in this state

the hallucinations are seen. 5he %lant also has a %ain:killing effect on the

$od& and can cause co)%lete forgetfulness. A %lant like the $lack hendane

$ut less likel& to have grown in the Palaeolithicu) is the $an&ragora

offincinarum or )andrake %lant. 5oda& it grows onl& in the south of (uro%e-

since this %lant a%%reciates war)er cli)ates.


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5here are )an& hallucinogens all over the world that grow in )an&

different cli)ates. In the $arren landsca%e of the Pleniglacial %eriod naturall&

a s)all diversit& of %lants would grow. 5his )a& $e true- $ut it were )ostl&

her$s and grasses that were thriving; )a& it $e es%eciall& her$s that %ossess

hallucinator& ualities. It is ver& %lausi$le that different t&%es of )ushroo)s

with %s&cho:active ualities grew in this cli)ate as well. 5he Amanita

muscaria for e a)%le was for a long %eriod of ti)e the onl& into icating

su$stance in *i$eria; it has $een used $& the *i$erian tri$es and their sha)ans

for a long ti)e- until alcohol was introduced $& the Russians.

It is likel& that also the Palaeolithic %eo%le were fa)iliar with

hallucinogens. 'ike an& other hunter:gatherer culture the& knew their

surroundings in and out. *%iritualit& was )ost %ro$a$l& ver& i)%ortant- andwhat could $e considered )ore s%iritual than %lants and fungi that )ade &ou

see su%ernatural things4

I". Rock Art in various cultures

#efore we look at a few cultures that have )ade rock art- it should $e

e %lained what e actl& we )ean $& the ter) 9 oc4 Art . I noticed that

different scientists often have different ideas of what the ter) Rock Art

)eans- $ut )ostl&- it is used to indicate the art that is )ade in %rehistoric

ti)es or $& hunter:gatherer societies on rock surfaces or solel& )ade out of

rocks = hitle&- 2// >. In this )eaning there are )an& different for)s of Rock

Art. It could indicate %ainting =%ictogra%hs> or engravings =%etrogl&%hs> on

rock surfaces- in caves or shelters or on $oulders in the landsca%e; a whole

different t&%e is the creating of art on the ground surface- either $& scratching

awa& the u%%er la&er of dirt =intaglios> or $& %lacing rocks in a certain %attern

=geogl&%hs> for instance to indicate a sacred %lace = hitle&- 2// >.

5he Palaeolithic culture will $e the last to $e descri$ed- so that we can

kee% all the infor)ation that is gathered in this essa& in )ind when reading on

the Palaeolithic cave art. I realise that )an& different cultures e isted in the

Palaeolithic %eriod- $ut whenever I refer to 9the Palaeolithic culture8 or 9the


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Palaeolithic %eo%le8- I generalise and )ean to refer to the Palaeolithic cave

%ainters in (uro%e.

IV.1 The San of southern Africa

5he *an- so)eti)es referred to as $ush)en- nowada&s live in the Kalahari

desert. A$out a hundred &ears ago- the& still inha$ited southern Africa- $ut

are now cast awa&. 5he *an no longer )ake Rock Art- si)%l& $ecause there

are no rock surfaces in the Kalahari to %aint on. 5he %eo%le who did once

%aint in southern Africa- are all deceased. 'uckil& records of interviews with

southern African *an are %reserved- collected $& ilhel) #lake. ost of the

research on the *an Rock Art has $een done $& avid 'ewis: illia)s ='ewis:

illia)s- 1 /- 1 2- 2//2>- who first discovered the connection $etween the

*an Rock Art and that of the Palaeolithic caves. A fa)ous sight where )an&

of the %aintings are set is the Latal rakens$erg ='ewis: illia)s F owson-

1 2>.

'ike in the case of the Palaeolithic cave art- archaeologists first

dis)issed the art as $eing )ade to increase the chance of a successful hunt.

However- the *an onl& de%ict a s)all nu)$er of creatures- of which the )ost

are elands. Mou could al)ost state that the& are o$sessed with the eland- at

least in an artistic %oint of view. 5he eland is the largest ga?elle in Africa =. 5he& hunt )an& )ore ani)als than the eland alone.


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'ewis: illia)s discovered that )ost of the hu)an and

anthro%o)or%hic figures in the art rese)$led sha)ans. He found this in the

interviews ilhel) #lake had with the original *an living in southern Africa. 5he

*an sha)ans %erfor) a trance:dance =9dance of $lood8> that is still %ractised

toda& a)ong the Kalahari *an. In this ritual the )e)$ers of the tri$e start

singing- $acked u% $& )usic )ade $& other )e)$ers of the tri$e a

rh&th)ic- )es)eri?ing sound is created and the sha)ans start dancing to this

)usic and at a certain %oint in ti)e co)e into a trance. 5he trance in this

case is induced $& auditor&Nrh&th)ic and kinetic driving. @ccasionall& a

sha)an loses consciousness and falls down for a short %eriod of ti)e- or starts

$leeding fro) the nose; this is called the 9d&ing8 of the sha)ans- where the&

enter the s%irit world. *o)eti)es this is also referred to as 9going underwater8or 9entering a waterhole8 to where the s%irits live. La)ing it this wa& is not

strange- considering what the sha)an goes through when he goes into

trance the struggling- gas%ing for $reath- sense of weightlessness- inhi$ited

)ove)ent- affected vision- a 9$u$$ling8 sound in the ears and finall& the loss

of conscious does have a lot of rese)$lances with the e %erience of

drowning. e can now safel& conclude that the de%ictions on the rocks

)ade $& the *an are vivid descri%tions of ecstatic religious e %erience.

*o)eti)es the $leeding fro) the nose is also de%icted =

G5he )utuall& confir)ator& co))ents given $& Oing and i Qkwain show that )an&of the %aintings evoked an e %erience linking hu)ans with the invisi$le and )&sticalworld. Cnlike the e%he)eral dance- which afforded hu)ans access to the $e&ond-the %aintings re)ained constantl& on view to affir) the realit& of the otherworld and

to %roclai) the ulti)ate values of *an societ&.


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. It so)eti)es looks a little like a $oat- hence the na)e =.

5he ento%tic %heno)enon consists of a set of catenar& curves- often

co)$ined with flickering lines or ?ig?ag sha%es. ithin the arc there is a 9$lack

hole8 of invisi$ilit&- which is indicated on figure 13 as a dot. In the *an Rock Art

these navicular sha%es are often %ainted in co)$ination with winged insects

=. 5his indicates that the& %ossi$l& rese)$le hone&co)$s with $ees.

5he *an certainl& en,o&ed to eat hone&co)$s =. *o)e %eo%le $elieve

it is nothing )ore than a de%iction of what the *an like to eat- $ut others- like

'ewis: illia)s- $elieve these are inter%retations of the ento%tic %heno)ena


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that are seen $& the sha)ans in trance. 5his would $e )ore likel&- in )&

o%inion- considering the s%iritual nature of the Rock Art and the e isting link

with the sha)anistic trance. 'ewis: illia)s adds another argu)ent for this

not onl& the vision is altered in trance- $ut also other senses- like the hearing.

In trance- the hearing of a $u??ing sound is uite co))on. 5he inter%retation

of this sound as $eing "ees is a %s&chological ele)ent that differs %er culture.


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5he last two e a)%les are onl& a %ortion of all the infor)ation 'ewis:

illia)s has gathered to %rove that the rock art )ade $& the *an is ins%ired

$& the ecstatic religious e %eriences the sha)ans endure when in trance.

hat is re)arka$le is that there are )an& si)ilarities $etween the art of the

*an and that of the Palaeolithic cave art.


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and in the %rehistor& =right>.

and %rehistoric =right>.

It was discovered later =around the 96/s> that the %aintings were not ,ust

9visual8 creativit&. 5he a$originals %erfor) rituals at the rock shelters- where

rh&th)ic )usic is %la&ed with %ercussion- didgeridoos and singing. Peo%le will

dance to the )usic and tell the ancient stories. 5he %ainted walls of the rock

shelter would hence co)e alive. It is %ro$a$l& $ecause of the co)$ination of

)usic- stor& telling and %ainting that the long continuous link fro) the %ast to

the %resent could e ist. hen )ore than one sense is sti)ulated- the )essage

of art $eco)es stronger.

Re)arka$l&- nothing is known of the use of hallucinogens in Australia

and Lew ealand. 5he %lants although- are %resent. 5he %o%ular and widel&

used Kava:kava %lant is used $& the A$originals on the islands- $ut it is not ahallucination:inducing %lant- and its effect is )ore like that of coffee =which is

a h&%notic>. 5his- together with the a$sence of recognisa$le ento%tic

%heno)ena =with so)e dou$tful e ce%tions dots all over %aintings or

latticed signs as in figure 1 > indicate that it is unlikel& that the a$originals of

Australia de%icted the things the& saw in an altered state of consciousness.


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.


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- that the %rehistoric %eo%le )ade these i)ages $ecause

the& $elieved it would increase their chance of a successful hunt. 5his thought

)ight not $e ver& strange- considering the largest %ortion of the art consists of

%ossi$l& hunted her$ivores. However- after research done on the $ones found

in the caves and other sites- it has $een shown that the %re&ed ani)als were

not %ainted e clusivel&. 5herefore it can $e stated that there was little

correlation $etween the diet and the %aintings of the Palaeolithic %eo%le.


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However- there certainl& was chosen to de%ict onl& certain ani)als and not

all that would have $een fa)iliar to the Palaeolithic %eo%le. . In the

caves- it is not unusual to find a wide range of different kinds of %aintings of

different st&les. 5he %laces in the cave that have $een %ainted also differ

greatl&. hile large o%en s%aces have definitel& $een e %loited- also in ver&

hard:to:get:to s%aces and narrow %assages the %aintings and engravings

occur. It is unlikel& that es%eciall& the %aintings in the narrow %laces were

)ade for an aesthetic reason onl&. Rather- it is %ro$a$le that the caves were

sacred %laces- and the de%ths and secret %assages were %ro$a$l& )ore

sacred in nature due to their difficult:to:reach %osition. 5he theor& that the

%ainted caves were sanctuaries is strengthened $& the fact that the& were

not used for residenc& ='a)ing- 1 >. @ther caves )ight have $een used to

live in- $ut the %articular %ainted caves show no traces of this. It is %ossi$le


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however- that the caves were used for ha$itation for short %eriods- during

feasts and s%ecial cere)onies that )ight have lasted for several da&s. It

should $e noted here that no sufficient archaeological research has $een

done in the %ainted caves and that visitors were )ostl& let in $efore the cave

was co)%letel& )a%%ed =including the floors>.

ost of the de%ictions are uite realistic. A wide variet& of the wildlife

can $e recogni?ed. 5he %aintings and engravings show us what ani)als lived

in (uro%e in the Palaeolithic %eriod- and which were %ro$a$l& )ost i)%ortant

to the %eo%le who )ade these %aintings. A large nu)$er of her$ivores- such

as horses- )a))oths- $ison- $ovids- rhinos- deer and ga?elle are a)ong the

creatures de%icted. *o)e of these could $e %otentiall& dangerous- like the

$ison- rhinoceros and )a))oths. Ani)als that were %ro$a$l& not hunted forfood- like lions and $ears- are also de%icted. Lot )an& hu)ans have $een

de%icted; when the& are shown however- the& lack the realis) )ost of the

ani)als %ossess. In )an& cases it is not the entire hu)an that is %ortra&ed- $ut

onl& the genitalia- as )an& archaeologists $elieve. V:sha%ed engravings are

considered to $e vulvae. 5he )eaning of these de%ictions %ro$a$l& have

so)ething to do with fertilit&. Plants and terrain are rarel& seen in the

Palaeolithic Rock Art. *o)e %aintings )ight %ortra& $ushes- $ut the& are uite

vague. 5here are theories that the rock surface )ight so)eti)es have $een

used to indicate a terrain- as in the case of the frie?e of the swi))ing deer in

the ain +aller& of 'ascau . 5here- according to archaeologists like Annette

'a)ing ='a)ing- A.- 1 >- the natural differences of the rock surface were

used to indicate water- as onl& the heads and necks of the deer are de%icted

=. 5o )e- this sounds like a t&%ical western e %lanation. If figure 2! is

co)%ared to figure 1/ and 16- it see)s the deer )ight as well a%%ear fro) a

%ortal to the otherworld. 5his e %lanation is ,ust as likel&- if not )ore;

considering the likeness of the *an rock art with that of the Palaeolithic caves.


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-

darts- latticed signs or other a$stract figures. *o)eti)es lines are %rotruding

fro) the nose of ani)als or anthro%o)or%hic figures. A good e %lanation has

&et to $e written down. 5here are theories however; )an& archaeologists are

convinced that the darts do actuall& %ortra& darts or har%oons- $ut this is

connected to their $elief that the ani)als were de%icted to 9ca%ture8 theani)als $efore the& would actuall& go out hunting.

5he lines %rotruding fro) the nose or )outh do look a lot like the nasal

$lood that is often de%icted in *an rock art =. In the *an rock art

this indicates the hallucinations e %erienced $& the sha)ans in trance. If the

Palaeolithic %eo%le indeed e %erienced trance- it is %ossi$le the&

e %erienced the sa)e. 5his )ight have $een de%icted.


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o%inion- since this is onl& likel& considering the other hunter:gatherer cultures.

In conclusion I would also like to add a %icture I found in 'ewis: illia)s work

='ewis: illia)s- 2//2>- that shows the si)ilarities $etween the ento%tic

%heno)ena descri$ed in la$oratories- recognised in the *an rock art and in

the Palaeoltihic rock art.


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#i$liography


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3 :6/.

hitle&- .*. 2// . Introduction to rock art research. 'eft "oast Press alnut"reek- "alifornia.

'ist of icturesFig. 1 *ensor& de%rivation. !cience"log 7europhilosophy . Sanuar& 27- 2//0.DonlineE. DAccessed 1! th ece)$er 2//0E. Availa$le fro) orld ide e$Uhtt% NNscience$logs.co)Nneuro%hiloso%h&N2//0N/1Nsensor&Wde%rivation.%h%

Fig. 2 "o))on ento%tic %heno)ena. 'ewis: illia)s- 2//2. A cosmos instone . Page unknown.

Fig. 3 +oggles with '( lights. Ho5 art ma&e the 5orl& . 2//6 D V E

Fig. 4 *everal ento%tic %heno)ena as descri$ed $& a su$,ect. Ho5 art ma&ethe 5orl& . 2//6 D V E

Fig. 5 "li)ate in the Pleniglacial and #Jlling. Liekus- .S. sterreich un &er !ch5ei?- 88@3. 2//7. DonlineE. DAccessed 16th ece)$er 2//0E. Availa$le fro) orldide e$ Uhtt% NNcali$an.)%i?:koeln.)%g.deNYstue$erNtho)eN$and2NtafelW/03.ht)l

Fig. 9 (land. Encyclope&ia Brittanica . ate unknown. DonlineE. DAccessed 13thece)$er 2//0E. Availa$le fro) orld ide e$Uhtt% NNwww.$ritannica.co)N(#checkedNto%icN101 37Neland

Fig. 1: G ance grou% found in the "ave Province. 'ewis: illia)s- 2//2. Acosmos in stone. Page unknown.

Fig. 11 ancing sha)ans with nose$leed. 'ewis: illia)s- 1 /. *iscoveringsouthern African Rock Art. Page 32.


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Fig. 26 'atticed s&)$ols. 'a)ing- A. 1 . 'ascau( & paintings ) engravings.Page 123- 12!.

Fig. 27 5ectifor)s. 'a)ing- A. 1 . 'ascau( & paintings ) engravings. Pageunknown.

Fig. 28 Horse with latticed s&)$ol. 'a)ing- A. 1 . 'ascau( & paintings )engravings. Plate 20.

Fig. 29 Horse of Peche erle. 'ewis: illia)s- 2//2. A cosmos in stone. Page2/0.

Fig. 3: (nto%tic %heno)ena. 'ewis: illia)s- 2//2. A cosmos in stone. Pageunknown.

hallucinogens and rock art (eva hopman)

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