guidelines for making reading-writing conections timothy shanahan university of illinois at chicago...
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Guidelines for Making Guidelines for Making Reading-Writing Reading-Writing
Conections Conections Timothy Shanahan
University of Illinois at Chicago
www.shanahanonliteracy.com
Writing: The Neglected “R”Writing: The Neglected “R”
Of the “3 Rs,” writing has been accorded the least attention
Notion has been that reading is a widely needed skill, but that writing is an elite skill
The National Reading Panel did not examine writing research (though it considered reviewing it)
According to the National According to the National Commission on Writing…Commission on Writing…
More than 90% of mid-career professionals indicate that writing is important in their work
Writing is essential for success in higher education, yet more than 50% of college freshmen have serious writing problems
Fewer than 30% of elementary and high school students meet NAEP’s writing proficiency standards
National Assessment National Assessment
Grade
Below
Basic Basic Proficient Advanced
4 16% 60% 23% 1%
8 16% 56% 27% 1%
12 22% 55% 22% 1%
According to NAEP…According to NAEP…
Students can write, but they cannot produce writing at high levels of skill, maturity, and sophistication
Few students can produce precise, engaging, and coherent prose
Fewer than a quarter can write convincing, elaborated responses with compelling language
Reading-Writing RelationshipsReading-Writing Relationships
Given the high profile of reading, writing must be considered relative reading
Writing and reading depend on a common core of knowledge
Writing requires deeper processing than reading
But how can reading and writing be best combined for efficiency and effectiveness?
Research SourcesResearch Sources
Shanahan, T. (2008). Relations among oral language, reading, and writing development. In C. A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of Writing Research (pp. 171-186). New York: Guilford Press.
Tierney, R. J., & Shanahan, T. (1991). Research on the reading-writing relationship: Interactions, transactions, and outcomes. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research (pp. 246-280). New York: Longman.
Principle 1: Principle 1: Teach both reading and writingTeach both reading and writing
Statistical analyses show that the relationships between reading and writing are bidirectional
To fully exploit the relationships, reading and writing BOTH must be taught
Writing instruction and practice daily and of sufficient duration to develop quality writers
To maximize literacy learning and to take advantage of the relationships across reading and writing it is essential to teach both reading and writing
Since every school stresses reading my emphasis here is on adding writing to the equation
The next several slides are about what we know about the teaching of writing
Status of writing instructionStatus of writing instruction
Unfortunately, writing is not being taughtNCLB did not require itState curricula do include writing, but
without much emphasisEfforts like Reading First downplayed the
role of writing to “protect” the place of reading in the school day
Chicago Reading FrameworkChicago Reading Framework
2-3 hours of daily instruction in literacyWord knowledge (phonological
awareness, letters, phonics, sight vocabulary, spelling, meaning vocabulary)
Fluency (accuracy, rate, expression)Reading comprehension (important
information, genre/text structure, strategies)
Writing
The PThe P33A Writing CurriculumA Writing Curriculum
Purpose Writers need to write for a variety of purposes
Process Writers need to engage successfully in the writing process
Product Writers need to produce effective pieces of writing
Audience Writers need to meet the needs of a variety of audiences
Research ReviewResearch Review
Best review of writing instruction research in the past 20 years:
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 445–476.
Graham & Perin ReviewGraham & Perin Review
Synthesized results from 123 experimental and quasi-experimental studies of writing instruction grades 4-12
Studies covered 11 different approaches to the teaching of writing
Quality of writing was the outcome measure
Approaches: Process-WritingApproaches: Process-Writing
Extended writing opportunities
Writing for real audiences
Engaging in the writing process
High levels of student interaction and ownership
Personalized individual feedback and (perhaps) some systematic instruction
Explicit InstructionExplicit Instruction
Grammar Explicit systematic instruction of parts of speech and sentences
Sentence combining Creating more sophisticated sentences through combination of sentences
Strategy instruction Teaching strategies for planning, revising, editing
Summarization Explicit systematic instruction in how to summarize text
Text structure Explicit systematic instruction in text organization
ScaffoldingScaffoldingPrewriting Engaging students in prewriting
practice
Inquiry Helping students plan by analyzing data
Procedural facilitation External prompts: guides, heuristics
Peer assistance Having students work together
Models Examinations of specific types of text
Product goals Assigning writing goals
Feedback Information is provided on the adequacy of the writing
Alternative ModelsAlternative Models
Word Processing Provides technological support for students to use computers for writing and revising
Extra writing Increased opportunities to write or to engage in a particular type of writing
Graham & Perin ResultsGraham & Perin Resultsd n
Strategy instruction .82 20
Summarization .82 4
Peer assistance .75 7
Product goals .70 5
Word processing .55 18
Sentence combining .50 5
Prewriting .32 5
Process approach .32 21
Inquiry .32 5
Models .25 6
Grammar -.43 11
Graham & Perin Results (cont.)Graham & Perin Results (cont.)
Process writing had moderate effect on student writing in grades 4-6 when teachers received professional development, and no effects in grades 7-12
Though grammar instruction was not effective in any study, it was the control group treatment in all but one of the studies in this set
Strategy instruction was effective across all grade levels, but biggest effects on struggling students
Graham & Perin Results (cont.)Graham & Perin Results (cont.)
Impossible to draw meaningful conclusions on text structure instruction (too few students, results too varied, etc.)
Inquiry studies were all done at grades 7-12 and had small-to-moderate effects
All peer assistance studies had significant outcomes (grades 4-12)
Lots of unexplained variability in size of effect for word processing
Graham & Perin ConclusionsGraham & Perin Conclusions
Many approaches have sizable and reliable impacts on students’ writing quality (strategy teaching most effective, but many other things work, too)
Combinations might be best: explicitly teach writing strategies, involving students in peer guidance, using word processors, along with many of the other smaller-effects approaches might merit inclusion
Guideline 2: Begin early with both Guideline 2: Begin early with both
reading and writing reading and writing
Historically, instruction has treated reading as the enabling skill for writing
National Early Literacy Panel (Pre-k and K) findings
National Reading Panel (invented spelling)Role of oral language
Because it is possible to draw benefits from combining reading and writing early on, the emphasis here is on how to facilitate early writing
The next several slides focus on how to engage even very young preschoolers in oral composition
And on the importance of encouraging kids to write early (not just compose) through “invented spelling”
The goal in these early years should be on fluency
Language-Experience ApproachLanguage-Experience Approach
Shared experience with lots of discussion (opportunity to build knowledge and to enhance oral language)
Children dictate sentences about the shared experience
Teacher transcribes the textTeacher reads the text Children “read” along with the teacherChildren copy and illustrate the story or
article
Invented spelling: Letter nameInvented spelling: Letter name
sep taddebar bopysek alls nubrsegliow fall grapofes pan stapswel atteptletl git
scichtap adsavinricet kdcliccidejches
Invented spellingInvented spelling
Stage 1: Precommunicative SpellingScribbles, letter-like forms, letters,
numbers to represent messageMay write from left-to-right, right-to-left,
top-to-bottom, or randomlyNo understanding of phoneme-grapheme
relationshipsMay mix upper and lower case letters but
preference is for upper case
Invented spellingInvented spelling
Stage 2: Semiphonetic SpellingShows awareness of the alphabetic
principle, that letters represent sounds Uses abbreviated one, two, or three letter
spellings to represent entire words Child uses letter-name strategy to
represent sounds
Invented spellingInvented spelling
Stage 3: Semiphonetic Spelling Represents all essential sound features Uses particular spellings for long and
short vowels, plural and past tense markers, and other aspects of spelling
Child chooses letters on basis of sound, but without regard for English letter sequences or other conventions
Invented spellingInvented spelling
Stage 4: Transitional Spelling Uses basic spelling conventions Begins to use morphological and visual
information along with soundsMay include all appropriate letters but
reverse someMay use alternate spellings for the same
sound in different words, but only partially understands the rules
High percentage of accurate spellings
Invented spellingInvented spelling
Stage 5: Correct Spelling Applies basic rules of the English spelling
systemGrowing accuracy with silent consonants,
double consonants before affixesCan recognize that a word doesn’t look
rightSpells irregular spelling patterns correctlyCan spell a large number of words
Fluency instructionFluency instruction
Difficulties in processing text as a reader or writing sufficient amounts as a writer
Fluency should be an early goal
Peter Elbow’s work on turning off your editor (limit the amount of early editing)
Writing marathons
Handwriting and spellingHandwriting and spelling
Research shows that young children’s writing quality, quantity, and motivation are limited by handwriting
Some instruction in how to print or write cursive are beneficial to composition
Spelling inventions are a useful process, but these inventions are based on student knowledge from reading, phonics, spelling instruction
Guideline 3: Make reading-writing Guideline 3: Make reading-writing connections explicit connections explicit
Memory tends to be function-specific Teaching can help students to generalize
or to apply in other settingsTo do this instruction should highlight
models of clear connections between reading and writing
And instruction should encourage reflection on reading-writing connections
Text structureText structure
Writing imitating literary models Select text with strong structure or style
(pattern books work great with younger children, more subtle—but still clear–structures for older students)
Read text to students to studentsDiscuss the patternProvide a structural prompt or frameGroup writing to start outRead/write similar texts (process talks)
Pattern writingPattern writing
“Whistle, Mary, whistle,And you shall have a cow.”
“I can’t whistle, Mother,Because I don’t know how.”
“Whistle, Mary, whistle,And you shall have a …
Whistle, Mary, Whistle frameWhistle, Mary, Whistle frame
“Whistle Mary, whistle,and you shall have a cow.”_______ ________, ________, verb name verb
and you shall have a ______.” gift
I can’t ________, _________, verb name 2because I _________________
rhyme reason
Structure Definition Key Words
Description “list” of facts, characteristics, traits, or features
Time sequence facts, events, processes, or concepts in temporal order
on (date), not long after, now, as, before, after, when, finally
Enumeration list of several descriptions, usually organized in some way
to begin with, first, secondly, next, then, finally, most important, also, in fact, for instance, for example
Cause and effect showing facts, events, concepts occur because of other facts, events or concepts
because, since, therefore, consequently, as a result, this led to, so that, thus, if...then, accordingly
Problem/ solution
development of a problem (usually in form of cause and effect) and events that can interrupt this causal connection
because, since, therefore, consequently, as a result, this led to, so that, thus, if...then, accordingly
Comparison/ contrast
likenesses or differences among facts, people, events, concepts
however, but, as well as, on the other hand, not only... but also, either...or, while, although, unless, similarly, yet
Character Change ChartCharacter Change ChartWhat is main character like at the beginning of the story?
What is the main character like at the end of the story? How has he or she changed?
Crisis
Given this character change, what do you think the author wanted you to learn? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Guideline 4: Emphasize content Guideline 4: Emphasize content and process relationships.and process relationships.
Reading and writing share a body of underlying knowledge (letter-sound relationships, vocabulary, text structures, grammar, dependence on world knowledge, etc.)
Reading and writing also rely on a collection of cognitive processes (recall of prior knowledge, prediction, revision, etc.
Similar Similar content/processescontent/processes
ReadingDecodingVocabularyText organizationReading fluencyPreviewing/PredictingReviewing prior
knowledgeRevising
interpretations
WritingSpellingVocabulary/dictionText organizationWriting fluencyPlanning/PrewritingReviewing prior
knowledgeRevising text
Process talksProcess talks
Process similarities tend to be analogs (they are similar, but not really the same)
Process talks across reading and writing can be useful
Have students reflect on how reading and writing are similar
Guide them to think about their writing experiences during reading and their reading experiences during writing
Guideline 5: Emphasize reader-Guideline 5: Emphasize reader-writer connections writer connections
Emphasis here is on communicationGood reading instruction will foster author
awarenessGood writing instruction will foster
sensitivity to the needs of an audience
Author awarenessAuthor awareness
Young children don’t know about authorsBy ages 5 or 6, readers construct an
egocentric author, but can recognize common style across books
By 12 or 13, readers recognize that authors have intent (and can do some low level text interpretation)
Still later, readers learn to use the author as an interpretive construct (e.g., sourcing)
Moffett’s Discourse RelationsMoffett’s Discourse Relations
Reflection (diaries, logs, daybooks)Conversation (dialogues, notes,
Twittering)Correspondence (letters, emails)Publication (reports, blogs, “books”)
Guideline 5: Literacy must be Guideline 5: Literacy must be learned across the curriculumlearned across the curriculum
Reading and writing differ in various content areas
Texts from different fields different in content, structure, language, style, density, social nature of discourse
Kids need opportunities to read different kinds of text
Kids need opportunities to write different kinds of text
Guideline 6: Provide explicit Guideline 6: Provide explicit instruction instruction
ModelingExplicit explanation of what you are doing
(what, how, when, why) Scaffolded practiceCollaborative practiceIndividual/independent practice
Think Sheets: Ideas SectionDirections: How does Lydia Grace show strength during her year away?
While reading, answer the questions with evidence from the story. These questions will help you to use narrative elements (plot, characters, and setting) to understand the story. The narrative elements are highlighted to assist you. The first one is done for you.
1. Page 25 Setting
Question Evidence
When does story take place? August 27, 1935
Where does Uncle Jim ask Lydia to go?
Grandma told us after supper that you want me to come to the city and live there until things get better.
How do we know the family is facing tough times?
Did she tell you that Papa had been out of work for a long time, and no one asks Mama to make dresses anymore?
2. Page 26 Characters
Question Evidence
How do we know Lydia Grace likes to garden?
How does Lydia Grace feel about cooking?
How does Lydia Grace feel about Grandma?
Setting Plot
Character
Graphic OrganizerDirections: You have gathered evidence based on the narrative elements of The Gardener. Now it is time to plan. Select the 1 or 2 pieces of evidence for each of the elements below that you believe will help you to write an essay to explain how Lydia Grace showed her strength in her year away. You do not have to use complete sentences here.
Extended WritingDirections: Use the evidence you selected for the graphic organizer on
your planning page to write an essay responding to the question: How does Lydia Grace show her strength during her year away? You may continue writing on the next page.
Essay Writing GuidelinesIntroduction: Tell what you are going to write about.Body: Tell what happened to Lydia Grace acted during her year away and how she reacted to these events. Reread to make sure your evidence is logically connected.Conclusion: Tell how you think Lydia Grace showed strength during her year away.
Some Useful Writing ResourcesSome Useful Writing Resources
Culham, R. 6+1 Traits of writing. New York: Scholastic.
Fisher, D., & Frey, N. Scaffolded writing instruction. New York: Scholastic.
Graham, S., et al. Best practices in writing instruction. New York: Guilford.
Temple, C., et al. The beginnings of writing. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
