guidelines for human settlement planning and design · volume 1 human settlement planning and...

VOLUME 1

HUMAN SETTLEMENT

PLANNING

AND DESIGN

G u i d e l i n e s f o r

Compiled under the patronage of the Department of Housingby CSIR Building and Construction Technology

Compiled under the patronage of the Department of Housingb y C S I R B u i l d i n g a n d C o n s t r u c t i o n T e c h n o l o g y

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GUIDELINES FOR HUMAN SETTLEMENT PLANNING AND DESIGN

Foreword

FOREWORD

The establishment of economically, physically, environmentally and socially integrated and sustainable builtenvironments is one of the most important factors which will contribute to harnessing the full developmentpotential of South Africa and addressing distortions of the past and the future needs of our growing population.This goal cannot be achieved without the active participation of especially local government, the private sector andcommunities in partnership with one another.

This manual, Guidelines for Human Settlement Planning and Design, provides a guiding vision for South Africansettlement formation, addressing the qualities that should be sought after in our human settlements, andproviding guidance on how these can be achieved. The publication has been developed over a period of more thantwo years through a participative process in which stakeholders and experts from various disciplines were involved.

This book is intended to be a living document and you, the reader, are one of its architects. I therefore encourageyou to use it, discuss it and debate the guidelines it contains. Still, this work is not the last word on the subject, andyour feedback and comments would be welcome. Your active involvement will be the key to the successfulattainment of sustainable, habitable living environments in South Africa.

MS S MTHEMBI-MAHANYELEMINISTER OF HOUSING

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Published by CSIR Building and Construction TechnologyP O Box 395, Pretoria, 0001

Copyright vests in the CSIR2000, CSIR, Pretoria

Boutek Report No. BOU/E2001

Reprint 2005Capture Press, Pretoria

ISBN 0-7988-5498-7

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The following persons and organisations were involved in the preparation of this document:

Project manager:

Mr L M Austin CSIR Boutek

Project coordinators:

Ms H D Bekker CSIR BoutekDr S M Biermann CSIR BoutekMr J S Stiff CSIR TransportekMs L Vosloo CSIR BoutekMr K M Wolhuter CSIR Transportek

Authors:

Mr A Adam MCA Urban and Environmental Planners ccMr L M Austin CSIR BoutekDr D I Banks Energy & Development Research Centre, University of Cape TownMr R Behrens Urban Problems Research Unit, University of Cape TownMr W Blersch Ninham Shand (North) (Pty) Ltd, Consulting EngineersMs E Brink CSIR BoutekMs K Burger Burger & Waluk Town PlannersMr J W M Cameron TRC Africa (Pty) LtdMr W D Cowan Energy & Development Research Centre, University of Cape TownProf D Dewar School of Architecture & Planning, University of Cape TownMr L Druce VBGD Town & Regional PlannersMs L C Duncker CSIR BoutekMr O J Gerber GIBB Africa (Pty) Ltd, Consulting EngineersMr D J Jones CSIR TransportekMr G Jordaan Holm & Jordaan Architects and Urban DesignersMs T Katzschner Urban Problems Research Unit, University of Cape TownMs K Landman CSIR BoutekMs A Lebelo Ninham Shand (North) (Pty) Ltd, Consulting EngineersMs A Loots Holm & Jordaan Architects and Urban DesignersMs N Mammon Mammon Rendall Planners and Designers ccMr G J Morris Feather EnergyDr P Paige-Green CSIR TransportekMr E R Painting Mothopo Technologies cc, Management & Engineering ConsultantsMr C Sadler Bergman-Ingerop (Pty) Ltd, Consulting EngineersMr J S Stiff CSIR TransportekMr J S Strydom CSIR BoutekMr H L Theyse CSIR TransportekProf F Todeschini School of Architecture & Planning, University of Cape TownProf R Uytenbogaardt School of Architecture & Planning, University of Cape TownMr S van Huyssteen CSIR TransportekProf A T Visser Department of Civil Engineering, University of PretoriaDr K C Wall Ninham Shand (Pty) Ltd, Consulting EngineersProf V Watson Urban Problems Research Unit, University of Cape TownMr K M Wolhuter CSIR Transportek

The NRS Project, Eskom, provided material on electricity supply, based on documents approved by the ElectricitySuppliers Liaison Committee, on which Eskom, AMEU, the Chamber of Mines and the South African Bureau ofStandards are represented.

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Acknowledgements

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Acknowledgements

Steering Committees:

Ms G Abrahams Gemey AbrahamsDevelopment Planning andHousing Policy Consultant

Prof W J R Alexander Department of CivilEngineering, University ofPretoria

Mr W S D Clarke Southern Metropolitan LocalCouncil of GreaterJohannesburg

Mr P Dacomb Association of ConsultingTown and Regional Planners

Mr R Dauskardt Department of Development& Planning, Gauteng

Mr J de Meyer Wade RefuseMr F Druyts Department of Water Affairs

& ForestryMr S Hartley Department of Water Affairs

& ForestryProf E Horak Department of Civil

Engineering, University ofPretoria

Mr D Hunt Eskom / NRSMr B M Jackson Development Bank of

Southern AfricaMr A Lagardien School of Architecture,

Building and CivilEngineering, PeninsulaTechnikon

Mr N Letter Eastern MetropolitanSubstructure of GreaterJohannesburg

Mr N A Macleod Durban MetroMr G A Norris CSIR BoutekMr A Otto Department of Minerals &

EnergyMr I H Palmer Palmer Development GroupMr G Schermers CSIR TransportekMr C J Schlotfeldt CSIR BoutekMr C Theron Greater Pretoria Metropolitan

CouncilMr J van der Walt Department of TransportDr I van Wyk Africon, Consulting EngineersMr P S Van Zyl South African Planning

InstitutionMr P Vickers Department of Water Affairs

& ForestryProf A T Visser Department of Civil

Engineering, University ofPretoria

Mr H Vorster City Council of PretoriaMr J A Wates Wates, Meiring & Barnard,

Consulting Engineers

Coordinating Committee:

CSIR Boutek representatives:

Mr L M AustinMr C J Schlotfeldt

Departmental representatives:

Mr P F Jordaan Environmental Affairs &Tourism

Mr M Krynauw TransportMr Z Nofemela Constitutional DevelopmentMr G Oosthuizen Water Affairs & ForestryMr G Oricho Land AffairsMr A Otto Minerals & EnergyMr S J Smit Public WorksMr U Tembo TransportMs L van Zyl Trade & IndustryMr J Wallis HousingMs B Zinde Environmental Affairs &

Tourism

Provincial representatives:

Mr C W Browne GautengMr C Burger Eastern CapeMr J A Cattanach GautengMr D B Dunstan KwaZulu-NatalMr A T Fourie Western CapeMr S F Haasbroek Northern CapeMr H G Hadebe MpumalangaMr P Labuschagne Free StateMr M M Mokoena Free StateMr C H A Ratnam North WestMr R J Stubbs KwaZulu-NatalMr M van der Merwe Northern Province

Others:

Mr R G Böhmer CSIR BoutekMs C du Plessis CSIR BoutekMr D M Kruger CSIR BoutekMs S Liebermann CSIR BoutekMr M Mavuso CSIR BoutekMr K J Mkhabela CSIR BoutekMr M Napier CSIR BoutekMs I S Oberholzer CSIR BoutekMs I Ringel CSIR BoutekMs L Slump CSIR BoutekMs B J van Reenen

Photographs, Chapter 6:

Mr E R Painting Mothopo Technologies cc,Management & EngineeringConsultants

Cover design:

Truter & Truter Design & Advertising (Pty) Ltd

Design and layout:

African Watermark Graphic Design

RECORD OF REVISIONS AND AMENDMENTS

Revisions: Remove existing chapter(s) and substitute with the attached revised chapter(s).

Amendments: Remove existing page(s) and substitute the attached new page(s). A vertical line in the marginshows where a change has been made (there are no amendments to date).


Record of revisions and amendments

Date Chapter Title Rev Amdt PageNo. No. number(s)

August 2003 9 Water supply 1 - All

August 2003 10 Sanitation 1 - All

Volume 2

Index

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 A framework for settlement-making

Chapter 3 Spatial and structural principles for settlement-making

Chapter 4 Planning method and participation

Chapter 5 Planning guidelines

5.1 Movement networks5.2 Public transport5.3 Hard open spaces5.4 Soft open spaces5.5 Public facilities5.6 Land subdivision5.7 Public utilities5.8 Cross-cutting issues

5.8.1 Environmental designfor safer communities

5.8.2 Ecologically sound urban development

5.8.3 Fire safety

Chapter 6 Stormwater management

Chapter 7 Roads: Geometric design and layoutplanning

Chapter 8 Roads: Materials and construction

Chapter 9 Water supply

Chapter 10 Sanitation

Chapter 11 Solid waste management

Chapter 12 Energy

12.1 Grid electricity12.2 Other forms of energy

Volume 1

Introduction

1

Chapter 1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NEED FOR A REVISED DOCUMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Historical perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

A “living document”: the Red Book workshops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

PURPOSE AND LEGAL STATUS OF THIS DOCUMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ROLES AND INTERACTION OF PROFESSIONALS INVOLVED IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT . . . . . . . . . . . 3

HOW TO USE THE DOCUMENT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

STRUCTURE OF THE DOCUMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

CONCLUSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

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Introduction Chapter 1

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BACKGROUND

This document is the result of a collaborative effort byseveral government departments under the auspicesof the Department of Housing. Mutual concern for thequality of the built environment and the country’snatural resources, as well as a common recognition ofthe role that human settlement planning and theprovision of engineering services plays in its protectionor destruction, was the catalyst for this multi-departmental cooperation. The process was overseenby a coordinating committee consisting ofrepresentatives of the various departments, whosemain role was overall guidance, policy direction andfinancial control. Detailed guidance and control of thewritten content was provided by various steeringcommittees, each consisting of a number ofpractitioners acknowledged for their expertise in theparticular fields. The work was contracted to the CSIRin accordance with a detailed proposal submitted tothe then National Housing Board in August 1995.Overall project management was undertaken by theCSIR’s Division of Building and ConstructionTechnology, while other divisions, as well as variousexternal organisations, also provided technical andrelated expertise.

NEED FOR A REVISED DOCUMENT

This aspect is best explained by a brief summary of, first,the developments leading to the publication of the firstedition of the Red Book and, second, the workshopsthat followed this event. These ultimately led to theformulation of a detailed proposal for a completerevision of the document and the multi-departmentalinitiatives for funding and guiding the process.

Historical perspective

For many years it has been widely recognised that thecost of providing engineering services forms asignificant component of the overall cost of housing.Where capital subsidies for housing schemes areinvolved, the cost of engineering services couldconsume anything between 50 and 100% of thesubsidy, depending on, among other things, siteconditions and levels of service provided (Schlotfeldt1995b). In any development scheme, therefore, layoutplanning and the concomitant design of engineeringservices should receive particular care and attention inorder to optimise the levels of service within the givenfinancial parameters. Until comparatively recentlyengineers were seldom presented with the complextask of choosing between a great variety of serviceoptions, particularly in the fields of water supply andsanitation. The policies of the various authoritieslargely dictated the levels of service to be provided ineach case, and engineers merely confined themselvesto the technical and contractual aspects of design andconstruction (Austin 1996).

The last two decades, however, have seen therecognition of, first, the effect of layout planning onthe cost of providing engineering services and, second,the impact of services on the continually rising cost ofhousing. They have also seen the appearance ofvarious guideline documents aimed at optimising theprovision of services which are not only of soundengineering quality but acceptable (both financiallyand technologically) to the recipient communities aswell. The Blue Book, Green Book and Red Bookguidelines prepared by the CSIR take their titles fromthe colour of their respective ring binders, andrepresent some of the efforts made over this period toaddress the issue. This revised document has evolvedpartly as a natural progression from the previousguidelines, but has also been substantially revised andexpanded to present a holistic, integrated approach tosettlement planning.

The previous edition of the Red Book, entitledGuidelines for the provision of engineering servicesand amenities in residential township development,was completed in 1992. Due to the political changestaking place in the country at the time, however, thedocument was not published until 1994. It wasfurthermore realised that the guidelines were nolonger capable of meeting the challenges facingdevelopers in the times of societal change which thecountry was experiencing. The book was considered tohave a number of shortcomings which restricted itsusefulness in the drive to produce sustainable andvibrant human settlements, as opposed to mereserviced townships (Austin and Biermann 1998). Someof the perceived shortcomings were: outdated andunwieldy urban-planning principles, insufficientinformation on various appropriate engineeringtechnologies, and a general lack of an integratedapproach to settlement planning. It was thereforedecided to gather feedback from users of the book bymeans of a series of countrywide workshops, wherethese and other problems could be debated byexperienced professionals.

The purpose of this document is not merely to assistprofessionals in producing efficiently serviced“townships”, but rather to create sustainable andvibrant human settlements. This approach is reflectedin the new title of the book - Guidelines for HumanSettlement Planning and Design (Austin and Biermann1998). In this context, a “human settlement” isregarded as any built environment where people live,work and play, with the provision that only residentialareas, and other developments associated therewith,are considered in this book.

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A “living document”: the Red Bookworkshops

In terms of its mandate, the Division of Building andConstruction Technology has undertaken to maintainthe Red Book as a continually updated “livingdocument” (Schlotfeldt 1995a). Standards should beseen as a reflection of society’s values at any giventime; moreover, values and priorities are not inflexiblebut rather in a constant state of change. Technologyalso develops and changes and the Red Book shouldreflect this evolution. A series of five workshops wereheld in February and March 1995 in Bloemfontein,Cape Town, Pretoria, Durban and Port Elizabeth,where users and other interested parties wereafforded the opportunity to discuss the applicability ofthe guidelines and provide constructive criticism with aview to the document’s improvement and furtherdevelopment. Other forums, such as conferences andmeetings of a number of professional societies, werealso used as platforms for discussion and informationconcerning the book.

The workshops were attended by nearly 700 delegatesrepresenting a wide range of interests (e.g. consultingengineers, urban planners, local and regionalauthorities, provincial and central governmentdepartments, universities, technikons, developers,manufacturers, financiers and NGOs). The result of thedeliberations was a great number of valuablerecommendations and suggestions for improving theguidelines, as well as many requests for additionalguidelines on various subjects. All therecommendations received serious consideration andthe vast majority have been taken up in this reviseddocument. There was consensus amongst all partiespresent at the workshops that, in any development, aholistic, integrated planning process is an essentialrequirement and that planners, engineers and otherprofessionals need to work together right from theconceptual stage of a project to achieve this. It islargely as a result of the input from the planningprofession during these and later deliberations thatnot only was a framework for the redevelopment ofthe urban planning guidelines produced, but also theguiding philosophy for the entire document.

Investment in infrastructure is crucial to the efficiencyand habitability of our urban areas. World Bankresearch (South Africa 1995) indicates that investmentin infrastructure stock has a significant impact on GDPgrowth, as infrastructure raises general levels ofwelfare and health. It is also realised, however, thateliminating - or even just reducing - the housingbacklog will simply be beyond reach if the highestlevel of infrastructure (i.e. fully reticulated water andelectricity supply, full waterborne sanitation, etc) isregarded as the norm. There needs to be space forincremental approaches to provide sustainable andaffordable levels of service while ensuring acceptableand adequate functionality. Creative and varied

solutions are thus required, and it is not necessary toconfine housing strategies to conventional methodsand technologies. A balance between establishedpractices and new ideas and developments is thusrequired.

PURPOSE AND LEGAL STATUS OFTHIS DOCUMENT

Urban planners and engineers are continuallyconfronted with the dichotomy of the needs oraspirations of communities versus their ability to payfor housing and services (Austin 1996). The centralgovernment has set limits on its ability to providegrants and subsidies for services. Local governmentswill therefore be largely responsible for makingprovision for access to most of the engineering servicesand amenities by persons residing within their area ofjurisdiction. Furthermore, these services and amenitiesmust be rendered in an environmentally sustainablemanner and must also be financially and physicallypracticable. Information is thus required on allavailable service technologies and complementaryspatial settlement planning, so that informed decisionsmay be made on what is most suited to a particularcommunity and what is sustainable.

The need for this information is not confined totechnical professionals only. All those who arerequired to take decisions on policy at the variouslevels of government or within non-governmentalorganisations can benefit substantially by havinggreater insight into the possibilities and limitations ofvarious available options. Such insights will enablethem to interact more effectively with consultants andcommunity structures, and the Red Book is also aimedat providing these insights in a manner that is bothunderstandable and useful to non-technical persons.

For sustainable progress, as well as for the generalhealth and well-being of the population, settlementsshould be coherently planned; there shouldfurthermore be a choice between a range ofaffordable technologies, particularly in the water-supply and sanitation fields. Service levels should beappropriate, as a high level of service which fails (forwhatever reason) may well pose a greater threat topublic health and the environment than aninadequate lower level of service. Various factors, forexample high population densities or adversegeotechnical conditions, may also dictate thatconsideration be given to alternative types of servicetechnology. However, only proven designs should beused and, ideally, communities should be able toexercise choice within a range of approved designs. Inthis context, appropriate technology may be definedas “meeting the needs of a particular community at aparticular time”.

In order to achieve the above objectives, engineersand urban planners need to be provided withguidelines, as opposed to standards. Guidelines areintended to assist decision-making, whereas standardsare enforceable absolute limits (Schlotfeldt 1995a). It isrecognised that both the rigid application ofguidelines as well as the setting of inappropriatestandards can have the opposite effect to thatintended. The inter-departmental coordinatingcommittee tasked with overall direction of the revisionof the Red Book, as well as the steering committeesinvolved, were of the opinion that the concept of“guidelines” should continue to prevail, and that theprovisions of this document could thus not be legallyenforceable. The use of these guidelines by the variousdisciplines involved in the design, supply andmanagement of serviced land for residentialdevelopment would be strongly encouraged, however.

It should be noted that only “local” services andplanning issues are considered. Bulk services andamenities - for example main water supply pipelines,outfall sewers, treatment works, landfills, freewaysand so forth - are considered beyond the scope of thisdocument.

The intention of the new Red Book is to provideperformance-based guidelines for informed decision-making. The purpose is essentially to indicate thequalities that should be sought in South Africansettlements, and to provide practical guidance onhow these qualities can be achieved. The document istherefore intended to be educative, providing ideasand useful information, and not as a substitute forinnovative planning and engineering practice(Behrens 1997).

ROLES AND INTERACTION OFPROFESSIONALS INVOLVED IN THEBUILT ENVIRONMENT

The primary readers of this book will be the range ofprofessional and other persons that contribute to theplanning and design of human settlements (i.e.architects, urban designers, town and regionalplanners, civil, transportation and electrical engineers,energy practitioners, etc) from both the private andpublic sectors. The document attempts to integrateinformation that is relevant across different disciplinesand, unlike its predecessor, moves away from havingseparate and exclusive sections on “engineering” and“planning”.

The fullest cooperation between the variousprofessionals engaged in human-settlement planningis crucial to achieving sustainability, and thus alsoreplicability (Austin and Biermann 1998). A commonstrategy is required in order for the developmentprocess to be geared towards meeting the particularneeds of communities in a manner which is acceptable

to them, and not merely acceptable to the planner,designer, financier or local authority. The guidelinesrepresent a balanced and integrated approach tosettlement planning and, although unlikely to satisfyeverybody, represent the culmination of four years ofintensive planning, research, writing, debate,questioning, criticism and rewriting. Engineers,architects, urban planners and academics haveworked together and achieved basic agreement onthe requirements for housing the nation in asustainable manner.

This document is the result of input from a wide rangeof participants. Relevant national and provincialgovernment departments were involved throughrepresentation on the coordinating committee. Localgovernment, the private sector, academics andorganised professional bodies participated throughthe various steering committees. Academic andpractising experts contributed by authoring sections ofthe book. Specialist workshops, involving a broaderspectrum of expertise, were held at key stages duringthe process to debate concepts and drafts. Universities,professional engineering and planning bodies,relevant national, provincial and local governmentdepartments and bodies, as well as selected practisingconsultants, all formed part of a beta-testingprogramme, where the final draft was distributed to asample of potential users of the book for comment.

HOW TO USE THE DOCUMENT

This document is explicitly not intended to be anadministrative “check list” for local authority officials(Behrens 1997). It will instead provide guidance onappropriate practices and technologies. Emphasis isplaced on assessing “performance” (in relation toissues like health, safety, recreation, education andtrade) as opposed to simply assessing the quantitativedimensions of the plan to ensure some form ofcompliance with stated norms. Once again it isemphasised that these are guidelines, notspecifications. The document therefore does notremove professional responsibility from practitioners,and certainly does not replace the need forprofessional experience and judgement. The contentsshould therefore not be rigidly applied, but ratherperceived as an aid to preparing one’s own projectplans and specifications.

Various national and provincial governmentdepartments, statutory bodies and local authoritiesmay also have their own sets of guidelines for use byplanners and engineers. It is not the intention of thisdocument to take the place of these other guidelines.Rather, the Red Book should be considered as beingsupplementary to them, because local conditions andexperiences can often dictate what procedure shouldbe followed in specific cases.

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STRUCTURE OF THE DOCUMENT

Although significant effort was made to approach therevision process in an integrated manner, thepresentation of the material in document formrequired it to be divided into manageable andreadable sections.

Chapter 2 provides a guiding philosophical frameworkfor the entire document and discusses an appropriatecontext for settlement-making relating to the twocentral concerns of human- and nature-centreddevelopment. Performance qualities are identified,clarifying desirable achievements in settlementformation. The nature and planning of humansettlements is described and the importance ofstructure is emphasised.

Chapter 3 focuses on settlements as systems made upof functionally interrelated elements. The chapter setsout the starting points for achieving positively-performing settlements, the principles that areimportant in achieving highly functional settlementsand provides a synthesis of the principles as well as anapplication of the principles and the planningguidelines. Chapter 3 can therefore be seen asproviding the link between the framework presentedin Chapter 2 and the practical guidelines providedfrom, and including, Chapter 5.

Guidance on the planning method and theparticipation required is given in Chapter 4, wherehuman-scale development and partnership-basedparticipation are advocated.

Chapter 5 provides qualitative and quantitativeguidelines relating to the planned elements of asettlement system. Its sections relate to the followinginterrelated - and somewhat artificially separated -planned elements of settlement systems: (5.1)movement networks; (5.2) public transport systems;(5.3) hard open spaces; (5.4) soft open spaces; (5.5)public facilities; (5.6) land subdivision; (5.7) publicutilities and (5.8) cross-cutting issues. The purpose ofpresenting the various planned elements of settlementsystems separately, is to present useful informationrelating to settlement systems in an accessible anddistinguishable way, rather than to suggest that theseelements of the settlement system should be plannedin isolation.

Section 5.8 focuses on cross-cutting issues that haverelevance across both the planning and engineeringspectrums. These include environmental design forsafer communities (5.8.1), ecologically sound urbandevelopment (5.8.2), and fire safety (5.8.3).

Chapter 6 sets out stormwater management principlesin a manner which complements and reinforces theforegoing urban design principles and the followingchapters on road design, sanitation and solid waste

management. Road layout issues were preparedlargely in conjunction with the movement networksguidelines (5.1) with the result that Chapter 7 has beenconfined largely to detailed engineering issues whilethe geometric planning component has beenincorporated into section 5.1. Chapter 8 provides acomprehensive and modern approach to roadpavement design, construction and maintenance, withspecial emphasis on lower-order roads.

The water supply and sanitation chapters (Chapters 9and 10) have been thoroughly revised in order tomake them more useful and relevant. The previouslyincorporated section on water treatment has beenremoved as it is considered to be a bulk service andthus beyond the scope of this book; it is furthermoreregarded as a specialised subject, which cannot begiven justice in a broad guideline document of thisnature. The details on waterborne sewerage designhave also been removed, with other design manualsbeing referred to instead. The guidelines haveconcentrated, rather, on providing designers withbroad background information on the multiplicity ofsanitation systems available, to enable them to applythe most appropriate technologies under the specificcircumstances, while providing sufficient referencematerial for their needs.

The solid waste management section (Chapter 11)sketches the legislative background pertaining towaste handling and also sets out the different levels ofservice in a way which maximises employment andopportunities for entrepreneurship. On-site storage,transfer stations and recycling operations are alsodescribed. Landfills are not dealt with as they areregarded as a bulk service. However, broad guidelinespertaining to landfills, in so far as they are required forsettlement planning purposes, have been included.

Guidelines on energy (Chapter 12) have beenpresented in two parts, the first part dealing withconventional grid electricity and the second withalternative and renewable energy sources. The lattersection includes details on “clean” technologies such assolar power and other appropriate energyopportunities for poor or small rural communities.Urban planning principles which facilitate theapplication of alternative energy technologies are alsoencouraged.

CONCLUSION

The concept of sustainability is a philosophy commonto all sections of this guideline document.Sustainability should always be the main concern inany type of development. This has the followingimplications (Miles 1995):

• development projects should contribute totechnology transfer and skills development;

• beneficiaries must have effective control of theirenvironment;

• an operational and sustainable product or systemmust be delivered; and

• systems should be capable of being operated andmaintained using local resources.

The emphasis has shifted from merely providingserviced erven in the most cost-effective manner to thecreation of sustainable living environments andthriving communities. New demands are being placed

on professionals involved with the development ofhuman settlements, from the application of unfamiliartechnologies to social science and communityorganising skills, as well as technology transfer andskills development. It is expected that suchprofessionals will increasingly turn to guideline-typedocuments in order to obtain the requiredinformation. It is thus imperative that the revised RedBook remains a living document; constant input bypractitioners and researchers will ensure that this goalis achieved. Constructive criticism and comment fromusers of the document will therefore be welcomed.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Austin, L M (1996). The Red Book: A tool for themunicipal engineer. Paper presented at IMIESASeminar. May, East London.

Austin, A and Biermann, S (1998). Sustainable humansettlements: Engineers and planners get their acttogether. Paper presented at the Ninth Annual SAICECongress. April, East London.

Behrens, R (1997). Brief to formulate appropriateguidelines to the planning and design of humansettlements. Division of Building Technology, CSIR,Pretoria.

Miles, D (1995). Seeking sustainability: Lessons fromproject experience. Paper presented at 21st WEDCConference. September, Kampala, Uganda.

Schlotfeldt, C J (1995a). The “ Red Book”: Background,purpose and way forward. Paper presented at RedBook Workshops. February and March, Bloemfontein,Cape Town, Pretoria, Durban and Port Elizabeth.

Schlotfeldt, C J (1995b). Blue plus green equals red:Bridging the housing gap. Building South Africa.April.

South Africa, Office of the President (1995). Urbandevelopment strategy of the Government of NationalUnity. Government Gazette, Notice no 1111 of 1995,November.

A framework for

settlement-making

Chapter 2

2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

CENTRAL CONCERNS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

THE STARTING POINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

WHAT WE SHOULD BE TRYING TO ACHIEVE: PERFORMANCE QUALITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Efficiency of resource use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Opportunity generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Convenience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Equality of access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Quality of place . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Sensory qualities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

PLANNING OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS: THE ROLE AND IMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

The meaning of structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

The elements of structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

An approach to structure: minimalism and complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

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A framework for settlement-making Chapter 2

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INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a guidingframework for settlement-making. The chapterprovides a brief overview of planning and design inSouth Africa, which expresses the need for a newframework, before setting out the two centralconcerns - namely human and nature-centreddevelopment - which form the basis of the framework.The starting points to achieve positively performingsettlements are provided before performancequalities, clarifying the desired achievements insettlement formation (guided by developments in theplanning policy arena) are identified. These areapplicable to all the subsequent planning andengineering chapters. Finally, the importance ofstructure in the planning of human settlements isdescribed.

BACKGROUND

For some fifty years, the planning and design ofsettlements in South Africa has been dominated by thepolitical ideology of separate development and theplanning ideology of modernism.

A central theme of the modernist movement is its basisin functionalist thought, which is dominated byconcerns with efficiency and technology. Efficiency islargely defined in technological terms, with urbansettlements seen as “machines”. Urban life iscompartmentalised into broad categories of activity(live, work, play, move), resulting in spatial separationof these activities.

These ideologies have lead to the development ofmono-functional settlements, often fragmented andenvironmentally sterile. These settlements -particularly those created for the disadvantagedmembers of our society - are characterised by lowlevels of service and high levels of inconvenience; theygenerate enormous amounts of movement at greatcost in terms of money, time, energy and pollution;they are expensive for inhabitants, and the quality oftheir public environments is appalling. There is littleevidence of a cohesive spatial environment whichintegrates urban activities and structures.

With the advent of the “new South Africa”, it isnecessary to reverse the effects of these ideologies.The challenge is to create a framework for settlement-making which will enrich life in settlements and serveas an instrument of urban reconstruction anddevelopment. This has already been accepted in policyterms. The government’s Urban DevelopmentFramework (South Africa 1997) calls for “the physical,social and economic integration of our towns andcities” and stresses the need for higher density, morecompact and, in terms of land use, more mixed-usesettlements. Similarly, the Development Facilitation

Act, No 67 of 1995 (South Africa 1995), inter alia, callsfor environments which

• promote the integration of the social, economic,institutional and physical aspects of landdevelopment;

• promote integrated land development in rural andurban areas in support of each other;

• promote the availability of residential andemployment opportunities in close proximity to orintegrated with each other;

• optimise the use of existing resources, includingresources relating to agriculture, land, minerals,bulk infrastructure, roads, transportation andsocial facilities;

• promote a diverse combination of land uses, also atthe level of individual erven or sub-divisions ofland;

• discourage the phenomenon of “urban sprawl” andcontribute to the development of more compacttowns and cities;

• contribute to the correction of historically distortedspatial patterns of settlement in the Republic andto the optimum use of existing infrastructure; and

• encourage environmentally sustainable landdevelopment practices and processes.

This framework should begin to move us in thisdirection. It is based on the integration of the humanand nature-centred approaches to settlement-making.

CENTRAL CONCERNS

The human-centred approach emphasises that a centralpurpose of planning is to ensure that thedevelopmental needs and activities of people living insettlements are catered for and, in particular, thatopportunities for people to achieve their full potentialthrough their own efforts are maximised. Thisapproach, rather than being purely cost - ortechnologically-driven, is people-driven and democratic.

The nature-centred approach recognises that naturalsystems interact in highly synergistic ways, which mustbe respected if breakdowns in them are to beprevented. Human actions on the landscape, such assettlement-making, must thus be sensitive to ecologicalprocesses. Therefore, rather than imposing settlementdevelopment on the environment, this approachemphasises design with nature, thereby creatingsynergy between man-made and ecological systems.

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THE STARTING POINTS

There are three starting points for achieving positivelyperforming settlements.

• The first is the importance of pedestrianmovement. A fundamental dimension of scale isrelated to movement on foot. The pedestriancondition describes the reality for the majority ofresidents in towns and cities in the country. Largenumbers of people do not, and will not in theforeseeable future, own private motor vehicles.Obviously, though, settlements cannot be onlypedestrian-based.

Settlement growth brings with it higher orderopportunities, services and movement systems.Consistent with the principle of equity, particularlyin communities with low levels of car ownership,public transport becomes a necessity once thepedestrian scale is exceeded.

• The second starting point is the importance ofthinking spatially. In pedestrian-scaledenvironments the public spatial environmentshould be viewed as the highest level of socialinfrastructure. In these environments a great dealof activity occurs in the public spaces, with theresult that the quality of the public-spatialenvironment profoundly affects the quality of life.Thinking spatially, in this context, requires that allpublic spaces, particularly streets, be viewed aspublic space.

• The third starting point is the importance of aminimalist approach to settlement-making. Thisrequires that the basic structure and mostimportant actions required to create thepreconditions for a positively performingsettlement be defined at the outset of thesettlement-making process. Over-design of theprocess reduces spontaneous settlement-makingactivities.

WHAT WE SHOULD BE TRYING TOACHIEVE: PERFORMANCE QUALITIES

The integrated approach on which the framework forsettlement-making is based, makes it possible toidentify performance qualities, which should guideplan-making and against which plans and settlementscan be monitored and measured.

Environments reflecting these performance qualitieshave the following physical characteristics:

• they are scaled to the pedestrian, althoughcommonly neither the pedestrian nor the motor carhas absolute dominance;

• they are compact, having relatively high buildingdensities;

• their structural elements are integrated and thecomposite parts reinforce each other;

• they have a strong spatial feel, with well-definedpublic spaces; and

• their spatial structures are complex, offeringchoices in terms of intensity of interaction, privacyof living conditions, lifestyles, housing options andmovement systems.

Efficiency of resource use

The development of settlements requires the use of awide range of resources, including land, money,building materials, manpower, energy and water. As ageneral principle, it is essential that resources be usedas efficiently as possible.

Opportunity generation

People come to settlements to improve their personalwelfare. The opportunity to improve one’s lot derivesfrom the economic, social, cultural and recreationalopportunities resulting from the physicalagglomeration of people in settlements. However, thecapability of settlements to generate opportunities isnot only determined by numbers of people, it is alsoaffected by how settlements are ordered and made.

Of importance to developing countries, such as SouthAfrica, is the need to create opportunities for small-scale economic activity. The reality is that, within theforeseeable future, large numbers of people will notbe absorbed in the formal economic sector and willhave to generate their own survival activities, via thesmall-scale - and often the informal - economic sector.

There are a number of ways in which spatial conditionsin settlements create opportunities for economicactivity.

• The first is intensification. This requires thepromotion of higher unit densities than is the normunder the current model of settlementdevelopment. The case for increasing densities restson a number of grounds. Higher densities createmore opportunities for interaction, a climate inwhich economic activity - and small-scale economicactivity, in particular - can thrive. A further effect ofincreased densities is an increased local demand forgoods and services, promoting increasingspecialisation and diversification in the smallbusiness sector.

The promotion of economic activity is also affectedby the efficiency of movement systems. Efficiencyof movement creates higher levels of support forgoods, services and social facilities, simultaneouslyensuring a wider range of goods and socialfacilities and increasing the viability of the servicesprovided. In this way higher densities play a crucialrole in achieving higher levels of convenience.

Higher densities lead to increased support forpublic transport systems, improving their viability.Higher densities, by lowering unit costs, can alsocontribute to the more efficient use ofinfrastructure.

Finally, higher densities can contribute to theefficient utilisation of land, the counteracting ofurban sprawl, a reduction in travelling and areduction in energy consumption and pollution.

• A second way in which settlements maximiseopportunities is by integrating the different partsof the settlement, so that they contribute to eachother. When a settlement is fragmented into anumber of smaller, inwardly orientated parts, eachpart is largely reliant on its own internallygenerated resources. Consequently, levels ofservice and convenience may be low. By contrast,when the parts of a settlement are integrated,each part benefits from a much larger area. Newsettlements should accordingly not be viewed asends in themselves only. They should also beviewed as instruments of restructuring, in the sensethat they can be used to integrate a fragmentedsettlement environment.

The above has implications for our thinking aboutmovement. The challenge is to establish andmaximise a continuity of movement systems, tyinglocal living areas together. Movement systems needto be viewed not just as movement channels, but asspatial structuring elements. This line of thoughtleads to the conclusion that maximising access is asimportant as maximising mobility.

• A third way of increasing opportunities is byenabling the evolutionary development of morecomplex settlements. When this occurs, a diversityof large- and small-scale activities can find viablelocations within the settlement system.

• A fourth way of creating opportunities is by usingthe generating power of larger activities to attractsmaller activities, both of which benefit from themovement flows that result from the presence ofthe other.

Convenience

Good urban environments are, by definition,convenient. They allow inhabitants to conduct dailyactivities quickly and easily. Inconvenientenvironments, on the other hand, impose on lifestyles,reduce choices and increase costs.

Access lies at the heart of convenience. In this regard,access needs to be conceived of in terms of movementmodes. The first mode is pedestrian movement, whichis the lowest common denominator of movement andwhich describes the primary movement mode of largenumbers of people in South Africa. The second ismotorised movement in the form of public and privatetransport. Not all human activities and interactionopportunities exist within walking range. When thisoccurs, motorised transport becomes the moreconvenient movement mode.

For millions of South Africans, who cannot afford amotor car, public transport is crucial to facilitatemovement. Although this does not deny the need toaccommodate motor vehicles in settlements, thestructuring of settlements, particularly for those whocannot afford private transport, should encourageand facilitate pedestrian movement and publictransport systems.

Two forms of access are central to promotingconvenience.

• The first form is access to the economic, social,cultural and recreational benefits which resultfrom the agglomeration of people. This requiresthe intensification of settlements, the generationof opportunities for a greater range of activitiesand choices promoting more complex levels ofspatial order and encouraging a greater range ofdevelopment processes. Movement is theintegrating structural element underpinning theabove.

• The second is access to nature. Since settlementsare, as a rule, places of intense human activity, theopportunity to escape from this intensity and toexperience nature is of great importance to people.For many, for reasons of affordability, contact withnature has to be collective contact as it cannotalways be provided adequately within privategardens. In addition, the productive capacity of theland can be a vital settlement resource. For manysettlement dwellers the opportunity to use theland productively, or to engage in lifestyles whichincorporate dimensions of both urban and ruralliving, is crucial to their survival.

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Choice

Settlements which perform well are multifacetedplaces. They offer a diversity, and thus choice, ofplaces, lifestyles, activities and interactionopportunities.

On the one hand, positively-performing settlementsoffer opportunities for human contact and interaction.Their activities and events play a major part in shapingthe identity of the settlements. Importantly,settlements provide opportunities where people canlive on their own but not be alone. They also providepeople with choices regarding the extent to whichthey wish to engage in social activity.

On the other hand, people also require places whichare private, particularly in the sense of knowing who“the locals” and who the strangers are.

The degree to which people wish to live in intensiveand vibrant environments - or quieter, more private,places - varies from person to person and over the life-cycle of households.

The challenge is to promote environments whichprovide a diversity of choices, so that people do nothave “either-or” choices, but rather choices whichrelate to relative degrees of privacy or exposure. Thekey to this lies in hierarchies of movement, publicspaces and social institutions, and the design ofliving areas.

Equality of access

It is neither possible nor desirable for all parts ofsettlements to be the same. The reason for this is thatclustering tendencies emerge in the structure ofsettlements as they grow. Activities requiring publicsupport tend to cluster at the most accessible places.Nevertheless, it is important that all people havereasonably equal access to the opportunities andfacilities which support living in settlements.

Spatially, two issues are central to this:

• The first is the recognition that balance is not somuch a geographical as a structural concept. Theissue is not one of attempting to achieve an evendistribution of facilities over the surface ofsettlements. Rather, it is one of integrating publicfacilities and events with movement systems, sothat access is equalised.

• The second issue is that of creating the accesspreconditions for more intensive activities tospread in a logical way, consistent with the growthof the settlement.

Quality of place

Quality of place is attained by embracing uniquenessas opposed to standardisation. In terms of the naturalenvironment it requires the identification, a responseto and the emphasis of the distinguishing features andcharacteristics of landscapes. Different naturallandscapes suggest different responses. Accordingly,settlement design should respond to nature.

In addition, quality of place can be achieved by site-making actions, including topographical moulding inareas where soil is easily movable, to create greaterdiversity in the land form; tree planting, to provideareas of shade and recreation; the use ofsupplementary sources of energy and buildingmaterials; wind protection and space definition; thecreation of water bodies as recreational features, sitesof aqua-culture and visual relief; and creating choicesof living condition.

In terms of the human-made environment, quality ofplace recognises that there are points where elementsof settlement structure, particularly the movementsystem, come together to create places of highaccessibility and special significance. These are themeeting places of the settlement. Business andcommercial activities, schools, clinics, libraries,community halls and other facilities and activitiesrequiring exposure to large numbers of people areassociated with these places. In the best cases, theimportance of these places is recognised in that theybecome the focus of public investment, aimed atmaking them attractive, user-friendly, andcomfortable to experience.

They also become the places that accommodatesymbolic statements, such as objects of remembrance.These, then, become the memorable places, whichshape lasting impressions of a settlement. Theirsignificance is strengthened by their dominantlocations in terms of the movement network and fromthe significance of the social events or rituals theyaccommodate.

Sensory qualities

Positively performing environments reflect powerfulsensory qualities. They are places which areaesthetically appealing and which add to the qualityof peoples’ lives.

The quality of the public spatial environment plays acritical role as far as the sensory qualities ofsettlements are concerned. The public spaces andplaces are the primary areas within which peopleengage in, and experience, urban life.

The role of public spaces in the lives of the urban pooris particularly critical. When people are poor, the fullrange of a household’s needs cannot be adequately

met by the individual dwelling. Accordingly, asignificant part of their lives is played out in publicspaces. If properly made, these spaces can give dignityand a sense of permanence to environments. They areplaces where many social experiences occur and, in areal sense, they operate as extensions to the privatedwelling. The implication is that all public spaces, ofwhich the residential street is one of the importantforms, should be viewed and constructed as socialspaces.

It is the integrated framework of public spaces thatenhances the sensory qualities of settlements.

Sustainability

Sustainability has two main dimensions. The onerelates to the relationship between the builtenvironment and the natural landscape. The other isthe degree to which the settlement reflects “timeless”qualities .

• Settlements exist as adaptations of naturallandscapes and are dependent on resources drawnfrom a much larger area. Two issues are central toachieving environmental sustainability. The first isthe need to work harmoniously with the naturallandscape, rather than causing breakdowns innatural systems, such as filling in wetlands to obtaindevelopable land rather than developing higher-lying ground. The second issue is the need to recyclewastes to the greatest possible degree. Forexample, stormwater runoff can be used forirrigation purposes, and treated sewage as fertiliser.

• The second dimension of sustainability is thedegree to which the settlement reflects, in itsstructure and form, “timeless qualities”.Sustainable settlements accommodate growth andchange well, and are in turn enriched by processesof change. They have three primary characteristics.They are scaled to the pedestrian. They reflect astructural order, which allows logicalreinterpretation by successive generations. Theyhave a strongly spatial feel, with defined andgenerously made public spaces, spaces notdetermined only by immediate developmentneeds, but made with the recognition that publicspace is important in its own right.

PLANNING OF HUMANSETTLEMENTS: THE ROLE ANDIMPORTANCE OF STRUCTURE

The meaning of structure

Spatial structure is a concept used to interpret, designand make human settlements. The spatial structure ofa settlement results from an interplay between theformally planned (or programmatic) and thespontaneous (or non-programmatic) dimensions ofsettlement-making. The planned dimension isessentially quantitative. It requires the identification ofthe major elements of land use and the developmentof a land and engineering services budget.

By contrast, the spontaneous, or non-programmatic,spatial structure is essentially qualitative, having at itscore a concern with the whole rather than the parts. Itreflects how people, over time, have addressed themaking of a place to meet their needs and enrich theirlives. Spontaneous environments reflect the timelessqualities referred to above. They do not depend onparticular levels of technology, or minimum levels ofpersonal means, to operate well.

The term “structure”, as used here, refers to thecreation of the public environment: that realm whichis shared by all inhabitants, as opposed to the privaterealms of individual households and businesses. Ininvestment terms, this usually equates with publicinvestment in the spatial structure, to which privateinvestment and decision-making responds.

The art of planning and design is to arrange theelements of structure into a system of references thatsupports the processes of living, and which establishesa spatial logic eliciting responses from the many actorswho contribute to settlement-making. Settlementplans should therefore be able to accommodateuncertainty and change, rather than simplyaccommodate the initial development programmethat necessitates the plan in the first place.

The elements of structure

In conventional planning, the elements of structureare described in terms such as circulation networks,public transport systems, open spaces, public facilities,and public utilities (engineering services). However, inthe context of spontaneous settlement-making, it isuseful to describe the structural elements asconnection, space, public institutions and utilityservices. How each of these elements gives structure toa settlement is outlined below.

Connection

Connection refers to movement of all kinds,including fixed line systems such as roads, light -and heavy - rail systems, underground rail systems,

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as well as pedestrian and bicycle routes. As ageneral principle, movement should be seen as anactivity which occurs within space. The movementsystem, therefore, is the network of spaces throughwhich people move in various ways, from thepedestrian mode to modes specifically conceivedfor fast movement. It is primarily within thisnetwork of movement spaces that the public life ofa community takes place. Consequently, its makingshould be informed not only by technocraticconsiderations, but also by human andenvironmental considerations.

The movement system has considerable structuralsignificance as it defines the pattern of accessibility,both within the settlement and betweensettlements. It is this pattern, in turn, which sendsstructural signals to individuals, entrepreneurs andplace-makers, and which significantly affects therange of choices and opportunities the settlementoffers inhabitants.

Space

Space lies at the heart of the non-programmaticapproach to settlement-making. It is not just oneelement of a settlement programme, such as“public open space” (as designated in townplanning schemes), but should be approached aspart of thinking about the whole.

Settlements are characterised by diversity. They aremany-placed places. Some parts are more public,others are more private, while others are moreneutral, serving broader, more diverse sets ofcitizens and urban activities. It is apparent,therefore, that there is a structural order insettlements. This order lies at the heart of theconcept of structure.

Public spaces are the meeting places of people insettlements. The public spaces comprise the urban“rooms” and “seams” of connectivity. There alsoexists a continuum of spaces, which represents atransition from more public to more private living.The order in settlements thus not only relates toaccess, but also to degrees of publicness andprivacy. A similar order of publicness and privacyexists in relation to social institutions and activities,and places of perceived value.

At the heart of settlement-making lies the creationof a continuum, or hierarchy, of public spaces andmovement systems, which attract, and give orderto, activities, events and elements in accordancewith their need for publicness or privacy.

Space becomes particularly significant when one isconsidering movement at a local scale. At this scalethe concept of “road” needs to be replaced by theconcept of providing spaces which are comfortable

for people to be in, and within which movementcan take place. In spaces so conceived, neither thepedestrian nor the vehicle has complete dominanceor right of way.

Public institutions

Historically, the institutions which were mostvalued by society - such as institutions of learning,worship, exchange, markets and universities -served as the key structuring elements ofsettlements. The siting of these, in turn, formed thebasis for the locational choices of other, moreprivate, uses, such as housing. It is consideredimportant to revive this tradition. However, adifficulty is that, in modern times, societiesoccupying settlements have become increasinglyheterogeneous and diversified. As a consequence ithas become difficult to identify institutions whichhave generally recognised value. This does not,however, negate the importance of thinking aboutsettlement structure in this manner. In the absenceof certainty about what institutions will beprioritised by communities, the social space itselfbecomes the highest form of social institution.

The location of institutions in relation to the otherelements of structure is also of critical importance.Commonly, institutions occur in central places, areeasily accessible in terms of movement patterns,and are announced by public spaces. The institutionabutting onto the space gives unique character tothe space and often attracts informal activities.

Public utility services

Public utility services refer to those engineeringservices that are essential to the functioning ofsettlements. They include water provision, sewageremoval, stormwater disposal, solid-waste removaland electricity supply. These services are essential tothe maintenance of public health in settlements.They can be provided in various technologicalforms, all of which have different cost implicationsand environmental and geometric requirements.

As a general principle, utility services should beprovided as efficiently and as cost-effectively aspossible, taking due cognisance of the human- andnature-centred approach to settlement-makingproposed herein. However, in terms of structuringsettlements, utility services should follow, not lead.

An approach to structure: minimalismand complexity

The appropriate approach to settlement-making isminimalist. This approach requires that the minimumnumber of strong actions necessary to give direction tothe settlement-making process be clearly defined inthe framework plan.

A failure to clearly define the minimum actionsrequired will almost certainly destroy the quality ofthe whole. Essential public and private sectorinvestments may not materialise, leading tounfavourable and unintended outcomes and failure ofthe plan.

However, if the plan for settlement-making goes toofar, freedom, and thus complexity, will be reduced. Ahallmark of positive environments is that they arecomplex. Complexity, however, cannot be designed.Environmental diversity results from freedom of actionand the iterative application of the ingenuity of manydecision-makers and actors in meeting their particularrequirements, as well as the needs of their fellowhuman beings.

Spatial structure, in a sense, can be seen as theenabling “constraint” which gives direction, and somepredictability, to settlement-making processes,without defining their precise form or outcomes. It isthe function of structure to generate a range ofopportunities to which individuals and groups canrespond, and around which a diversity of humanactivities can take root.

While growth and development processes take manyforms and are not always predictable, an enablingplan should nevertheless be aimed at unlocking theenergies, ingenuity and resources of settlement-builders and implementing agencies. These includeindividuals, groups, communities, small and largedevelopers, utility companies, investors, semi-governmental organisations and a range ofgovernmental institutions and agencies.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baynham, C et al (1986). Urban design studio: CapeFlats redevelopment proposal. School of Architectureand Planning, University of Cape Town.

Crane, D (1960a). The dynamic city, ArchitecturalDesign, April.

Crane, D (1960b). Chandigarh reconsidered, AmericanInstitute of Architect’s Journal.

CSIR, Division for Building Technology (1993).Guidelines for the Provision of Engineering Servicesand Amenities in Residential Township Development.Pretoria.

Dewar, D and Uytenbogaardt, R S (1995). CreatingVibrant Places to Live: A Primer. HeadstartDevelopments, Cape Town.

Du Toit, S (1996). The scales of urban order. Papersubmitted to the City Planning and Urban DesignProgramme, School of Architecture and Planning,University of Cape Town.

Gasson, B (1997). Evaluating the environmentalperformance of cities, in Davies, R J (ed), inProceedings of the Conference on Structuring theContemporary City: International Geographic Insights.IGU Commission on Urban Development and UrbanLife, Cape Town.

Giurgola, R (1978). Louis Khan: Works and Projects.Imprinta Juvenis, Barcelona.

Hansen, N (1994). The problem of housing - Now andafter the war, South African Architectural Record,August, p 191.

Jacobs, A (1993). Great Streets. Cambridge, MIT Press,Mass.

Jacobs, J (1962). The death and life of great Americancities. Jonathan Cape, London.

Le Corbusier. (nd) The Athens Charter. Grossman, NewYork.

Sharon, A (1973). Planning Jerusalem: The Old City andits Environs. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, Jerusalem.

South Africa, Department of Housing (1997). Urbandevelopment framework. Pretoria.

South Africa, Office of the President (1995).Development Facilitation Act No 67. GovernmentPrinter, Pretoria.

Todeschini, F (1994). Cape Town: Physical planningtraditions of a settlement in transition, ArchitectureSA, March/April.

Uytenbogaardt, R, Rozendal, N and Dewar, D (1989).Greater Marianhill Structure Plan.

Uytenbogaardt, R, Rozendal, N and Dewar, D (1994).Marconi Beam Planning Proposals.

Uytenbogaardt, R, Mayet, M, Dewar, D and Todeschini,F (1996). Kliptown, Schematic Urban Design.

Uytenbogaardt, R, Dewar, D and Todeschini, F (1997).A philosophic approach to settlement-making.Unpublished report prepared for the CSIR, Pretoria.

Spatial and structural principles

for settlement-making

Chapter 3

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

NATURE OF THE GUIDELINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Structural principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Spatial principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

A SYNTHESIS OF THE PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Greenfield sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Urban restructuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Upgrading informal settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

KEY PLANNING GUIDELINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

General observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

The movement network and public transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

The open space system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Public facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Public utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Cross-cutting issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Economic services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

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Spatial and structural principles for settlement-making Chapter 3

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1 Reinforcing modes of movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

Figure 3.2 Hierarchical concentrations along routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Figure 3.3 A synthesis of principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Figure 3.4 The detail of the plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

INTRODUCTION

This chapter focuses on settlements as systems madeup of functionally interrelated elements. It builds onChapter 2 by providing principles important toachieving well-performing settlements, and guidanceon how they can be achieved. Chapter 3 can thereforebe seen as providing the link between the frameworkpresented in Chapter 2 and the practical guidelinesprovided in Chapter 5 and those that follow.

NATURE OF THE GUIDELINES

The guidelines are essentially concerned withprinciple, idea and context.

• “Principle” refers to a set of spatial “rules”, whichshould be applied in the settlement-makingprocess.

• “Idea” refers to the relationships between elementsof structure, which best capture the desiredperformance qualities in the context of a particularproblem.

• “Context” has two dimensions.

- Time: Time impacts on the technologies whichcan be applied to, or which have to beaccommodated in, the challenge of settlement-making.

- Place: Place refers to the specifics of the natural,socio-economic and cultural environments.

Context is the catalyst which transforms an ideainto design. It makes it possible to develop a varietyof different designs, based on the principles andthe idea.

In these guidelines principle and idea are addressed,where necessary, by means of generic diagrams, asthese are helpful in defining spatial relationships. Theydo not, however, represent designs. They are a-contextual. In this document the diagrams usegeometric conventions, such as the grid and the pin-wheel, to clarify important relationships. It must bestressed, however, that the principles can be expressedin many different forms. It is the principle which isimportant, not the geometric form.

PRINCIPLES

The principles which are important in achieving well-performing settlements are of a structural and aspatial nature.

Structural principles

The principle of reinforcement

It is necessary to think structurally about allelements within the settlement. This means thateach structural element should reinforce theothers. This is illustrated in Figure 3.1.

The figure illustrates how interconnected modesof movement (pedestrian, bicycle, train, tax, bus,car) are brought together into a single corridor,thereby creating a range of structuralopportunities. At points of major connectivity,where stopping points for all modes cometogether (marked 1 on the diagram) thepotential exists for the creation of a major placewith high-order urban activities, as these willtend to gravitate towards such points.

The integration of the elements increases thepotential impact to a far greater extent than if they

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Figure 3.1: Reinforcing modes of movement

ABC

3 3 3 3 3 311

2 2 2

1,5 to 2 km

LEGENDA. Road-based public transport and private vehicles on high order limited-access routes: bus, taxi and private

vehicles.B. Heavy rail-based public transport: train.C. Light rail-based and road-based public transport as well as private vehicles: tram, bus, taxi, private vehicles.

1. First order centre. All modes of transportation.2. Second order centre. Mixed transportation: train, bus, taxi, private vehicle, walk.3. Local order centre. Local transportation: taxi, private vehicle, bicycle, walk.

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were to be considered in isolation. Where two ofthe non-pedestrian links merge, a major place(marked 2 on the diagram) will also emerge, albeitof lesser intensity than 1. At places of localaccessibility (marked 3), however, local orderactivities, supported mostly by local demand, willcluster.

The principle of continuity

Continuities of green space

Human society functions in a landscape thatconsists of the original (or primeval) naturallandscape, as well as rural and urban landscapes.Access to all elements can be considered a basicneed for human beings. As a result, establishingcontinuities of green space becomes an importantelement in the settlement-making process. Apartfrom fulfilling an important human need, thisprinciple also promotes ecological diversity.Ecological systems are complex, with the migrationof species and their exposure to different habitatsforming integral components of the systems.Natural habitats should thus be continuous to allowfor this to occur. At a larger settlement scale, thepromotion and protection of such continuoussystems become important planning principles. At asmaller scale of settlement, green spaces in newdevelopments should contribute to emergingcontinuous green systems.

Two additional points can be made about greenspace:

• Green space within settlements should beproductive space. Green space requiresmaintenance. If maintenance becomes tooexpensive or, for any other reason, breaksdown, the space becomes environmentallynegative. In addition, in many areas, urbanagriculture has a vital role to play in the supportof urban systems. In this role green space is animportant supplementary source of nutritionand income for poorer people.

• Green spaces can absorb outputs fromsettlements. In this regard they can be used forevaporation ponds to remove partially treatedwastewater; and as stormwater-retentionsystems.

Continuities of movement

The movement, or flow, of people, finance, goodsand services is the energy network of settlements.Activities requiring the greatest degree ofexposure will tend to gravitate towards the mostaccessible points and links in the energy network.The movement network exhibits its own orderingstructure. At the settlement level the energy

potential contained in the network is releasedthrough stopping, not through movement.Different movement modes have different patternsof stopping. Pedestrians and cars can theoreticallystop anywhere along a route, bus stops may bespaced at 500 m to 800 m intervals, and trainstations at intervals of 1,5 km to 2 km. Accordingly,these modes establish different rhythms ofaccessibility. The co-ordination of different modesenables certain points to be strongly reinforced,thus attracting and creating opportunities for theclustering of activities.

By definition, routes which do not allow stopping,such as freeways, have little positive structuralimpact (as defined in these guidelines) at the locallevel. They serve as the integrators of space at theinter-settlement level. At the local level ofsettlement they tend to emphasise points of exitand entry, rather than lines of accessibility. At thislevel they sever - rather than integrate - space.

The application of the principle of continuityconsists of the creation of a complex and diversepattern of movement and accessibility. This willenable all settlement activities, large and small,formal and informal, to find a place within thestructural system. The resultant land-use patternwill be highly synergistic, with each part of thesystem benefiting - and being benefited by - theother parts.

Continuity of built form

New parcels of development should be integratedwith existing development to obtain agglomerationeconomies. There is, however, a scale dimension tothis. At places, the continuity should be consciouslybroken to ensure convenient access to green spaceas well as the natural and rural landscapes.

Continuity of public space

As discussed earlier, public spaces should make up acontinuous network of space. Achieving a sense ofenclosure and definition is important in this regard.Every building, either through the building itself,its walls, or planting, should contribute to definingthe public space it abuts.

The principle of discontinuity

In the settlement-making context the principle ofdiscontinuity refers to the promotion of breaks inparticular components of the urban system, toachieve particular effects.

Discontinuities of movement

Along higher-order routes, discontinuities can beused to create special places, such as public squares

and parks. The discontinuity principle can also beused to integrate natural and rural areas andexisting features into the urban landscape.

Discontinuities of movement on lower-order routescan be used to create qualities of secrecy or privacy,particularly in that through-traffic is discouraged.

Discontinuities of built form

Public space, such as a square or a park, can be usedas a device to interrupt built form, thereby creatingvisual diversity in the built environment.

The principle of externalisation

Social facilities and higher-order urban activitiesshould not be “embedded” within residentialprecincts, but should be externalised by locatingthem along more continuous movement routes.

This will ensure that the future of facilities is notentirely dependent upon the fortunes andresources of particular local communities. It willalso maximise the potential return on theinvestment in facilities, by making the facilitiesaccessible to a wider range of people. In addition,it will reinforce the private quality of theresidential areas. Lastly, it will contribute to theestablishment of symbiotic relationships betweendifferent activities and facilities.

The principle of concentration along routes

While intensive activities and facilities should beexternalised along continuous routes, it isimportant to recognise that development alongthem will not be even. The accessibility of differentpoints along routes is not the same, as there arepowerful tendencies for more intensive activities toconcentrate at the most accessible points alongmovement routes. These tendencies are illustratedin Figure 3.2.

The principle of accommodating samenessand diversity

This principle relates to accommodating bothhomogeneity (sameness) and heterogeneity

(diversity) in settlements. It is this principle thataccommodates both cultural and economicdiversity and expression within settlements. Itrecognises that in a democratic, multicultured,society all communities, individuals and culturesare to be accorded equivalent respect.

This realisation has significant implications as far asthe approach to structure and space in thesettlement-making process is concerned.

The connection between space and structure lies inthe recognition that different activities, cultures,and lifestyles have their own requirements, whichmust be met in the settlement-making process. As aresult, successful settlements are ones that reflectdiversity in terms of areas of sameness, areas ofdiversity or mixed-use development, areas ofcultural homogeneity and areas of cultural diversity.

At a fundamental level, the requirements ofsameness and diversity relate to variations in theneed for privacy and exposure. Certain institutionsand public places are more “owned” by particulargroups, communities, lifestyles and cultures andare thus more private, while others are moreneutral or public in the sense that they servebroader, more diverse, communities. Thus, forexample, commercial activities and sport stadiums,when compared to religious activities, areheterogeneous. A mosque, or church, however, is“owned”, by a smaller, more specific set of people.

In the sense that there is an order of homogeneityand heterogeneity in successful settlements, thereexists a similar ordering of space, which reflects atransition from more public to more private living.

At the heart of positive settlement-making lies thecreation of systems of public spaces which orderactivities, events and facilities according to theirneed for exposure or secrecy, and the integrationof this system of spaces with the movementsystem, which, in itself, forms part of the system ofpublic spaces.

In terms of the minimalist approach to planningand design, it is inappropriate to make centraliseddecisions about everything. Greater freedom, and

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Figure 3.2: Hierarchical concentrations along routes

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the more complex process of development whichresults from this, allow many actors to participatein and contribute to the settlement-makingprocess. The result of this approach is settlement-making and planning in the form of a process, aprocess enabling and involving a diverse range ofdelivery agents.

Spatial principles

There are four spatial principles, which are central tocreating positive settlements. These are definition,scale, flexibility and intensity of space-use.

Definition

In positive environments the public space is definedby buildings and other space-defining elements,such as walls and planting. This creates a sense ofenclosure. The contrast is free-standing elements ina formless sea of space.

Scale

Scale refers to judgement about relationships suchas size, distance and height. In settlement terms,reference is usually made to a “human scale”, whichis the scale that human beings feel comfortablewith. Although a quality that can be difficult todefine, it is one that should be striven for in modest,as well as bold, settlement-making processes.

Flexibility

Positive environments reflect flexibility in theirspatial structures. The principle of flexibility thusrefers to the creation of spatial structures whichcan accommodate the unexpected demands madeupon them over time.

Intensity of space use

Land should be used as intensively as possible asthis has positive spin-offs for settlement-making.These include:

• the creation of higher levels of support foreconomic and social goods and services;

• the establishment of an economic climate inwhich economic activity can thrive;

• the creation of the preconditions for viablepublic transportation systems;

• the efficient use of infrastructure; and

• the achievement of better utilisation of theland, contributing to compact urbanenvironments, reduced travelling and energyconsumption, as well as a reduction in pollution.

Intensification does not imply a standardisation ofliving conditions, or uniform densities. In thecontext of the minimalist approach, a choice ofliving conditions, which is an important objectiveof settlement-making, is facilitated in a number ofways, such as:

• by encouraging the development of areas ofdifferent character throughout the settlement;

• by the presence of contrasts within thestructural system, with respect to space that isprivate and space that is public;

• by the natural development or evolution of arange of urban densities; and

• by an evolution of configurations of plot shapesand sizes, which result in the promotion ofdifferent housing types.

A SYNTHESIS OF THE PRINCIPLES

A synthesis of the settlement-making principles,discussed in the preceding sections, is depicted inFigures 3.3 and 3.4. The synthesis indicates how theprinciples can be integrated, thereby establishing a setof locational responses.

Figure 3.3 depicts an intense, mixed-use, but primarilyresidential area. The area contains a wide range ofuses: housing, education and other social facilities,formal and informal economic activity, small-scalemanufacturing and small-scale agriculture.

Economic activity, both formal and informal, is linkedwith the continuous intra-settlement route. It isbacked by a belt of schools. These play an integrativerole, since they serve pupils from a much wider area.Pupils can access them via public transport along themain road. The library, which serves a number ofschools and the community at large, is located on themain road. The informal play space is associated withthe schools but also serves the broader community. Inorder not to disrupt the continuity of building alongstreets it is located on the periphery.

Opportunities for urban agriculture are created on theperiphery of the site. Stormwater runoff is organisedso that this area is irrigated. The agricultural areaforms part of the storm-water management system.

A small-scale manufacturing hive forms the westernedge of the agricultural belt. This is associated withlarger scale manufacturing to the west of the site.

All space is designated as social space. A continuoushierarchical system of public spaces organises thelocation of educational and other public facilities, allof which are externalised.

The residential precinct is primarily organised around a400 m by 400 m super-block module. There is no oneideal block size, as this will vary with context. Thechoice of the block and its internal organisationreflects an attempt to optimise efficiencies in terms ofpedestrian and vehicular movement. The organisingsystem is one of nesting blocks. At the larger scale,blocks are approximately 200 m by 200 m (althoughsome variation in size is necessitated by the need forspace-making), which is efficient in terms of vehicularuse. At the smaller scale, the basic block size is 80 m by80 m, a comfortable scale for pedestrians and onewhich is found in many cities of the world. Thesmallest blocks can also be accessed by car, but arechiefly pedestrian.

A hierarchical system of discontinuous routes createvarying levels of privacy: there is a wide range of livingconditions in terms of publicness and privacy.

The larger movement channels also serve as lineargreen spaces. They also accommodate vehicular andpedestrian movement and parking, which function aspart of the green system.

The plan also shows how a variety of plot sizes and

configurations, and thus house types, can beaccommodated and how higher densities can beachieved.

Figure 3.4 shows areas A, B and C (indicated inFigure 3.3) in greater detail. Numbers inparenthesis refer to numbering in Figure 3.4.

• The community facilities are externalised (1). Thereis a pronounced dimension of order in the system,with the largest and most important facilitiesassociated with the highest-order spaces. It is notnecessary to predetermine the form of thesefacilities. Communities can establish their ownpriorities.

• The educational facilities comprise urban schools.Where possible, they should be atomised (i.e.broken up into parts), with community facilitiessuch as sports fields, halls, libraries, computercentres and laboratories being shared betweenschools and between school and community (2, 3).

• Informal play spaces associated with the schools arelocated on the periphery, to maintain thecontinuity of the built form along streets (2, 3).

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11

10

14

1

14 10

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Band ofagriculture

Predominantly residential precinctDiscontinuous routes

Band of publicfacilities andcommerce

Intra

-set

tlem

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oute

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1 15 1 13

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Figure 3.3: A synthesis of principles

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• The planted spaces can be used in many ways,including community events and parking (4).

• The main road is made into a space toaccommodate parking (5).

• Main market sites for informal trading occur athighly accessible points (6).

• An intensive mixed-used zone, with flats aboveshops is promoted (7).

• There is a service zone serving the shops (8).

• There are communal gardens for agriculturalactivity (9).

• Refuse-sorting points are planned. Their location isdetermined by the main refuse-removal route (10).

• An important forecourt space is located at the endof a discontinuous route (11).

• There are manufacturing hives (12).

• In low-income, informal housing areas, corner sitesmay be used as communal bath-houses and laundrypoints (13).

• Elongated planted spaces are shown. These aresocial places that operate as social extensions ofthe houses. They are important play spaces forchildren (14).

Figure 3.4: The detail of the plan

1

4

1

1

1 1

113 2 7 8 7

4

5

2

3 2

1 6

5

6

A

2

1

1

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1013

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• An important public space gathers to it communityfacilities and commercial activity. As with 14, inthese spaces neither the car nor the pedestriandominates (15).

• A fine-grained housing precinct which is effectivelypedestrian dominated (16).

APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES

The guidelines for settlement-making have beenformulated on the basis of principles. In theirapplication to a site, however, they can obviously becaptured in many forms and need to be applied on anintegrated basis. Some brief notes in this regard areprovided below.

At present there are in essence three generic urbanconditions prevailing in South Africa. These aregreenfield or undeveloped sites, urban restructuring,and the upgrading of informal settlements. In each ofthese cases the form is different but the application ofthe principles should be the same.

Greenfield sites

The generic problem of greenfield developments is toprovide a spatial ordering system to guide growth(which may occur relatively quickly) on the site, whileintegrating it with surrounding urban systems to thegreatest degree possible.

The plan for a greenfield site should seek to create anarea of settlement which is highly liveable and whichhas inherent qualities that will promote ongoingprocesses of consolidation and upgrading over time. Itshould be informed by the needs of the main affectedparties, including existing residents, entrepreneursand industrialists, as well as new residents. It should berecognised that each of these constituencies hasdifferent requirements of, and within, the settlementsystem, which need to be respected and protected.Existing communities and entrepreneurs need to bepart of an environment with which they are familiar,the new settlement needs to be closely tied intobroader city-wide systems but at the same time musthave its own logic, identity and, over time, sense ofcommunity and belonging.

Urban restructuring

At the heart of urban restructuring is increasinginvestor confidence - for people to invest in theenvironment, from both an economic and residentialpoint of view. To improve the urban environment overtime, they must have confidence that the area isimproving and that their investment will be safe. Indepressed environments the application of theidentified settlement-making principles can play animportant role in creating a climate of confidence.

In essence, restructuring involves a number of genericactions:

• establishing a spatial structural logic or order bycreating spaces and achieving the greatest possiblecontinuities of movement at different scales - inparticular, breaking down the fragmented urbanpattern which is characteristic in South Africanurban settlements;

• improving the quality of the public spatialenvironment;

• creating new public spaces where they arerequired;

• intensification, through housing-infill programmes,in order to increase thresholds of support and thuslevels of service.

Urban restructuring also requires channelling of newdevelopment into existing areas in order to improvethem. This can be achieved by using new development,particularly housing, to increase densities in order toimprove levels of service (for example, along existingor new transportation corridors), or to make better useof existing investments (for example, in inner cityareas, around existing commercial and industrialnodes). This approach is consistent with the principleof reinforcement.

Upgrading informal settlements

A common challenge in terms of South Africansettlements is that of upgrading informal settlements.In terms of greenfield sites the generic problem is toprovide, from the beginning, a public spatial structureto guide new development. In the case of informalsettlements, the problem is one of the later provisionof a public spatial structure to provide relief fromovercrowding, to create public gathering places, toguide public and private investment and to improvemovement systems. Whereas, in the greenfield case,housing and economic development is generated bymeans of infill development in the context of thespatial structure, in the case of upgrading projects thenegotiated relocation of residents and economicactivities may be necessary to create a spatial structureconsistent with settlement-making principles.

KEY PLANNING GUIDELINES

In this section key planning guidelines are established,within the context of the minimalist approach tosettlement-making. The guidelines deal specificallywith those elements of the settlement-making processover which the planner has relative control.

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General observations

• Different communities have different priorities interms of social facilities. The important thing is notto predetermine the form of all facilities, butrather the positioning of social institutions valuedby the community. The precise nature and form ofmany of these facilities can be determined overtime by the community itself.

• The principle of lump-sum funding should beadopted in financing new settlement-formation.Funds should preferably not be allocated in apredetermined manner (for example Rx amountfor roads, Ry for community halls) but should beallocated as a lump-sum to allow for negotiatedtrade-offs within the planning process.

• Community facilities are important place-makingelements and they should be deliberately used, incombination with public space, to makememorable places.

• Social facilities are dependent upon public supportand play an important integrating function in andbetween communities. They should therefore be“externalised”, by being located in places of highaccessibility, and made accessible to the local andsurrounding communities. In this way, they bringtogether people from a number of local areas andare not tied to the fortunes of any one community.

• Realities of resource scarcity demand that publicspaces and buildings be used for more than onepurpose. This is consistent with the principles ofmultifunctionality and the sharing of resourcesbetween user groups.

The movement network and publictransport

• Public transport is essential in areas that arecharacterised by low levels of car ownership. As faras possible, new development in such areas shouldsupport public transport. Higher densities increasethe viability of public transport and should beencouraged along public transport routes.

• Coordinating the stopping points and terminals ofdifferent movement modes significantly increasesthe attractive power of the zones in which they arefound. These zones are ideal for high intensity,mixed-use development.

• Movement should not be seen as a separateelement but as an activity which occurs withinsocial space.

• The degree to which movement dominates spacevaries from spaces which are entirely pedestrian-dominated to spaces which are entirely vehicle-

dominated. As a general principle, however, mostspaces within settlements should accommodateboth pedestrian and vehicular activity. However,entirely pedestrian routes, which vehicles cannotpenetrate, have their place in settlements.

• Movement spaces should be flexible, to allow themto meet other demands - such as markets, meetingplaces and parking.

• There is a strong ordering dimension to movement.At all scales, it is necessary to maximise continuitiesof movement, as this promotes choice andintegration. Land uses should be able to respondfreely to movement patterns as this encouragesdiversity and a mix of activities.

• While being ordered, rigid approaches tomovement hierarchies, such as inflexiblestipulations regarding intersection spacing andaccess should be avoided, as these mitigate againstspontaneous settlement-making.

• The most important social spaces are low-order,local streets and these, in particular, mustaccommodate pedestrian activities.

The open space system

• In the case of large city-wide green space systems,continuity is important to promote ecologicaldiversity.

• Sports facilities form an important part of thegreen recreation system.

• Formal sports fields, which function as greenspaces, should be located to ensure a maximumdegree of sharing of space, such as sharingbetween sports clubs, seasonal sports, schools andcommunities.

• Passive recreational places where people can walk,picnic or reflect on life are important settlementfacilities. Wherever possible, these should take“natural” forms, which do not require maintenanceand should be associated with unique naturalfeatures such as forests or plantations, hills, riversand streams.

Urban agriculture

• Land for urban agriculture is particularlyimportant in settlements where people aredependent on their own produce for food andnutrition, or have to supplement their incomes.

• Urban agriculture is an environmental featurethat can operate as an area of visual relief,particularly in situations where finance tomaintain “public open space” is not available.

• Space for urban agriculture should generally beprovided on the edge of the settlement, in ordernot to disrupt the continuity of the urban fabric.

Public facilities

Education

• The creation of environments which promotelearning forms an integral part of thesettlement-making process. Learning has bothformal and informal dimensions. Schoolingrelates to the formal dimension of education.Informal learning stems from exposing peopleto experiences outside the formal learningenvironment, such as experiencing nature,urban activities and social events. In thisrespect, the informal part of the learningexperience can be enhanced by integratingeducational facilities with the broadersettlement structure. This can be achieved bylocating schools, colleges, technikons, adult-education centres and universities close toplaces of intensive urban activities.

• The concept of the specialised self-containedschool, accommodated on a spatially discretesite and serving only its pupil population, needsa rethink. Schools should be seen as resourcesserving both pupils and the broader community.In this regard schools can accommodate theschool population during the day and, wherepossible, adult education during the evenings.Similarly, halls and libraries can serve the schoolpopulation during the day and the broadercommunity during the evening, ensuring 18-hour usage of facilities.

• The need for informal school play space can besupplemented by public space adjacent towhich the school is located. Formal sports fieldscan serve both the school and the broadercommunity.

• In terms of their location, schools should be partof an accessible, city-wide system of educationfacilities. Accordingly, they should be locatedclose to continuous public transport routes. Thiswill make schools sustainable over a longerperiod, since they will draw pupils from a largerarea, thus becoming less susceptible tofluctuations in the local population.

Health

• Health considerations must inform alldimensions of settlement-making and design.Particularly important is ensuring clean air,potable water, the disposal of human and toxicwaste, air circulation, shelter and theprevention of overcrowding.

• Health facilities should be accessible and shouldbe integrated with public transportation. Thiscan be achieved by locating such facilities closeto activity areas and regular places ofgathering.

• The location of preventively orientated healthfacilities, such as clinics, in association withprimary and pre-primary schools, offersadvantages. Preventive functions, such asinoculation and nutritional programmes arebest delivered through schools. Where amultipurpose hall serves a number of schools, aclinic may be beneficially located within oradjacent to that hall.

Meeting spaces

• Both open-air public spaces and enclosed spacessuch as community halls are important parts ofsocial infrastructure. Halls should be located inassociation with public spaces as this will allowfor events in one to spill over into the other, orprovide alternatives in case of weather changes.

• Halls should also be associated with otherpublic facilities, such as schools and markets.Given the limited number of public facilitieswhich can be provided in any one settlement, itmakes sense to concentrate these to create alimited number of special places, which becomethe memorable parts of the settlement.

• The number and location of meeting placescannot simply be numerically derived. Rather, itis necessary to create “forum” places, placeswhich over time assume a symbolic significanceoutstripping their purely functional role.

Religion

• Religious facilities are “public” in the sense ofserving large numbers of people and being ofgreat significance to the communities that theyserve. They should, therefore, be accordedequivalent respect, regardless of theirdenomination.

• They should be located at equivalent,significant places within the settlement. Theirsymbolic importance can be emphasised byusing them to define vistas and by associatingthem with significant natural landmarks.

Public utilities

Public utility services are engineering services, such aspotable water and electricity into settlements, andsewage, refuse, stormwater and wastewater removalfrom settlements.

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As far as possible, it is necessary to work with nature interms of these “inputs” and “outputs”. Thus:

• Water-collection technologies (e.g. roof tanks)should form an important part of the infrastructurein water-scarce areas.

• Woodlots can form important supplementarysources of energy.

• In certain places, solar energy is a viable alternativeenergy form.

• Stormwater and partially treated wastewater canbe used for irrigation by being channelled toplaying fields and urban agricultural areas.

Engineering services can be provided through a widevariety of technologies; all these have different costimplications. The choice of appropriate technologyshould, however, result from an examination of social,environmental and cost issues.

Cross-cutting issues

Crime prevention

It is generally accepted that certain types of crimecan be limited if the environment is designedappropriately.

• Ensure surveillance and visibility throughmultifunctional land uses, rather thanmonofunctional zoning, to ensure long hoursof use; provide inviting and well-definedoutdoor spaces conducive to users meeting andcommunicating; all paths and pedestrianroutes should be in areas where there issurveillance, good lighting, controlledvegetation and high levels of activity; smallopen spaces should be strategically locatedwithin the neighbourhood.

• Owners/users should be encouraged to takeresponsibility for places by avoiding tracts ofvacant land without designated users orcontrol; design the public realm to increasepeople’s ability to read the built environment;networks of small neighbourhood parks arepreferred to uncontrolled large open spaces.

• Limit easy access and escape routes for criminalsby carefully planning the location, size anddesign of large open spaces; avoid ending roadson vacant/undeveloped land; clearly markpedestrian routes.

Environmental concerns

The following ecological factors need to beconsidered when designing human settlements:

• Identify geological conditions and assess risksand costs associated with development on lessideal geological terrain.

• Consider hydrological concerns, especially withregard to stormwater runoff and its directrelationship with urban development (e.g. plotsize, type of land use).

• Take note of atmospheric considerations interms of orientation and layout of erven, theimpact of the prevailing wind direction, plus airand noise pollution.

• Consider implications of development onbiodiversity.

Emergency services

The main emergency services are ambulance, fire-fighting and police services.

• Fire stations and ambulance depots should belocated near the intersection of majorcontinuous urban routes to facilitate rapidaccess to the movement network. Similarly,police stations should be centrally locatedrelative to the areas they serve.

• At a local scale, it is not necessary to enableaccess to every housing unit by emergencyvehicles. However, in such cases, distancesshould be short enough for easy stretcher-bearing, and for buildings to be reached by firehoses.

• The public spatial structure, which includesstreets and public spaces, should bedeliberately used for fire-breaks. In informalhousing areas, which are not served byelectricity, provision should be made, as part ofthe essential public infrastructure, for spaceswhere fires can be made, as cooking frequentlyoccurs in these spaces.

Economic services

Economic considerations should be taken into accountin all the planned elements of a settlement. Some ofthe related concepts and applications are discussedbelow.

Employment generation

In South Africa employment generation is one ofthe highest priorities facing society. The reality isthat the majority of potentially economically activepeople have no option but to generate their ownemployment, usually in the form of “informal-sector” activity. It follows that a pressing priority insettlement-making is to create opportunities for

people to manufacture, trade and provide services.Settlement plans should ensure that sufficientintensity is generated at points in the settlementstructure to generate local markets. A plan shouldprovide an easily readable spatial structure whichunambiguously suggests major movementchannels and places of gathering, allowingentrepreneurs to respond to the structure created.

As a rule, entrepreneurs will find their own place inthe structure and will provide their owninfrastructure where necessary. However, givenproblems of entry capital and urban managementin many settlements, it may be necessary toestablish urban markets and manufacturinginfrastructure by means of deliberate publicactions.

Urban markets

Urban markets result from the physicalagglomeration of large numbers of traders inpublic spaces.

There are a number of advantages in promotingmarkets by means of public actions.

• The creation of urban markets enables smalloperators to gain access to viable locations.

• The physical concentration of numbers oftraders increases their drawing capacity andenables them to compete with larger, formaloperators.

• The agglomeration of large numbers of tradersestablishes the potential for other forms ofmutually advantageous co-operation, such asdelivery of bulk supplies from wholesalers, thesharing of vehicles, and so on.

• Markets in low-income areas can provide animportant service to consumers, in that theyoffer variety and choice of goods and services topeople who are unable to travel large distances.

• From the perspective of urban management,the creation of urban markets contributes tothe resolution of problems of hygiene.

Markets should be located at points of maximumaccessibility. Particularly, they should seek a closeassociation with public transport and majorpedestrian flows. Wherever possible, they shouldbe associated with public transport terminals, suchas railway stations and bus and taxi ranks.

The centrality of the market should be reinforcedby associating other forms of public infrastructure,such as clinics, halls, community resource centres,pension pay-points and services pay-points, with it.

Engineering services required to maintainadequate levels of hygiene, including water, publictoilets, and refuse storage facilities, should also beprovided.

Markets need not always be permanent. The use ofpublic spaces, including streets, for periodicmarkets, at certain times of the day, week or year isalso a positive, cost-efficient option.

Manufacturing infrastructure

Most of the arguments associated with theprovision of markets also apply to the provision ofhives for small-scale manufacturing.

The critical elements of infrastructure are shelteredwork spaces, electricity, water and toilet facilities.The use of metered water and electricity enablesregulated usage by small-scale operators.

From a locational point of view, small-scalemanufacturing needs to be associated with pointsof movement - in particular pedestrian activity.Because they are frequently single-personoperations, it is difficult for operators to separatemanufacturing and selling functions. Consequently,they should be associated with urban markets andother forms of trade agglomerations.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baynham, C et al (1986). Urban design studio: CapeFlats redevelopment proposal. School of Architectureand Planning, University of Cape Town.

Crane, D (1960a). The dynamic city, ArchitecturalDesign, April.

Crane, D (1960b). Chandigarh reconsidered, AmericanInstitute of Architect’s Journal.

CSIR, Division for Building Technology (1993).Guidelines for the Provision of Engineering Servicesand Amenities in Residential Township Development.Pretoria.

Dewar, D and Uytenbogaardt, R S (1995). CreatingVibrant Places to Live: A Primer. HeadstartDevelopments, Cape Town.

Du Toit, S (1996). The scales of urban order. Papersubmitted to the City Planning and Urban DesignProgramme, School of Architecture and Planning,University of Cape Town.

Gasson, B (1997). Evaluating the environmentalperformance of cities, in Davies, R J (ed), inProceedings of the Conference on Structuring theContemporary City: International Geographic Insights.IGU Commission on Urban Development and UrbanLife, Cape Town.

Giurgola, R (1978). Louis Khan: Works and Projects.Imprinta Juvenis, Barcelona.

Hansen, N (1994). The problem of housing - Now andafter the war, South African Architectural Record,August, p 191.

Jacobs, A (1993). Great Streets. Cambridge, MIT Press,Mass.

Jacobs, J (1962). The death and life of great Americancities. Jonathan Cape, London.

Le Corbusier. The Athens Charter. Grossman, NewYork.

Sharon, A (1973). Planning Jerusalem: The Old Cityand its Environs. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, Jerusalem.

South Africa, Department of Housing (1997). Urbandevelopment framework. Pretoria.


Todeschini, F (1994). Cape Town: Physical planningtraditions of a settlement in transition, ArchitectureSA, March/April.

Uytenbogaardt, R, Rozendal, N and Dewar, D (1989).Greater Marianhill Structure Plan.

Uytenbogaardt, R, Rozendal, N and Dewar, D (1994).Marconi Beam Planning Proposals.

Uytenbogaardt, R, Mayet, M, Dewar, D and Todeschini,F (1996). Kliptown, Schematic Urban Design.

Uytenbogaardt, R, Dewar, D and Todeschini, F (1997).A philosophic approach to settlement-making.Unpublished report prepared for the CSIR, Pretoria.

Planning method and

participation

Chapter 4

4

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

APPROPRIATE NATURE OF THE PLANNING METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

APPROPRIATE NATURE OF PARTICIPATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

ROLE-PLAYERS IN THE PLANNING PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

ROLE OF THE PLANNER IN THE PLANNING PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

THE PLAN-MAKING PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Identification and notification of interested and affected parties and other stakeholders . . . . . . . . . 3

Negotiation of a participation strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Needs identification and prioritisation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Site assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Setting of goals and objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Establishment of a crude land allocation budget. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Preparation of a conceptual plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Preparation of a framework plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Costing and budgeting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Preparation of an implementation process plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Administering the plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

ADAPTING THE METHOD AND THE PARTICIPATION PROCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

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Planning method and participation Chapter 4

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INTRODUCTION

Besides moving into a more democratic planningenvironment in South Africa, there is a definite moveaway from the blueprint nature of planning and to alesser degree, away from procedural planning. At thesame time, there is a shift away from non-participationand/or token processes to more inclusive andinteractive planning processes. The current trend inplanning is largely based on the satisfaction offundamental human needs, as stated in Chapters 2 and3. Accordingly, the “human scale developmentplanning method” is advocated. The form of publicparticipation proposed is that of partnerships as aform of citizen empowerment. This chapter takes thefollowing into account as its points of departure:

• That there is current approved planning legislationsuch as the Development Facilitation Act (No 67 of1995) which emphasises a planning framework andprocess based on need, integration and communityparticipation.

• That current and/or new planning legislation doesnot exclude existing planning legislation andreference to previous legislation such as guideplans, zoning schemes, ordinances, and so on.

• Due to the multi-disciplinary nature of planning itmust be accepted that there is a tendency inplanning practice for planning and development tobe managed by project managers who are notnecessarily professional planners. The specific roleof the planner in the planning process has shiftedfrom purely technical to that of mainly a technicalexpert, coordinator, facilitator and advocate.

• While the role of theory in understanding methodand participation is very important, context andrealistic circumstances prevailing in South Africamust also inform method and participation.

• In the past, communities did not play an importantrole in planning and development. However,communities have a wealth of local knowledgethat they can offer as well as a naturalunderstanding of their needs, requirements, localconditions and relationships. This knowledge is avitally important part of planning anddevelopment.

• There is a place for procedural planning methods,albeit not in the form that it was practiced in the1970’s, but in a more appropriate and relevant form.

APPROPRIATE NATURE OF THEPLANNING METHOD

Human scale development “is focused and based onthe satisfaction of fundamental human needs, on thegeneration of growing levels of self-reliance, and onthe construction of organic articulations of peoplewith nature and technology, of global processes withlocal activity, of the personal with the social, ofplanning with autonomy and of civil society with thestate” (Max-Neef 1991, p 8). These pillars must besustained on a solid foundation of creating conditionswhere people are the protagonists in their own future.The focus of planning method and participationshould be on the response to basic human needs.Human scale development assumes a direct andparticipatory democracy that nurtures thoseconditions that help to transform the conventional,paternalistic role of a state into a role that encouragescreative solutions flowing from the bottom up.

APPROPRIATE NATURE OFPARTICIPATION

Governance is a term that encompasses the relationshipbetween civil society and government. It should createan environment in which there is representativeness,legitimacy, accountability and transparency. Theachievement of sustainable development within cities isimpossible without competent, effective andrepresentative city and local government that works inpartnership with citizen groups, business, societies andnon-governmental organisations (NGOs) (Global Forum‘94 Conference 1994).

One of the fundamental sources of conflict is thecompetition for scarce resources. Development inSouth Africa very often introduces scarce resourcesinto resource-starved communities and thereforefocuses on the existing power struggles in thesecommunities, because individuals and organisationscontrolling resources command political allegiance(Hindson and Swilling 1995). Power structures individed communities are part of reality and means ofdealing with them must be incorporated in anydevelopment process.

At the one end of the participation spectrum, recipientcommunities are not involved at all in the decision-making process whereas at the other end of thespectrum, more radical planning processes such as thatadvocated by the organised homeless in the country,essentially find little need for government and professionalinput into their planning processes. Rather than any ofthese two extremes, a partnership approach to planning isadvocated in these guidelines.

Partnerships provide the integrated planning frameworkwithin which development initiatives occur. Partnershipsalso ensure cooperation among stakeholders as the parties

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“agree to share the planning and decision-makingresponsibilities through structures such as joint policyboards, planning committees and mechanisms forresolving impasses ” (Arnstein 1996).

Partnership-based planning processes provide morethan a mechanism for public participation. Theymobilise community expertise, commitment, andresources for joint action. It is agreed that there is nosingle correct way to create a partnership planningprocess, but trial and error and reviewing successstories offer some useful guidelines.

The focus of participation is on delivery and not onideologies and/or political power; accordingly, a publicparticipation process is required that is flexible enoughto address the realities of the stakeholder participationand community dynamics, while keeping focus.

ROLE-PLAYERS IN THE PLANNINGPROCESS

The “role” of each group involved in the partnership,being the community, the local authority (or decision-makers/politicians) and the professionals is as follows:

• The community has a wealth of local knowledgethat it brings to the project as well as a naturalunderstanding of the local conditions andrelationships. The community can identify needsand measure improvements. One of the importantroles of community representatives is todisseminate information into the broadercommunity. Professionals can also benefit fromcommunity representatives, as they collect andbring socio-economic and demographicinformation and personal experience from thecommunities, which can be used to inform theplanning process and strengthen the community’scase during negotiations. When the community isinvolved, proposals or plans are more likely to beacceptable.

In a greenfield situation, “the community”includes surrounding stakeholders and/orpotential users of a settlement. In most instances,potential users are known, whether they are on awaiting list or waiting to be housed in publichousing or private developments. There is alwaysa sense of “the potential users”. Otherstakeholders include interested and affectedparties such as developers, local authorities, etc. Inin-situ or renewal situations, “the community” isusually already resident.

• The decision-maker (or government organisation)has power by virtue of laws - laws that ensureimplementation. The local council can also providethe information centres required by all parties,including staff, financing, and other resources to

encourage and improve public-participationprogrammes.

• The professionals have technical expertise andexperience in land delivery. They can also fulfilvarious roles, such as that of facilitator,coordinator, advocate, etc. Included in this group isthe developer who could be a private developer orthe local authority.

ROLE OF THE PLANNER IN THEPLANNING PROCESS

The traditional role of the planner is that of principalcoordinator, project manager and technicalprofessional in the settlement-development process.The planner operates within the realm of legalrequirements for township establishment, rezoningsand consent uses, and his or her technical role is inmotivating the changes in land use. In motivating theland use change, the planner needs to consult widelywith other professionals from other disciplines, andthe ability to think holistically and integrate variousinputs is essential. The traditional role of the plannerremains. However, with the involvement of thecommunity in the planning process, additional skillsare required. These skills do not necessarily residewithin a planner or any other one professional. If theplanner does have the necessary additional skills, suchas conflict resolution and negotiation, his or her rolecan be expanded. If not, the additional required skillscan be brought in as part of the project team, and theplanner co-operates and co-ordinates with allmembers of the team.

THE PLAN-MAKING PROCESS

Other than the broad directive that the plan-makingprocess should be centered on human needs anddriven by a partnership between the community, theprofessionals and decision-makers, these guidelinesare not intended to suggest a step-by-step plan-making process which needs to be strictly adhered tounder all circumstances, but rather to outline typicalactions necessary in plan-making, which can beadapted, ordered and applied under variousconditions and contexts at the discretion of thepartnership team. In addition, the dynamics broughtto the process by including the community cannot bepredicted or stifled and the plan-making process needsalmost to unfold as the process progresses,appropriate to that group of participants, at that pointin time, and for that particular set of needs andcircumstances. Despite this requirement for flexibilityin the process, there are a number of common keyactions which are typically followed in plan-making.Broadly, the actions stem from two kinds of decisionsequences: those concerned with making the plan andthose concerned with administering it.

Identification and notification ofinterested and affected parties and otherstakeholders

Partnerships work most effectively where there is anorganised power-base in the community to whichcitizen leaders are accountable (Arnstein 1996).Effective participation can be obtained ifrepresentatives, who have been elected throughdemocratic structures, are involved. It is, however,extremely difficult to develop and operate anorganisational system that reaches the majority ofcitizens; therefore one must use existing institutionsand their networks to achieve what needs to bedone, for example local councils, residentsorganisations, business organisations, NGOs and civicorganisations, etc. As community-based organisations(CBOs) and NGOs are not always well resourced, it isimportant to build up capacity in the communitiesone is working with, so as not to put resources solelyin the hands of professionals and have thegovernment merely be a facilitator (Schiceka 1994).

The NGOs require particular consideration on the issueof how people need to be represented at local level.The NGOs are recognised as having an important rolein initiating, facilitating and sustaining communityaction. However, while promoting the initial steps indemocracy and participation, they can also be counter-productive if they become self-serving and competefor resources themselves. Communities should bothvalue and capitalise on the inputs from NGOs.Representatives of communities should be electeddemocratically to prevent misrepresentation; however,the initiative should come from the communities.

The means of notifying stakeholders is through• press releases;• scheduled meetings with representative bodies;• pamphlets/photos;• telephone calls; and• mail drop.

Negotiation of a participation strategy

Once the groups have been identified, the publicparticipation requirements or strategy need to benegotiated with all parties including communities.One must not merely inform the community of its rolein a specific project. It is very important to set groundrules for participation where all the roles,responsibilities, participation limits and rights, as wellas the process, are understood and agreed upon up-front.

Careful consideration should be given to the design ofthe consultation process, as the players could changeand then the only “fixed” issue is the agreed-uponparticipation process. As there are various levels ofparticipation, active and passive, the interested andaffected parties should not necessarily be the focus but

rather the proposed participation process. Thereshould never be a barrier to participants’ joining atany stage during the participation process, but therules for joining should be specified in theparticipation strategy.

Once the participation strategy has been agreed upon,it should be documented and signed as a partnershipagreement which can be referred to at any stage inthe participation process. The fundamental purpose ofthe partnership agreement is to facilitate the processof bringing together all stakeholders, for them toagree on the details of the type of development totake place and establish what each party has to offerthe development. Stakeholders should enter into apartnership agreement to establish a decision-makingforum directed at creating an environment ofcooperation, in addition to obtaining the commitmentof all. A partnership agreement should also be adynamic agreement, which should permit additionalstakeholders to become signatories at any pointduring the process. It is the document that formallyrecords the content and terms of this agreement.Thereafter projects should be implemented,monitored and evaluated in terms of theabovementioned agreement so that the objectives ofthis agreement are met.

Local councils and decision-makers should havestrategies that outline their commitment to working inpartnership with communities. Such strategies shouldbe defined and have measurable objectives, promotingan interdisciplinary culture that values communityparticipation. Examples exist in the Local Agenda 21programme. Depending on the way institutions arestructured, their interactions will either facilitate orobstruct participation and partnership. It is vitallyimportant for members of communities to be able tomeet members of government, the decision-makers, inorder to facilitate participation. Institutions may needto alter their structures and modes of operation inorder to promote appropriate interactions.

Mediation skills and mechanisms need to be built intoplanning and reconstruction because the possibilityexists at almost every stage of the developmentprocess that negotiations will break down. Theapproach to development is therefore the formulationof partnership agreements as a framework for conflictresolution. In order to reduce conflict it is importantfor the client to attend public meetings in the plan-preparation process, in order to be exposed tocommunities’ needs and perceptions.

A forum or steering committee should be establishedby the partners to ensure that adequate andappropriate planning occurs, that a process ofparticipation is established, and that a mechanism formanagement of the project is created, as well as toensure the implementation, monitoring and evaluationof the project in terms of the negotiated agreement.

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Needs identification and prioritisation

The identification and prioritisation of needs is bestinformed by the people whose needs are to befulfilled. This action can be coordinated and facilitatedby a planner, a project manager or any other personwith facilitation skills. The community needs to be themain role-player and take the lead where possible andnecessary. Essential tasks in this action involve thefollowing:

Capacity-building and empowerment

If required, capacity-building must happen prior tosetting goals, objectives, etc, for the project. Thecommunity needs to be aware of its minimumrights, responsibilities, technical considerations andthe options available to it. In addition it needs tobe aware of the operations and decision-makingprocesses of the client (local authority, governmentor a major developer).

Sustainable development cannot be achievedunless problems and issues are addressed in acooperative and interdisciplinary way. Structuresand channels of communication that promote thisshould therefore be created (Global Forum ‘94Conference 1994). The degree to which citizens areactually placated depends on two factors: thequality of technical assistance they have inarticulating their needs and priorities, and theextent to which the community has been organisedto press for those priorities (Arnstein 1996).

Disseminating information

Successful sustainable development programmesdepend to a large extent on the ability to makewise decisions on options and actions. Wisedecisions can be made only if good qualityinformation is available. It is thus very importantthat such an information system be put in place.Such a system could include resource andinformation centres, with appropriatetechnological and human-resource back-up (GlobalForum ‘94 Conference 1994).

Choice of living conditions

The best settlements are created when people havea wide range of choices in relation to livingconditions. Each new development should thereforecontribute to broadening the range of choices. Abasic decision is whether the range of choices iscreated on-site, or whether development on the siteprovides one option in a range of choices over alarger area. As a general principle, the larger the site,the greater the choice of living conditions becomesan issue.

Site assessment

In this action, the planner takes the lead ascoordinator and facilitator. Assistance fromcommunities is encouraged. Other professionals (suchas engineers, environmental planners, etc) will gatherthe data necessary to undertake their specialist tasks.All relevant information necessary to undertake adetailed site assessment or analysis of context needs tobe acquired. The site assessment needs to occur withinthe context of the identified needs, from a number ofperspectives.

Site potential and relationships

Each land parcel has unique relationships withother land parcels, each with their differentstructuring elements and relationships. Thepotential of each parcel in terms of theserelationships, and uses which could beaccommodated on it, need to be discovered.

Site integration and/or discontinuity

It is essential to integrate the site with other landparcels. The principles of achieving continuities anddiscontinuities are central to the integrationprocess.

The natural system

Each land parcel is unique in terms of the naturalsystem (geology, soils, topography, hydrology,climate, flora and fauna) which gives it itscharacter. These features need to be carefullyunderstood to determine the following:

• The presence of important ecological systems,which should be protected to ensure theircontinued functioning.

• The appropriate approach to development.There are two basic approaches. The first relieson a strong, imposed geometry to create place.The other, which is a more organic approach,gives less direct direction and is usually moreresponsive to the natural landscape. The chosenapproach is usually a combination of these basicapproaches.

• The orientation. This is informed by aspectssuch as views, wind protection, the need tooptimise light and shade, shelter from theelements, and so on.

• The engineering constraints. Natural conditionscan play an important role in determining whichengineering technologies should be used.

• The availability of resources. Sites may containresources, such as building materials, which can

be used in a development and which contributeto a unique sense of place.

• The potential of natural place-making features.Water bodies can, for example, be used asplace-making elements.

See also Sub-chapter 5.8.2 for further elaborationregarding ecological considerations.

The higher-order planning system

The site must be contextualised in terms of higher-level existing requirements of integrateddevelopment plans (IDPs)/local developmentobjectives (LDOs)/spatial development frameworks,integrated transport plans, local economicdevelopment and environmental plans applicablein the area.

Setting of goals and objectives

This phase requires the translation of needs intogoals and objectives that are realistic, given thenature and conditions of the site, parameters of thebrief and financial and time constraints. It isimportant for the planner to introduce and debatethe performance qualities to be achieved in thedevelopment of settlements, and for technicalprofessionals to ensure that stakeholders understandall aspects of the site assessment. The participationprocess should focus on

• enabling interested and affected parties andauthorities to bring to the attention of the projectteam their concerns, attitudes and perceptionsabout the project and related investigations; and

• ensuring that the interested and affected parties’concerns, attitudes and perceptions are addressedby the project team.

Establishment of a crude land allocationbudget

Having assessed the site and needs and set broad goalsand objectives, it is useful to calculate a coarse land-allocation budget, which includes

• a determination of what activities and land usesshould be accommodated on the site; and

• a determination of the approximate land areasrequired for the various components of thesettlement.

Although the land budget cannot be calculatedprecisely, it is useful in that it establishes a generalsense of scale and it identifies the public andinstitutional elements that are appropriate to the site,over which the planner has relative control.

Preparation of a conceptual plan

This action involves the formulation of a conceptualspatial ordering system for the settlement. It requiresthe articulation of the main principles and ideasinforming the plan. The conceptual plan, which is anabstract device, has the following purposes:

• it ensures clarity by enabling the idea to bequestioned and taking plan-making out of therealm of simple intuition;

• it enables continuity by ensuring that therelationships between ideas are addressed;

• it serves as a management tool by providing theframework to which plan-makers can refer insearching for solutions to particular problems andin the making of the formal plan itself; and

• it provides the basis for discussion andincorporation of stakeholders views and inputs.

Preparation of a framework plan

The framework plan is made by refining theconceptual plan. This is the design stage of plan-making, and consists of a number of components:

• The first involves working with nature. The specificsite conditions will mould the plan and suggestnew possibilities and options for the settlement-making process.

• The second component requires the refinement ofthe “land budget” and identifying those parts ofthe framework plan about which there is somecertainty, such as the investment of publicresources.

• A third component is closely related to the aboveand requires the inputs of a range of expertsinvolved in the settlement-making process. Thisincludes a range of fields including engineering,urban design, ecology, demography, economics,finance, and so on.

• The fourth component is involving stakeholders inthe plan refinement process. In some instances,trade-offs will need to be made and this must bediscussed and workshopped closely with stakeholders.

• The last component consists of obtaining therequired approval of the local authority andrelevant government agencies before proceedingwith the implementation plan.

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Costing and budgeting

The cost of implementing the framework plan needsto be determined. An important part of this isdetermining who pays for different elements of thestructure envisaged in the plan. At this stage, thefinancial viability of the plan is tested by consideringthe availability of resources and by comparingexpenditure with the expected return on investment.This process may result in further refinements andadaptations of the plan.

Preparation of an implementationprocess plan

The “Process Plan” is an action or implementation planand is concerned with ensuring an efficientimplementation process. If the site is relatively large,an important part of the settlement-making process isensuring that a wide range of implementing agents,including local and provincial authorities, individuals,communities, housing utility companies, small andlarge developers, etc., is involved in the settlement-building process. Where appropriate, local labourneeds to be identified and invited to work ondevelopment. Tender documents need to be simplifiedto make them understandable by local entrepreneurs.The process plan should incorporate a land-releaseprogramme, a detailed management framework(incorporating institutional arrangements), and afinancial plan.

Applications for land use changes and amendments tohigher order plans such as IDPs, LDOs or spatialdevelopment frameworks, need to be made if andwhere necessary.

The management framework should incorporate land-use management recommendations, concerned withthe definition and application of appropriate rules tothe settlement-making process, including

• land use or zoning restrictions, specifying the typesof activities permitted on the land;

• coverage, height, density, floor area and accessrestrictions for specific sites; and

• site layout and landscaping requirements.

Land-use controls need to be applied cautiously, asthey are by nature cumbersome. The pre-determination of land uses often reduces flexibility,thus mitigating against spontaneous settlement-making. The primary form of land-use control - at leastduring the initial stages of development - should bethe logic of the framework plan itself. Land uses willcommonly respond in a predictable way if thesettlement structure is clear and easy to read.

In the South African situation, particularly where rapid

settlement-making occurs, consideration should begiven to a system where land uses acquire post hocrights; that is, legal rights are established after theparticular use is developed, and subsequent changes inland uses are handled on the basis of impact andnuisance.

Implementation

A dynamic project manager plays the leading role inthe implementation phase. The project manager playsa key coordinating function. The planner’s rolebecomes one of monitoring, along with the otherstakeholders. Other key players include training anddevelopment facilitators and administrators.Implementation includes the following actions:

• Preparing tenders;• Awarding tenders;• Site plans and preparation;• Building plans;• Beginning construction and development;• Managing and coordinating construction and

development;• Financial management;• Landscaping; and• Provision of movement networks, engineering

services, public facilities and utilities, and openspace.

Administering the plan

It is the primary responsibility of the local authority toensure that the desired performance qualities of theplan have been met but it is recommended that whenpeople become resident on the site, a sub-committeeshould be formed in conjunction with representativesfrom relevant authorities to monitor and evaluatedevelopment progress, performance and sustainabilityof the local area and fulfillment of basic needs.

Since there is no one ideal form of plan, theadministration process must be a reactive one. Ideally,the process should be creative and interactive,allowing for adaptation of the plan as and whencircumstances may require, and where communitysupport for such changes exists.

ADAPTING THE METHOD AND THEPARTICIPATION PROCESS

The proposed methodology was specifically designedfor the planning and development of greenfields areasbut is applicable to all development situations withcertain minor adaptations and changes in emphasis atcertain points in the process. While the methodologyand generic guidelines are similar for in-situ upgradingand renewal circumstances, some differences do exist,particularly relating to the process of participation,site-assessment, and implementation.

In the case of upgrading and renewal, the stakeholder-identification step is easier, as the primarystakeholders are physically resident in the area. Theactual participation process is likely to be morecomplex, however, due to the fact that the specificcommunity already has a history at that location,together with existing problems, issues and politics.The design and implementation of the participationstrategy and the setting of ground rules is of particularimportance to ensure that focus on the pertinentissues is maintained, and that only the relevant issuesand problems are considered.

The degree of participation will vary according tospecific circumstances and particularly according to thewillingness and desire of the particular community tobecome involved. Existing provincial town planningordinances, in terms of which many land-use changesare still applied for, have specific requirementsregarding advertising and informing the public of theproposed development. These and other applicableprovincial legislation, should be regarded as theminimum requirements. The recently promulgatedenvironmental legislation, requires a greater degreeof stakeholder identification and involvement. The

methodology proposed in this chapter accommodatesthe entire range of degrees of participation, but it is inthe hands of the practising planner to decide, in termsof prevailing legislation and specific circumstances,what degree of participation is appropriate to eachsituation.

Regarding site-assessment differences, in the case ofgreenfields development the emphasis will be on thenatural and physical characteristics of the site, whereaswith upgrading and renewal the emphasis will be onsocial aspects and the limitations and opportunitiesprovided by the already built physical environment. Asocio-economic survey is likely to be an importantcomponent of upgrading and renewal developments(Behrens and Watson 1996).

The implementation process for renewal andupgrading is also more complex than for greenfieldsdevelopments as it may be necessary for people totemporarily move out of the area, be accommodatedelsewhere, and then move back into the area once theupgrading has been completed. The logistics ofmanaging this process are significantly more difficultthan in the greenfields situation.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Arnstein, S R (1996). A ladder of citizen participation.A I P Journal, July, p 216.

Behrens, R (1996). From Red to Green, Green to Amber,and back to Red: A Critique of South African LayoutPlanning. Town and Regional Planning, No 40, April.

Behrens, R and Watson, V (1996). Making urban places:Principles and guidelines for layout planning. UrbanProblems Research Unit, University of Cape Town.

Behrens, R and Watson, V (1997). Comment on“Position paper on geometric design vis-á-visplanning” - Phase 1, Red Book Revision. UrbanProblems Research Unit, University of Cape Town.

Catanese, A J and Steiss, A W (1970). Systemicplanning: Theory and application. Heath LexingtonBooks, Massachusettes.

Claassen, P E (1994). Mechanisms for promoting socio-economic development at the local level in SouthAfrica, Town and Regional Planning, No 36, April.

CSIR, Division of Water, Environment and ForestTechnology (1996). Strategic EnvironmentalAssessment - A Primer.

Dear, M J (1986). Postmodernism and planning.Environment and Planning Journal, Vol 4.

Du Plessis, D J, Naude, A H and Shaw, A F (1994).System for the integrated management of urbansettlement and infrastructure development, Town andRegional Planning, No 36, April.

Faludi, A (1986). Critical rationalism and planningmethodology. Pion Limited, London.

Friedmann, J (1987). Planning in the public domain:from knowledge to action. Princeton University Press.

Global Forum ‘94 Conference: Cities and SustainableDevelopment (1994). Manchester, 24 - 28 June.

Healey, P et al (1982). Planning theory: Prospects forthe 1980’s. Pergamon Press.

Healey, P (1992). Planning through debate: Thecommunicative turn in planning theory. TownPlanning Review, Vol 63, No 2, Liverpool UniversityPress.

Hindson, D and Swilling, M (1995). Inter-departmentalcirculation, Planning Department, GreaterJohannesburg Transitional Metropolitan Council.

Mammon, N and Burger, K (1998). Planning methodand participation. Unpublished report prepared forthe CSIR. Pretoria.

Max-Neef, M A (1991). Human Scale Development -Conception, Application and Further Reflections. TheApex Press, London and New York.

McLoughlin, J B (1969). Urban and Regional Planning:A Systems Approach.

Ngugi, G N (1997). Planning and wilful communityaction. South African Planning Journal, No 42, June,pp 19-23.

Planners and Public Participation (1996). SAITRPPosition Paper No 4, April.

Planning elements for Local Agenda 21 (1997), Actionplanning (AP) Local Agenda 21 Network News Issue 5,January.

Planning elements for Local Agenda 21 (1994).Partnerships Local Agenda 21 Network News Issue 2,November.

Robinson, P (1997). Cato Manor: a legacy of SouthAfrica’s past or a model for reconstruction? SouthAfrican Planning Journal 42, June.

Scott, D (1980). A review and analysis of urbanplanning theory with application in Natal. Final reportprepared for the Natal Town and Regional PlanningCommission, Vol 50.

Schiceka, S (1994). Town and Regional planning withinthe PWV: General policy of the PWV provincialgovernment, Planinfo No 3, August.

South Africa, Department of ConstitutionalDevelopment & Planning (1997). IntegratedDevelopment Planning for Local Authorities: A User-friendly Guide. CTP Book Printers, Cape Town.

South Africa, Department of Environment Affairs(1992). Integrated Environmental ManagementProcedure. Pretoria.


South African Planning Institute News, (1997). March.

Sowman, M (1994). Improving the practice of publicparticipation in environmental planning and decision-making in South Africa, Town and Regional Planning,No 36, April.

Sowman, M (1996). Mizamu Yethu - Case Study.Environmental Evaluation Unit, University of CapeTown.

The International Council for Local EnvironmentalInitiatives (nd). Local Agenda 21 Handbook. WorldSecretariat, Toronto.

Van Schoor, C (1993). Conflict Resolution at Sandy Bay,SAITRP News Letter, September.

Van Zyl, P S (1997). Secure the future - Innovate andmake a difference, South African Planning Journal 42,June.

Western Cape Draft Planning and Development Bill No5085 (1996). Provincial Gazette Extraordinary, Provinceof the Cape, 24 October.

Western Cape, Department of Transport and PublicWorks (1997). White Paper on Western Cape provincialtransport policy. May.

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Planning guidelines

Chapter 5

5.1 Movement networks5.2 Public transport5.3 Hard open spaces5.4 Soft open spaces5.5 Public facilities

5.6 Land subdivision

5.7 Public utilities

5.8 Cross-cutting issues

5

Movement networks

Chapter 5.15.1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

ELEMENTS OF MOVEMENT NETWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Junctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

THE ROLE OF MOVEMENT NETWORKS IN HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND THE QUALITIES THEYSHOULD HAVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

GUIDELINES ON THE CONFIGURATION OF MOVEMENT NETWORKS (IN GENERAL) TOACHIEVE THESE QUALITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

The relationship between vehicle-only, mixed-mode, and pedestrian-only links. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

The configuration of links and junctions into networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

GUIDELINES ON THE CONTEXTUAL FACTORS THAT INFORM THE CONFIGURATION OF APARTICULAR MOVEMENT NETWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Higher order movement route connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Public transport service connections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Network configuration requirements of vulnerable modes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Network configuration impacts on local economic development processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Land-access requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Place-making considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Network configuration impacts on internal utility service reticulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

GUIDELINES ON THE ADAPTATION AND CONVERSION OF MOVEMENT NETWORKS TOACCOMMODATE CHANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

The anticipation of patterns of movement demand within sub-metropolitan and local movement networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

The management of changing patterns of movement demand within sub-metropolitanand local movement networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

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Movement networks Chapter 5.1

ii


Chapter 5.1 Movement networks

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 5.1.1 Diagram illustrating a movement network as a series of overlaying “ways” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2

Figure 5.1.2 Diagram illustrating the relationship between vehicle-only and mixed-mode links . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Figure 5.1.3 Diagram illustrating the relationship between higher and lower order mixed-mode links . . . . . . .5

Figure 5.1.4 Diagram illustrating the relationship between pedestrian-only and mixed-mode links . . . . . . . . .5

Figure 5.1.5 Generic network configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Figure 5.1.6 Conceptual examples of closed roadway system options within a multidirectional public right-of-way network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Figure 5.1.7 Hypothetical example of a multidirectional public right-of-way network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Figure 5.1.8 Possible configurations of foot/pathway and roadway systems within a publicright-of-way network that respond to different traffic volume situations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Figure 5.1.9 Possible use of measures in a public right-of-way network’s roadway system to manage traffic speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Figure 5.1.10 Roadway adaptations to manage traffic speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Figure 5.1.11 Roadway adaptations to manage traffic volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

INTRODUCTION

“Movement networks” are defined broadly as publicright-of-way networks, accommodating land-basedmovement by a range of movement modes. Earlierguidelines have referred to “movement networks” as“road layouts”.

While the guidelines presented in the previous versionof the “Red Book” (1994) were intended forapplication in both high- and low-income residentialdevelopment, its guidelines on road layout planningwere drawn directly from the initial “Blue Book”(1983). It was acknowledged in the subsequent “GreenBook” (1988) that the “Blue Book” had been preparedfor “developed communities” or “municipaltownships”, not “developing communities”. In thereview of the previous “Red Book” (in 1995), its roadlayout planning guidelines were criticised for beingcar-oriented and for largely ignoring the movementneeds of those sectors of the South African populationwithout access to private motor cars.

The intention of this sub-chapter is therefore toprovide guidance on the design of local areamovement networks in both higher and lower incomeareas that are primarily convenient for pedestrians andpublic transport users, while at the same timerestrictive of unwanted and potentially dangerousfast-moving through-traffic. The guidelines have beenprepared for application in predominantly residential,but also mixed, land-use developments that seek to beconsistent with current housing, transport and land-development policy objectives.

A different approach to those of past guidelinedocuments has been adopted in that

• public right-of-way networks (as opposed to roadlayouts) are the focus of planning and design;

• reference to conventional road classifications suchas “access roads”, “collectors”, “local distributors” or“arterials” is avoided to prevent preconceptionsregarding the functions and cross-section of anyparticular public right-of-way; and

• continuous, pedestrian-friendly, public right-of-way networks are promoted ahead of conventionaldiscontinuous suburban road layouts.

These differences are consistent with recent shifts ininternational practice - which have included site layoutdesign as one of a series of “travel demandmanagement” (TDM) strategies - often referred to as“transit-oriented” or “(neo)traditional” design. Thesedesign ideas have emerged largely in response togrowing automobile dependency and associatedefficiency and equity problems, and to the prospect ofglobal warming as a result of increasing greenhousegas emissions (to which vehicle tailpipe emissions are a

significant contributor). Government authorities andprofessional institutions in various parts of the worldhave begun either replacing or supplementing theirdesign codes to take account of these ideas. The list ofkey literature at the end of this sub-chapter providesreferences to some examples of these design codes.

The sub-chapter is divided into five sections. The firstsection clarifies what is meant by the term “movementnetwork”. The second discusses the role movementnetworks play in human settlements, and the qualitiesthey should have. The third section provides guidanceon how these qualities can be achieved in theconfiguration of movement networks in general. Thefourth section provides guidance on the contextualfactors that should inform the configuration of amovement network on a particular site. The finalsection provides guidance on the adaptation andconversion of movement networks to accommodatechanging patterns of movement demand and right-of-way functions.

These guidelines should be read in conjunction withChapter 7 on geometric design, as well as theDepartment of Transport’s “Transport planningguidelines” (TPGs) - particularly TPGs 1, 5, 9, 12 and 14on “integrated transport plans”, “spatial planning”,“travel demand management”, “transport systemsmanagement”, and “traffic calming” respectively.Further guidelines on road design, which adopt anapproach similar to that of the earlier Blue Book, canbe found in the former Committee of Urban TransportAuthorities’ (now replaced by the Committee of LandTransport Officials) “Urban transport guidelines”(UTGs) - particularly UTGs 1, 5, 7 and 10 on “urbanarterial roads”, “urban collector roads”, “localresidential streets”, and “commercial and industriallocal streets”, respectively.

ELEMENTS OF MOVEMENTNETWORKS

Local movement networks are made up of (a) links and(b) junctions of public rights-of-way or reserves. Theselinks and junctions contain overlaid systems of “ways”for different movement modes - including footways,roadways, pathways, cycleways, and sometimesrailways (see Figure 5.1.1). Viewing a movementnetwork as a network of public rights-of-way, asopposed to simply as a network of roads, is central tothe planning approach presented in this sub-chapter;it is argued to be essential to the design of localmovement systems that move away from being car-oriented.

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Figure 5.1.1: Diagram illustrating a movementnetwork as a series of overlaying “ways”

Links

This network of public rights-of-way within a localmixed land use development has numerous functions -including the facilitation of movement by differentmodes, accommodating utility services, providingcommercial activities with exposure to potentialconsumers, and so on. The configuration of movementnetworks and the functional differentiation of linkstherefore needs to be informed by a variety of socio-economic factors (e.g. the accommodation of streettrading, child play and social interaction), as well asmovement factors. Movement networks, based on afunctional road hierarchy that is tiered solely on thebasis of traffic distribution, do not take intoconsideration - and often cannot accommodate - allthe functions the network needs to perform.

In order to avoid overlooking or excluding some of thefunctions they perform, public right-of-way links arebroadly categorised below on the basis of the usersthey accommodate. More detailed functionaldifferentiation should occur on a context-specific basis.

• There are links within a movement network wherethe needs of longer distance vehicular trafficpredominate over those of other users andfunctions, and these links therefore need to bedesigned to accommodate motorised modes only.These vehicle-only links, corresponding with majorarterial roads or freeways, should be designed toprovide uninterrupted vehicular channels whichaccommodate the needs and requirements of fast-moving inter- and intra-settlement traffic. Theneed for uniform operating conditions and highlevels of safety requires, inter alia, control overdirect frontage access and intersection spacing, andfrequently grade separation at intersections.

• On the bulk of the remainder of links within anetwork it is necessary to achieve a balancebetween the variety of social, recreational,economic and movement functions the linkperforms. These mixed-mode links, which may becollector or local roads, should therefore beplanned to reconcile the diverse requirements of amultiplicity of users, with the recognition thatinevitably no one function will operate withoptimum efficiency. In terms of vehicular trafficcirculation, different mixed-mode links perform avariety of access, collection, and even shorterdistance mobility functions. Higher order mixed-mode links would be those designed toaccommodate the shorter distance distribution andstopping of relatively large volumes of mixedtraffic (often referred to as “activity” or “main”streets). Middle order mixed mode links would bethose designed to collect traffic onto vehicle-onlydistributors. Lower order mixed-mode links wouldbe those designed to provide access to individualproperties - some of which would be designedprimarily for pedestrians, and vehicle behaviourwould essentially be determined by a set ofpedestrian rules (e.g. woonerven). Conventionalhierarchical road classification systems thereforefall within this categorisation of higher, middle andlower order mixed-mode links - arterial roads fallwithin the category of higher order mixed-modelinks, collectors fall into the category of middleorder mixed mode links, and local streets (alsoknown as “access roads”) fall into the category oflower order mixed-mode links.

• As some routes accommodate only motorisedmodes, other routes accommodate only non-motorised modes (e.g. pedestrians and cyclists). Theentrances to such pedestrian-only links are typicallydesigned to prevent access by vehicles. The linksthemselves are, however, often designed to enablethe movement of occasional emergency or servicevehicles. The functions of pedestrian-only links canvary significantly, from those links abutting andaccommodating intensive commercial activities(e.g. “pedestrianised” streets in city centres), tolinks performing a primarily pedestrian- or bicycle-access function within “superblocks” or across softpublic open spaces.

An understanding of the potential range of functionsthat each link within a movement network may beexpected to perform enables the appropriate numberof lanes, the pavement structure, the footway width,the on-street parking provisions, and the intersectionconfigurations and spacings, etc, to be selected.Contextual factors that inform the derivation ofmixed-mode link functions include:

• the existing and expected composition, volume anddestinations of motorised and non-motorisedtraffic on the “external” movement network

Footway

Pathway

Roadway

Cycleway

Public right-of-way reserve

surrounding the site, the degree to which thistraffic may wish to pass through the site, and theroutes they select;

• the number of consumers that may wish to passthrough the site, and the exposure of localentrepreneurs to potential non-local consumersalong the routes they may select;

• the composition, volume and destinations ofmotorised and non-motorised traffic that is likelyto be generated and attracted by the expectedland use pattern on the site, and the routes theymay select; and

• the alignment of existing and anticipated“external” road-based public transport services,how these services may be integrated into andthrough the site, and points at which modalinterchange is likely to occur.

Junctions

Junctions, as in the case of links, perform a variety ofmovement and non-movement functions. With regardto movement functions, the carrying capacity of anurban roadway network is determined by intersectioncapacity, not by route capacity, and it is thereforeintersection performance that often determines theoperational efficiency of the roadway network as awhole. The non-movement functions of junctionsrelate primarily to economic activity. Each quadrant ofa junction is exposed to two adjacent movementroutes, and consequently is the site of maximumpotential consumer exposure in the immediate area.

THE ROLE OF MOVEMENT NETWORKSIN HUMAN SETTLEMENTS AND THEQUALITIES THEY SHOULD HAVE

The role of a movement network in the process ofsettlement-making is essentially to provide the basicspatial framework within which a number of urbanprocesses that involve the physical movement orreticulation of people, goods and services, find spatialform. A measure of the performance of a movementnetwork should therefore be the degree to which thenetwork can effectively accommodate a variety ofchanging urban processes.

The role of a movement network in the dailyoperation of a settlement system is essentially toenable the convenient, efficient, affordable and safemovement of people, goods and services and, in doingso, to satisfy the needs of a variety of users andfacilitate the effective operation of local spaceeconomies. A further measure of the performance of amovement network should therefore be the degree towhich the network minimises the demand formovement, and hence the degree to which ease of

access is increased. Movement should not be seen asan end in itself, but as a means through which needscan be satisfied.

In performing these roles, a local settlementmovement network should have the following basicqualities:

• A movement network should prioritise the needsof non-motorised modes most sensitive to distance,as well as the needs of public transport servicesdepended upon by those sectors of society withoutaccess to private motor cars.

• A movement network should be able to maintainconvenience, safety and multiple-use patterns overtime, as the nature of movement demand andnetwork use inevitably changes.

• As mentioned earlier, apart from a limited numberof links that accommodate the requirements offast, longer distance vehicular traffic, a movementnetwork should accommodate a range ofmovement demands and socio-economic functions.

GUIDELINES ON THECONFIGURATION OF MOVEMENTNETWORKS (IN GENERAL) TOACHIEVE THESE QUALITIES

In order for movement networks to perform theseroles and have these qualities:

• certain basic relationships need to be createdbetween vehicle-only, mixed-mode, andpedestrian-only links; and

• public right-of-way networks need to beconfigured in particular generic ways.

The relationship between vehicle-only,mixed-mode, and pedestrian-only links

The purpose of interconnections between vehicle-onlyand mixed-mode links is essentially to provide higher-speed route alternatives. They enable longer distance,higher-speed traffic to avoid mixed-mode links (orportions of mixed-mode links) that experiencerelatively high, but lower speed (i.e. “stop-start”),vehicular traffic volumes. In practice, lower levels-of-service (i.e. slower and denser vehicular traffic) will beacceptable on links that have a higher capacity routealternative. Wherever possible (Figure 5.1.2):

• Higher order mixed-mode links should thereforerun parallel to high-capacity vehicle-only links. Thisenables through-traffic to “opt-in” or “opt-out” oftravelling along the higher order mixed-mode link,depending on the range of urban activities towhich access is required.

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• The higher order mixed-mode link and the vehicle-only link should ideally be close enough to make itrelatively easy for vehicles to move between thetwo routes, yet ensure that the fragmentary impactof the higher order facility, particularly if it is afreeway, does not prevent commercial and publicfacility activities from locating on either side of themixed-mode link.

• Access interchanges between vehicle-only links andhigher order mixed-mode links, as well as systeminterchanges between vehicle-only linksthemselves, should be designed to facilitate safeand uniform operating conditions. Theseinterchanges perform a “mobility” function, whichprecludes locating any activities that require directfrontage access adjacent to the intersection. Thespacing of interchanges along vehicle-onlyfreeways should be determined by the need toprevent joining traffic streams from disruptingtraffic flow and reducing traffic speed, creatingunsafe operating conditions.

Figure 5.1.2: Diagram illustrating the relationshipbetween vehicle-only and mixed-mode links

On mixed-mode links that accommodate higher trafficvolumes, the following should be noted:

• The spacing of intersections should be greater thanon links carrying lower traffic loads. In order toavoid excessive disruptions to the traffic stream,greater intersection spacings can be achieved byaligning blocks parallel to - as opposed toperpendicular to - higher order links (and, whererequired, providing pedestrian-only access throughthe middle of these blocks).

• Intersections between two mixed-mode links thataccommodate larger volumes of traffic are pointsof greatest accessibility, and are therefore pointswhere commercial opportunities are often largest.The relative accessibility of a particular intersectionis determined not only by the type and nature ofpassing traffic, but by the ability of traffic to stop.Consequently, in order to create tradingopportunities, vehicles (including public transportvehicles) should be able to stop and park or offloadpassengers within a reasonable walking distancefrom the intersection, and buildings should not beprevented from fronting onto the intersection.

• Taking vehicular access close to the intersection,however, increases the potential for conflict andshould be avoided. The volume of traffic on manyof these intersections necessitates some form ofintersection control which, in turn, througheliminating potential conflict points, enablesgreater use of four-legged junctions.

On mixed-mode links that accommodate lower trafficvolumes, the following should be noted (Figure 5.1.3):

• Intersection spacing should be influenced more by,inter alia, pedestrian circulation, block subdivisionand internal utility service reticulationconsiderations than by traffic circulationconsiderations. By limiting straight, unbrokenstretches of roadway in which vehicles are able topick up speed, network configurations can be usedas traffic calming mechanisms, which enhance theability of pedestrians to use streets for social andrecreational purposes.

• Low traffic volumes do not usually justifyinvestment in intersection control, in the form oftraffic signalisation. T-junctions can therefore beused as a way of breaking long stretches ofroadway.

• Intersections between two mixed-mode links thataccommodate smaller volumes of traffic, are lessaccessible and therefore provide opportunities forless intensive trade and collective servicing points.Activities should not therefore be prevented fromlocating close to the intersection.

‘Higher order’ mixed- mode link

Vehicle-only link

Collector/connectormixed-mode link

Figure 5.1.3: Diagram illustrating the relationshipbetween higher and lower order mixed-mode links

Note: The diagram illustrates public right-of-waylinks, not roadways. The junction of two right-of-waylinks does not therefore necessarily imply theintersection of two roadways. See Figures 5.1.8 and5.1.9 for illustrations of roadway systems that preventor manage through-traffic on lower order mixed-mode links.

The purpose of interconnections between mixed-modeand pedestrian-only links is essentially to maintain easymulti-directional pedestrian and bicycle access, insituations where the roadway network is discontinuousto prevent large quantities of vehicular through-trafficfrom using certain routes (Figure 5.1.4). The network ofpedestrian footways, crossings, pathways andcycleways should always remain convenient and direct.Intersections between mixed-mode and pedestrian-only routes typically take the form of footways joiningwith short pathways that run through longer blocks oropen spaces.

Figure 5.1.4: Diagram illustrating the relationshipbetween pedestrian-only and mixed-mode links

The configuration of links and junctionsinto networks

A continuum of basic network-configuration optionscan be identified on the basis of network connectivity(Figure 5.1.5). On either end of the continuum areclosed and open networks. A closed network consistsof a hierarchy of links, within which links intersectonly with other links equal to - or one below orabove - it in the hierarchy. This system establishesclearly defined movement routes between any twopoints, but offers no equidistant alternatives. An“open” network on the other hand, consists of asystem of links of differing hierarchical importanceintersecting freely with one another. This systemoffers a choice of alternative equidistant routesbetween any two points within the network.

Studies of the impact of open and closed networks ontravel behaviour and residents’ quality of life, haveindicated that different configurations have bothadvantages and disadvantages. On the one hand,studies have shown that while open networks (in

Mixed-mode link

Pedestrian-only link

0 100 200m

Approximate scale:

‘Higher order’ mixed- mode link

‘Lower order’ mixed- mode link

0 100

Approximate scale:

200 300

5



'Closed' networks'Open' networks

Rectilinear multi-directional network

Distorted rectilinearmultidirectional

network

Radial multi-directional network

Looped hierarchicalnetwork

Branched hierarchicalnetwork

Figure 5.1.5: Generic network configurations

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conjunction with mixed land-uses) improve levels ofaccessibility to local destinations, reduce total vehiclekilometres travelled and increase the walking andpublic-transport share of the modal split; they can alsoresult in numerous problems associated with theintrusion of fast-moving through-traffic (e.g. safetyand noise). On the other hand, studies have shownthat, while closed networks manage through-trafficeffectively, they can also isolate neighbourhoods andreduce the viability of smaller neighbourhoodcommercial activities, as well as increase trip lengthsfor non-motorised modes and necessitate road-basedservice vehicles to either back-track or frequentlyaccord priority to other vehicles.

Central to the planning approach presented in thissub-chapter is the argument that the configuration ofpublic rights-of-way into networks that aremultidirectional, enables different way systems withinthe movement network to either incorporate or avoidthe above-mentioned advantages and disadvantages.It is possible, for instance, for a multidirectionalmovement network to maintain easy and directpedestrian and bicycle circulation in all directions(through the design of the footway, pathway andcycleway component of the network as an opensystem), while preventing or limiting the safety andintrusion problems associated with extraneousvehicular traffic (through the design of the roadwaycomponent of the network as a closed system - seeFigure 5.1.6).

A multidirectional configuration (and the associated

patterns of public and private land ownership) furtherenables the various “way” systems within themovement network to be adapted to become moreopen or closed as modal split and dynamic land-usedevelopment processes alter the nature and pattern ofmovement demand and the functions of particularlinks. Network configurations, to a large extent,determine the pattern of land sub-division, which inturn forms the basis for title registration and theallocation of development rights. Given that large-scale expropriation and compensation is required inorder to significantly alter patterns of land ownershipand development rights, discontinuous or “dendritic”public right-of-way networks are extremely difficult toadapt and are inflexible. A multidirectional movementnetwork is thus able to prioritise the needs of non-motorised modes and public transport users, as well asmaintain convenience, safety and multi-use whenconditions and movement needs change. It isimportant to note that a multidirectional movementnetwork is not necessarily an orthogonal grid.

Figures 5.1.7, 5.1.8 and 5.1.9 provide an example ofhow the individual “way” systems within ahypothetical multidirectional movement network (seeFigure 5.1.7) can be configured to manage motorisedtraffic on lower order mixed-mode links througheither volume management measures (see d, e and f ofFigure 5.1.8), or speed reduction measures (see Figure5.1.9), while maintaining direct pedestrian and bicyclecirculation in all cases (see a, b and c of Figure 5.1.8). Itshould be noted that the management of traffic volumeand traffic speed is interrelated, and it is not the

Multidirectional public right-of-waynetwork

Alternate vehicular streets andpedestrian boulevards

Loops Culs-de-sac

Figure 5.1.6: Conceptual examples of closed roadway system options within a multidirectional public right-of-waynetwork

intention of the figures to suggest that they should beconsidered independently. Studies on the impact oftraffic volume and speed management measures haveshown that speed reduction on particular links almostinevitably leads to volume reduction as well. The use ofroadway closures and diverters which restrict through-traffic are therefore not regarded as mutually exclusivefrom the use of measures that reduce speed (e.g. tables,pinch points and chicanes), and vice versa.

It should also be noted that in all the differentconfigurations represented in Figures 5.1.8 and 5.1.9, acontinuous footway and pathway network with 18pedestrian entrance/exit points is maintained. Thepathways are also all relatively short and straight, andsurrounding properties overlook them. The publictransport route is direct, and pedestrian access to thepublic transport stop is unhindered. In the case ofroadway systems, the minimum spacing between T-intersections involving minor arterials andservice/collector routes is ± 100 m, the minimum spacingbetween T-intersections involving collector and localaccess routes is ± 25 m, and the minimum spacingbetween cross-intersections involving collector and localaccess routes is ± 50 m.

Figure 5.1.7: Hypothetical example of a multi-directional public right-of-way network

The exact configuration of a multidirectionalmovement network is dependent on context-specificfactors like topography, the distribution of traffic-generating activities in surrounding areas, car-ownership levels, and the modal split of thepopulation on the site as well as the surroundingpopulation - these contextual factors are discussed inthe following section.

GUIDELINES ON THE CONTEXTUALFACTORS THAT INFORM THECONFIGURATION OF A PARTICULARMOVEMENT NETWORK

An analysis of the pattern and mix of existing andanticipated land-use activity surrounding theparticular site, as well as the pattern and mix of higherorder land-use development that is to be encouragedwithin the site, will indicate spatial patterns ofmovement demand (known as “desire lines”) across,into and from the site. In order to identify movement-demand desire lines, it may be useful to establish amap which indicates possible future patterns ofmovement demand (both motorised and non-motorised) between existing and anticipated areas ofland-use activity. This desire-line map essentiallyconsists of bands which represent the majormovement flows between appropriately scaled zones -delimited on the basis of a simple grid, or on the basisof clusters of dominant land-use activity. Thebeginning and end points of the band indicate theorigin zone and the destination zone, and the width ofthe band indicates the relative magnitude of theanticipated movement demand. Such movementdesire-line maps can be prepared for different times ofthe day or week, in order to indicate temporalfluctuations in movement demand. An indication ofthe nature of these patterns of movement demand canbe used to inform

• the need for, and alignment of, higher ordermovement routes across the site; and

• the need for, and alignment of public transportconnections across the site.

An analysis of the pattern and mix of existing andanticipated land use within the site, the demographicand income profile of the existing and “target”population on the site, as well as the biophysicalfeatures of the site, will indicate, inter alia, land-accessrequirements, the nature of movement demands, andtopographical constraints on network configuration.In the case of in-situ upgrade projects, the existingpattern of informal movement channels will be amajor internal informant of movement-networkconfiguration. An indication of these requirementsand constraints can be used to inform

• the modes of movement that will need to receivepriority in the configuration of the network;

• local economic development considerations in theconfiguration of the movement network;

• the land-access requirements associated with thepattern of land subdivision;

• place-making considerations in networkconfiguration; and

Soft open space

Hardopen space

0 100 200 300m

Approximate scale:

Hardopen space

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8



10 entrance/exit points39 T vs. 13 cross intersections

18 entrance/exit points

Progressively 'closed' roadway systems withmeasures to manage traffic volume

'Open' footway/pathway systemsH

igh

traffi

c vo

lum

e sc

enar

ioM

ediu

m tr

affic

vol

ume

scen

ario

Low

traf

fic v

olum

e sc

enar

io

(a) (d)

(b) (e)

(c) (f)

Legend:

minor arterial

service and collector routes

local access route

footway

vehicular entrance/exit point

pathway

pedestrian entrance/exit point

public transport stop

pedestrian crossing facility



5 entrance/exit points38 vs. 12 cross intersections


Figure 5.1.8: Possible configurations of foot/pathway and roadway systems within a public right-of-way networkthat respond to different traffic volume situations

• the network configuration requirements ofinternal services reticulation, particularly gravity-based wastewater and stormwater drainage.

Higher order movement routeconnections

Higher order movement routes, in the form of vehicle-only links or mixed-mode links carrying greatervolumes and densities of vehicular traffic, which leadto, across, and out of the site, facilitate longer distanceintra-settlement connections. In many cases the needfor, and the alignment of, these higher ordermovement routes across the site will already havebeen identified in metropolitan or sub-metropolitanplans. In these cases, the proposed higher order routesneed to be accommodated within the site, and theplanning and design of the local movement networkneeds to be done in relation to these dedicatedalignments. Of particular importance, is the fact thatwhen these higher order routes take the form ofvehicle-only links, the opt-in-opt-out relationshipbetween vehicle-only and higher order mixed-modelinks, discussed earlier, needs to be considered.

Public transport service connections

Public transport service connections that lead to, across,and out of the site represent an important way ofintegrating the local environment with the surroundingmovement system and land-use pattern. The planningand design of the local network should provideopportunities for increased coverage and penetrationof road-based public transport operations, throughextending these into and across the site. In order toidentify the need for increased public transportcoverage and penetration, it may be useful to establisha map which indicates areas that are served and notserved. The area served by public transport is delimitedon the map as that which is within convenient walkingdistance of public transport stops. A convenient walkingdistance is often interpreted as maximum walking timeof 5-10 minutes, and a maximum walking distance of

that involving 400-500 metres. Such a map illustratesthe area of coverage, and suggests where additionalservice routes and stops might be placed.

Network configuration requirements ofvulnerable modes

• Public policies relating to desirable modal split, aswell as the existing or anticipated level of carownership among the site’s population (andassociated dependence on walking or publictransport services), will provide an indication of therelative importance that different modes will needto assume in movement-network design withinparticular contexts. In order to design networksthat are capable of prioritising particular - whileeffectively accommodating all - modes, it is usefulto consider the specific network-configurationrequirements of dominant modes (i.e. motor cars,walking, public transport vehicles).

• Motor cars are the most flexible of all movementmodes, able to undertake any length of door-to-doortrip. It is argued therefore that the configuration oflocal movement networks should be informed by theneeds of more vulnerable, gradient - and distance-sensitive modes, particularly pedestrians.

• Walking trips can only cover relatively shortdistances (i.e. 1-2 kms), and are often associatedwith the beginning and end portions of publictransport trips. Pedestrian movement isaccommodated primarily within footways,pathways and roadways. In order to facilitateefficient pedestrian movement, these “ways”should be configured in the following manner:

- Footways should be configured into multi-directional networks which enable pedestriansto choose relatively direct and equidistant triproutings, that either avoid or select roads thataccommodate greater traffic flows and greatercommercial land-use activity, and to orientate

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vehicle restriction measure

area with various traffic calming measures

pedestrian crossing measure

public transport stop

minor arterial

service route

local access route

vehicular entrance/exit point

Legend:

Figure 5.1.9: Possible use of measures in a public right-of-way network’s roadway system to manage traffic speed

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themselves within settlements they do notknow well.

- Blocks, within multidirectional networkconfigurations, should be short to medium inlength, to enable more intersections where carsmust stop and pedestrians can cross, and moredirect routing of walking trips. For ease ofpedestrian circulation, block lengths should bein the region of 100 m.

- When block lengths are significantly longerthan 100 m (in the region of 200-300 m)because of land use or traffic managementconsiderations, short and direct pathwaysthrough the centre of the block (known as“pass-throughs”) should be provided, in orderto maintain the ease of pedestrian circulation.

- When culs-de-sac (or road closures) areincorporated within the movement networkbecause of traffic management considerations,pathways should be provided which connectthe end of the cul-de-sac with the nearestfoot/roadway, in order to maintain multi-directional pedestrian circulation.

- On mixed-mode links where roadways andfootways are separated by kerbs, footwaysshould be provided on both sides of theroadway, and should connect with pathwaysthat cut across large soft open spaces, tofacilitate continuous and multidirectionalpedestrian circulation.

- Pedestrians tend to choose travel lines of leastresistance - cutting corners and keeping theirroutes as direct as possible. Pedestrian pathwayswithin soft open spaces (that accommodatenon-recreational trip functions) shouldtherefore be as direct and short as possible.

- On roadways experiencing relatively high trafficflows, pedestrian crossings should be providedat regular intervals, and should be located atpoints where pedestrian desire lines cross theroadway, in order to maintain adequate levelsof pedestrian safety.

• Public transport vehicle trips typically take the formof shorter feeder, and longer line-haul or expresstrips. The number and spacing of stops establishesthe line-haul or express nature of the publictransport service. The network configurationrequirements of express public transport vehiclesare similar to the requirements of motor carsundertaking longer distance trips. Public transportvehicles are accommodated within roadways andrailways. In order to facilitate efficient publictransport movement, these “ways” should beconfigured in the following manner:

- Effective line-haul public transport serviceoperations are quick, frequent and predictable.Roadways carrying road-based bus and light railservices should therefore be as direct as possible,to avoid the delays associated with continuousbacktracking, and frequent turning movementswhere giving priority to other vehicles needs tobe accorded. Direct road alignments also makethe introduction of dedicated public transportlanes less complex than on circuitous roads, andenable numerous service operations to berouted along the same road for portions of theirservice length - thus enhancing the frequency ofservices along the route.

- Parallel road-based feeder public transportservice routes should be spaced at maximumintervals of 800 - 1 000 m, to maintain a maximumconvenient walking distance to these services of400 - 500 m.

- At bus service terminals, vehicles may stand forsome time and need to turn around. It ispreferable to provide a turning area off theroadway, unless there is a suitable nearbyroundabout which can be used.

- Where rail lines are an integral part of themovement network, or where a site is beingdeveloped adjacent to an existing railwaystation, every opportunity should be taken tostructure a set of road-based public transportroutes to interchange or end at the railwaystation, in order to facilitate inter-modaltransfer.

Network configuration impacts on localeconomic development processes

The spatial organisation of local economies isinfluenced by a number of complex socio-economic,financial, security and development control factors. Itis important that the configuration of the movementnetwork maximises opportunities for smallentrepreneurs, and does not disadvantage, orpreclude, certain types of entrepreneurs and spatialpatterns of economic activity from occurring.Movement networks define the spatial pattern ofexposure and access to passing consumers, andtherefore influence spatial patterns of economicopportunity (i.e. points of greatest commercialviability that are largely, but not exclusively, dictatedby relative levels of exposure and access to passingconsumers). Movement networks that create a cellularsettlement structure and channel all through-movements onto arterials along which fronting accessand on-street parking is not allowed, for instance,tend to create a nodal (as opposed to linear, orrandomly scattered) pattern of economic opportunity.Given the limited number of such nodes within a localarea, this pattern of economic opportunity frequently

results in commercial activities organising themselvesinto shopping centres. Small independententrepreneurs with limited capital are typically unableto meet the relatively high overhead costs associatedwith trading within shopping centres, and aretherefore denied access to most of the viable tradinglocations created by the network configuration. Inorder to put in place one of the spatial preconditionsnecessary to create opportunities for smallindependent entrepreneurs, movement networksshould be configured in the following way:

• The local movement network should be integratedinto the surrounding movement system and land-use pattern, so that flexible and complex patternsof intra - and inter-district shopping can developwhich enable consumers to move directly andconveniently into, and out of, the local area - thusavoiding monopolistic and oligopolistic tradingconditions in which local retailers are able tocharge inflated prices to a relatively captivemarket. Local multidirectional road networksshould therefore be stitched into, and form anintegral part of, the system of movement in thelarger area, and should not be regarded as anindependent sub-system.

• The network configuration should incorporatelinks that enable shorter distance through-traffic tomove through local areas, and at the same timeensure that, where necessary, through-traffic hasthe option of travelling along high-speed vehicle-only routes. Shorter distance through-traffic andlocal traffic should be concentrated ontocontinuous integrating main streets thataccommodate road-based public transport services,in order to create the passing consumer thresholdsthat are necessary to support viable, fronting,small-scale commercial activities. Vehicular andpedestrian traffic can be concentrated onto mainstreets through the alignment of different publictransport modes and services along shared routesfor a portion of their service length, and thelocation of movement generators like major publicfacilities and public transport modal interchangesalong the route. While not necessarily dictating thespatial pattern of economic activity within a localarea, this network configuration creates a moredispersed, linear pattern of economic opportunitythat can accommodate a range of types and sizesof entrepreneurs and commercial investmentpatterns.

Land-access requirements

A central informant of the planning and design of thesite’s movement network is the need to ensure thatthere is adequate access to all erven within the site -typically in the form of a passing roadway andfootway to which private pathways and driveways (orprivate roads, in the case of estates) can connect. What

constitutes “adequate” access is subject to debate,however. Conventionally, all erven are provided withvehicular access but, in some instances, due to steeptopography or low levels of car ownership (especiallyin in-situ upgrade developments), “adequate” isinterpreted as being a relatively short publicpedestrian pathway leading from a public road. Theexpected nature and mix of land-use activity on thesite will, through an iterative process, indicate thewidth, and in some instances the length, of blocks thatneed to be incorporated in the network. To facilitatethe efficient subdivision and utilisation of land,movement networks should be configured in thefollowing way:

• In the absence of topographical or otherconstraints (e.g. infrastructure servitudes), localmovement networks should be broadlyrectangular, to yield the greatest possible numberof erven from blocks. Sharply curving roadalignments, which result in curved blocks, make theefficient subdivision of land difficult.

• Blocks defined by the configuration of the localroadway network should, wherever possible, bemodular in order to enable larger blocks to fit intoa pattern of smaller pedestrian-scaled blocks. Land-use activities like schools, shops and parks consumerelatively large parcels of land that often do not fitinto pedestrian-scaled blocks.

Place-making considerations

The way in which a site’s movement network isconfigured can contribute to the creation of a “senseof place”. The concept of a sense of place is complex,crudely referring to the images and feelings associatedwith the uniqueness of a particular part of asettlement, an entire settlement, or even a collectionof settlements, that are embedded in collectivememory, and to the way in which individuals respondpsychologically, to the way public spaces withinsettlements are made. It follows therefore that theattainment of a sense of place cannot be achievedthrough standardised planning and design. Place-making essentially involves recognising the naturaland cultural uniqueness of a particular environmentand its population, and incorporating - and enhancing- this uniqueness in planning proposals. Morespecifically, in order to contribute to the creation of asense of place in settlements, movement networks canbe configured in the following way:

• Straight tree-lined avenues or boulevards can bealigned towards, and terminate at, importantcultural or symbolic public buildings, public artdisplays or objects of public remembrance, in orderto create vistas (i.e. visual axes) and enhancegateways to public spaces. Road alignments thatcreate vistas can therefore help establish a series oflandmarks that make a settlement memorable. By

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giving important objects visual dominance in thesettlement, they become reference points - therebyreinforcing their symbolic importance.

• Road alignments can, where appropriate, respondto the natural features of the site, and incorporateit visually into the settlement. The alignment ofroads can be used as a means to create vistas tonatural features like established trees, koppies, ordistant mountain peaks, and to retain existinglandscape features.

Network configuration impacts oninternal utility service reticulations

Reticulated utility services, in the form of water supply,sewerage, stormwater drainage, electricity supply andtelecommunications are conventionally - eitherentirely or partially (in the case of mid-blockreticulation) - accommodated in road reserves. Theconfiguration of the movement network therefore hasan impact on the reticulation of these channels, pipesand cables. The aspects of movement-networkconfiguration that have the greatest impact onefficient service reticulation are: (1) road curvature,and (2) road gradient.

The curvature (or horizontal alignment) of the roadreserve has the greatest impact on piped gravity-basedservices (i.e. sewerage and stormwater drainage), andabove-ground electricity and telecommunicationscabling. In order to facilitate the efficient reticulationof these services, movements networks should beconfigured in the following way:

• Notwithstanding the need to follow contours, roadreserves accommodating below-ground pipes andabove-ground cables, or dictating the pattern ofreticulation in the middle of blocks, shouldgenerally be as straight as possible to facilitate theshortest relative service line lengths per erf, forstraight trenches, and to minimise manhole andpoling requirements. Curving road reserves requiremore sewer and stormwater manholes to provideaccess to pipes for cleaning (see discussion below),and necessitate extra poles in above-ground publiclighting and electricity-supply systems, to ensurecables do not hang over the roadway.

• Notwithstanding the need for larger blocks toaccommodate a range of non-residential land uses,blocks should generally be ± 100 m long, to minimisethe number of sewer and stormwater manholes.The primary function of sewer or stormwatermanholes is to provide access to pipes so as to clearblockages. It is conventional practice to providemanhole access to a gravity pipe at horizontal andvertical changes of direction, junctions betweenmain and branch pipes (but not at junctions witherf connections in the case of sewerage), the headof a reticulation system, and at intervals on straight

stretches of pipe. Manhole spacing on straightstretches of pipe is normally restricted to thelength of hand-operated cleaning rods (typically50 m), which are pushed along the pipe. Rods canbend to negotiate curves in a pipe but, if the curveis too tight (with a curve radius of less than 30 m),the rods tend to damage the wall of the pipe. Themaximum spacing of manholes on straightstretches of road reserve, where pipes are cleanedwith hand-operated rods, is therefore ± 100 m.When blocks are ± 100 m long, manhole accesswould be required at 100 m or so intervals toaccommodate the junctions between main andbranch pipes anyway. Limiting the length of blocksto ± 100 m therefore reduces the necessity formanholes on straight stretches of pipe.

The gradient (or vertical alignment) of the roadreserve also has a great impact on gravity-basedservices (i.e. sewerage and stormwater pipes andchannels). In order to facilitate the efficientreticulation of these services, movements networksshould be configured in the following way:

• T-junctions or culs-de-sac at the down-stream endof steep roads should be avoided, in order tomaintain “positive drainage” and avoid flooding.

• Very steep or completely flat road gradientspresent problems relating to the circulation oflarger service vehicles (in the form of congestion),and the self-cleansing flow velocities of gravity-based services (in the form of clogging and roadscour). Maximum grades are set by vehiclemanoeuvrability requirements (provided thesurface runoff velocity that results from the gradeis less than 3 m/s), while minimum grades are set bydrainage requirements. Maximum grades varyaccording to the volumes and speed of traffic andthe nature of the terrain - generally grades shouldnot exceed 5-6% (or 1:20-1:16) in flat terrain, 10-12% (or 1:10-1:8) in hilly terrain and 12-15% (or1:8-1:7) in mountainous terrain. Minimum gradesof road reserves accommodating pipes shouldgenerally not be below 0,4% (or 1:250). In hilly andmountainous terrain, in order to achieve thesegrades, and avoid deep cuts and high fills, blocksand their associated fronting road reserves shouldfollow contour lines, and traversing roads shouldintersect roads above and below them at an anglesufficient to maintain an acceptable maximumgrade. When blocks are aligned with contours,provided toilets are located close enough to therear of the erf, mid-block sewer trenches can bedug to ensure that both lines of erven within theblock are served by the same sewer.

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GUIDELINES ON THE ADAPTATIONAND CONVERSION OF MOVEMENTNETWORKS TO ACCOMMODATECHANGE

As indicated in the previous section, a range ofcontextual features will inform the configuration of asite‘s movement network. In particular, with regard tothe roadway component of the movement network,the actual and desirable level of car use and associatedmodal split of the site’s (and surrounding) populationwill inform the degree to which the system is open orclosed to through-traffic. This section discusses theanticipation of patterns of movement demand toinform the configuration of roadway systems and theadaptation and conversion of roadway systems toaccommodate changing modal split, and changingmovement patterns associated with dynamic spatialpatterns of land-use activity.

The anticipation of patterns ofmovement demand within sub-metropolitan and local movementnetworks

The pattern of movement demand within a sub-metropolitan or local area is directly affected by thenature and form of the movement network. In thecase of a closed hierarchical roadway system, it ispossible to predict the volume and pattern of traffic(associated with a static spatial pattern of land use andmodal split) that will use each road in the system withsome degree of certainty, as the system presents nochoice of potentially equidistant routes between anytwo points. While it is not possible, in the case of amore open system, to predict the volume and patternof traffic with any degree of certainty - due to agreater choice of local and through routes - a moreopen system is more flexible and integrates the siteinto its surrounding environment better. There ishowever a trade-off between flexibility, integrationand cost. The ability of more numerous links within amovement network to accommodate a dynamic rangeof social, recreational, economic and movementfunctions over time, has capital cost implications - andin many instances greater road reserve width andstronger roadway pavement structure will be required.Every link in a network cannot therefore be designedto accommodate large increases in traffic volumes.

To avoid the excessive road construction costsassociated with total flexibility and greater integration,it is necessary, within limits, to predict the possiblerange of movement demand conditions (or scenarios) amore open road network proposal may be expected toaccommodate. More specifically, the need is to identifythose links expected, in the short term at least, toaccommodate a wider range of functions and greatertraffic volumes. Without a reasoned estimate of thetraffic load a particular link or intersection will berequired to accommodate, it is not possible to make

informed decisions relating to the design ofappropriate roadway cross-sections and pavements, orthe selection of appropriate intersection-controlsystems. The direction, volume and mode of movementgenerated and attracted by a proposed developmentwill be influenced by variables like household size andcomposition, areas of employment, levels of carownership, and use of public transport services. It isimportant that an understanding is gained of theextent of change which is realistically possible withinthese variables, so that the network can be designed toaccommodate such changes.

Patterns of movement demand on vehicle-only links,as well as mixed-mode links expected to accommodatelarger volumes of traffic, can be predicted through afour-step modelling process, in which future trafficload, at a point in time (typically 15-20 years into thefuture), is assessed on the basis of a desirable, as wellas the existing, land-use pattern. It is important tonote that the modelling of future patterns ofmovement demand is sensitive to transport and land-use policy. Extrapolations of current patterns ofmovement demand should therefore be tempered bythe settlement qualities to be created in a particularenvironment, and assumptions relating to the abilityof the public sector to manage transport-relatedmarket forces. The conventional “four-step” modellingprocess is dealt with in detail in the Department ofTransport’s TPG 7 and can be broadly summarised asfollows:

• estimating the number of trips that will begenerated or attracted by each zone (often on thebasis of the anticipated population of the zonemultiplied by an average trip rate),

• estimating the number of trips that will occurbetween different zones (often represented in theform of an origin-destination matrix, and a desire-line map),

• estimating the relative proportion of modesthrough which trips between zones will occur, andassigning the trips moving between differentzones, by different modes, to particular routes.

Patterns of movement demand within a particular sitecan be crudely predicted through the following five-stepsimulation:

• estimating the number of trips that will begenerated or attracted by each erf within the site(often on the basis of assumptions relating toaverage number of workers per household and perbusiness unit, and the average number ofschoolchildren per household);

• estimating how many of these trips are local trips,and how many are into, and out of, the site;

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• establishing trip directions on the basis of thelocation of major movement attractors (e.g. schools,employment and commercial centres) within the siteand in the surrounding area;

• estimating the relative proportion of modes throughwhich trips in different directions will occur; and

• assigning the trips moving in different directions, bydifferent modes, to particular routes.

This simulation process can be conducted for peak andoff-peak conditions, to establish temporal variations inthe nature and pattern of movement demand. Thepatterns of movement demand identified can then beused to establish link volumes and turning movements.

Given the uncertainty of future predictions of futureland-use development patterns and associatedmovement demand, and the need for movementnetworks to perform more than simply movementfunctions, it is important that the modelling processesdescribed above be used to test the likely consequencesof movement-network proposals, and not used as thebasis for formulating proposals (beyond minoradjustments to network configuration). Demand-drivenapproaches to movement-network planning and design,based on the traffic load forecast, run the danger ofeither entrenching existing inefficiencies andinequalities, or of simply basing proposals solely onpotentially erroneous predictions of futuredevelopment patterns.

The management of changing patterns ofmovement demand within sub-metropolitan and local movementnetworks

The uncertainty of future predictions of movement-demand patterns also makes it important to monitorchange (in terms of variables like traffic volumes,speeds and accidents) over time and, where necessary,to adapt or convert movement networks toaccommodate this change. It is important that initialmovement-network designs consider and facilitatepossible future adaptations. Such adaptations orconversions are essentially aimed (a) at managing or“calming” the increased volumes and speeds ofvehicular traffic associated with changing patterns ofmovement demand - more specifically to prevent largevolumes of high-speed, longer distance traffic fromcutting through quieter, predominantly residentialareas, and to slow traffic on roads that experience ahigh mix of pedestrian and vehicular traffic, and indoing so, (b) at maintaining the ability of links toaccommodate a range of movement and non-movement functions. As mentioned earlier, anadvantage of multidirectional movement networks isthat a variety of traffic calming interventions can beapplied to convert the roadway network into a closedor speed restricted system which controls through-

traffic, while maintaining an open footway andcycleway network, and which still enables the roadwaynetwork to be converted back to an open systemshould this be required. The achievement of greaterflexibility therefore has implications for theoperational capacity of local authorities, in terms ofbeing able to monitor change, as well as for theconfiguration of movement infrastructure, and cost.

Within local movement networks the ongoing traffic-management objective is essentially to keep the speedof appropriate volumes of traffic low and, in doing so,to make the road as safe as possible for pedestrians.Traffic management, or calming, therefore takes twobasic forms. The first is the reduction of speed throughadaptations to the cross-section and horizontal andvertical alignment of the roadway. The second is thereduction of traffic volumes on certain roads throughconverting roadway network connectivity. It isimportant to note, however, that roadway adaptationscan also reduce traffic volumes by making the routeless attractive to through-traffic, and connectivityconversions can similarly reduce traffic speed.

The introduction of these traffic managementmeasures are warranted when the monitoring ofpatterns of movement indicates that certain trafficspeeds or volumes along certain routes have increasedto levels that are not compatible with the range ofsocial and economic functions the route is required toperform (see TPG 14 on “traffic calming”).Internationally, speed reduction measures on localroads are typically deemed necessary when maximumspeeds exceed ± 30 km/h, and on mixed-mode arterialswhen maximum speeds exceed ± 55 km/h. Typically,volume-reduction measures are deemed necessary onlocal roads when traffic volumes exceed ± 600vehicles/h. At slower speeds, drivers have greateropportunity to perceive and react to a situation, thushelping to reduce the number and severity of collisions.Roadway systems can be adapted to manage trafficspeed, through the introduction of traffic-calmingmeasures as illustrated in Figure 5.1.10.

Roadway systems can be converted to manage trafficvolume, through the introduction of traffic calmingmeasures as illustrated in Figure 5.1.11.

Empirical studies on the effectiveness of trafficmanagement measures indicate that legal speed limits(in the form of “speed zones”) have little effect ondriver behaviour, and that it is rather the physical oroperational characteristics of the road that determinedriver behaviour. Traffic management measures shouldtherefore be self-enforcing. Studies suggest thatdifferent self-enforcing measures have variable impactson traffic volume and speed - apart from speed humpsand speed tables, “adaptation” measures tend to havea greater impact on traffic speed, than on trafficvolume, and “conversion” measures have a significantimpact on both speed and volume.

The introduction of adaptation and conversionmeasures requires careful consideration, however. Iflocal area traffic management measures, particularlyconversion measures that alter network connectivity,are introduced on an ad hoc or area-specific basis, theycan have a negative effect on the performance of themovement network as a whole. For instance, theclosure of roadways that accommodate slower speeds,and shorter distance through-movements, increasestrip lengths, and can lead to congestion on vehicle-only routes, and can reduce the viability of abuttingformal and informal economic activities that dependon exposure to passing non-local consumers. Theadaptation of individual roads can simply divertproblems to nearby parallel routes, and theintroduction of speed humps can have a negativeimpact on the operation of road-based publictransport services and emergency service vehicles.Traffic management measures therefore need to bemonitored and applied on an area-wide basis.

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The partial of full closureof roadways at the endor middle of the road

*

The restriction of trafficmovement to selecteddirections only, in theform of diverters (alsoknown as diagonal roadclosures) and medianclosures

*

The conversion of two-way roads into one-wayroads

*

Figure 5.1.10: Roadway adaptations to manage trafficspeed.

Figure 5.1.11: Roadway adaptations to manage trafficvolumes.

16



BIBLIOGRAPHY

Appleyard, D, Gerson, M and Lintell, M (1981). Liveablestreets. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Bernick, M and Cervero, R (1997). Transit villages in the21st century. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Calthorpe, P (1993). The next American metropolis:Ecology, community, and the American dream, (sectionon “Street and Circulation System”). PrincetonArchitectural Press, New York.

DETR (1998). Places, streets and movement,(forthcoming). Prepared by Alan Baxter andAssociates, Department of Environment, Transport andthe Regions, London.

Ewing, R (1996). Pedestrian- and transit-friendlydesign. Joint Centre for Environmental and UrbanProblems, Florida Atlantic University. Prepared for thePublic Transit Office, Florida Department ofTransportation.

Federal Transit Association (1994). Planning for transit-friendly land use: A handbook for New Jerseycommunities. Prepared for the FTA, US Department ofTransportation.

Institute of Transportation Engineers (1994). Trafficengineering for neo-traditional neighbourhooddesign. Informational Report, ITE, Technical CouncilCommittee 5P-8, Washington DC.

Institute of Transportation Engineers (1998). Proposedrecommended practice: Traditional neighbourhooddevelopment street design guidelines, ITE,Transportation Planning Council Committee 5P-8,Washington DC.

Katz, P (1994). The new urbanism: Toward anarchitecture of community. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Pharoah, T and Russell, J (1991). Traffic calming policyand performance. The Netherlands, Denmark andGermany. Town planning review, Vol 62, No 1, January.

Southworth, M and Ben-Joseph, E (1997). Streets andthe shaping of towns and cities. McGraw-Hill, NewYork.

Tolley, R (1989). Calming traffic in residential areas.Brefi Press, Dyfed.

Tri-Met (1996). Planning and design for transithandbook: Guidelines for implementing transitsupportive development, Tri-County MetropolitanTransportation District of Oregon, Portland.

Urban Problems Research Unit (1999). Movementnetworks. Unpublished report prepared for the CSIR,Pretoria.

Western Australia Planning Commission (1997).Liveable neighbourhoods: Community design code,Government of Western Australia, WAPC, Perth.

Public transport

Chapter 5.2

5.2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

EVOLVING PUBLIC TRANSPORT POLICY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR SETTLEMENT-PLANNING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

White Paper on national transport policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Legislation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Moving South Africa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

PRINCIPLES TO ACHIEVE THE FUNDAMENTAL RESTRUCTURING OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . 4

PUBLIC TRANSPORT OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

GUIDELINES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORT SUPPORTIVE SETTLEMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Planning settlements that are accessible to public transport. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Contextualisation and connection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Public transport framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Integration of public transport and movement networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Integration of land use and public transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Providing for buses, minibuses and bus stops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

CONCLUSION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

i


Public transport Chapter 5.2

ii


Chapter 5.2 Public transport

LIST OF TABLES

Table 5.2.1 The relationship between public transport services and residential density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 5.2.1 Urban densification options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

Figure 5.2.2 Principles to achieve the public transport supportive structure necessary for fundamental restructuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Figure 5.2.3 Example of four public transport network concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Figure 5.2.4 Context and site analysis map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Figure 5.2.5 A transport framework for settlement planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Figure 5.2.6 Location of bus stops on major arterial roads of freeway standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Figure 5.2.7 A public transport feeder route in an open network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13

Figure 5.2.8 A public transport feeder route in relation to neighbourhood activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

Figure 5.2.9 Car-oriented network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15

Figure 5.2.10 Modification of a closed road network to provide an open movement network . . . . . . . . . .15

Figure 5.2.11 Land-use elements in relation to the transport framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17

Figure 5.2.12 Dimensions of bus bays and bus turning circles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19

Figure 5.2.13 Road layouts reflecting evolving planning practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

Figure 5.2.14 Relationship between bus stops and a commercial site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A PUBLIC TRANSPORT CATCHMENTS AS THE BASIS FOR NEIGHBOURHOOD PLANNING . . . . . . .23

APPENDIX B GUIDELINES FOR ESTIMATING PUBLIC TRANSPORT DEMAND AND ASSOCIATED PUBLIC TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN SETTLEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24

APPENDIX C THE MOVING SOUTH AFRICA (MSA) STRATEGY WITH REFERENCE TO LAND USE AND LAND MANAGEMENT ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26

INTRODUCTION

Public transport policy, strategy, planning, operationsand management are all currently in a state of flux inSouth Africa. In the recent past, in most urban areasthe focus of public transport bodies was largely theprovision of basic services for low-incomecommunities, whose travel choices do not extend towalking, cycling or driving to their destinations. Inmost medium- to high-income areas, only rudimentaryservices exist which can barely be considered analternative to the motor car. Accordingly, publictransport services in South Africa have been designedto serve the perceived need to assemble labour fromdistant suburbs and satellite low-income dormitories,at centralised workplaces. There were, and still are,very few off-peak services. Public transport to servenon-work trip purposes has also been neglected. Inrecent years, public transport has come to bedominated by minibus taxis, which do not run toschedule and which have tended to follow the line ofleast resistance through the townships andsettlements, in order to give operators the opportunityof maximising the number of journeys, and thus theirprofits. Service to customers has not been of primaryconcern.

The foregoing is the public transport context withinwhich the planners of new settlements will beoperating in the short to medium term (the next fiveto ten years). Settlement planners1 will, however, bechallenged to assist transport authorities2 in changingdirection and building cities and towns which facilitatepublic transport, and make it more accessible, viableand sustainable. It is, therefore, essential that theplanners of settlements in urban areas shouldunderstand the current and evolving public transportpolicies so that they can assist in facilitating settlementwhich is supportive of public transport. This guidedoes not deal with settlements in rural areas, althoughmany of the principles and standards are applicable.

The next section provides a summary of relevantdocumentation about public transport, and gives anindication of the likely directions of change in thecoming ten years, to provide settlement planners withan understanding of the context within whichsettlement planning will be undertaken.

EVOLVING PUBLIC TRANSPORTPOLICY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FORSETTLEMENT-PLANNING

White Paper on national transport policy

The strategic objectives of the White Paper which arerelevant to settlement-planning and which should beincorporated in future settlements are summarisedbelow:

• Public transport travel distances and times for worktrips should be limited to about 40 km, or one hourin each direction. This means that new settlementsshould be located no further than 40 km from themajor work destinations. Further, as a generalguideline, settlements should rather be located asclose as possible to places of work and other urbanactivities so as to facilitate trips by bicycle or onfoot. Where this is not possible, settlements shouldbe located close enough to work destinations toenable public transport vehicles to make two ormore trips from the settlement to the work placeor school in peak-hour periods.

• An objective has been set to promote the use ofpublic transport over private car travel with anambitious 4:5 ratio of public to private transportbeing set as a target. To assist in the achievementof this objective, settlement plans should havecirculation systems or movement layouts whichmake all dwellings accessible to public transport(see Sub-chapter 5.1).

• Within the strategic objectives for improvingaccessibility, a target has been set of reducingwalking distances to public-transport facilities toless than about one kilometre. Most people takeabout 15 minutes to walk one kilometre, so thisobjective should be regarded as a minimum. A farmore desirable target for settlement-planning willbe to place every dwelling within about sevenminutes of a public transport boarding point(around 400-500 m).

• A final strategic objective which should be takeninto account in settlement-planning is the object ofpromoting and planning for the use of non-motorised transport. Accordingly, settlementsshould be planned as places with a variety of urbanactivities, containing workplaces, schools, shops,recreational and community facilities, anddwellings. They should also have movementnetworks which permit direct pedestrian access toactivities and public transport facilities (see Sub-chapter 5.1).

1



1 This applies to all professions involved in the planning and design of settlements.2 Transport authorities are provincial or municipal governments responsible for pubic transport and roads in

terms of schedule 4 of the constitution of the Republic of South Africa Act of 1996.

2



The White Paper also contains a number of policystatements that should be taken into account insettlement planning. These include the following:

• Land-development proposals (which includesettlement plans) should be subject to a spatialpolicy framework within an agreed development-planning process. This means that the settlementplan must be approved in terms of an integrateddevelopment plan (IDP), part of which is anintegrated transport plan (ITP)3. Accordingly,settlement planners will, at the outset, need toconsult transport authorities to ensure that theplanned settlement will be complementary to theintegrated transport plan (ITP), which includespublic transport strategies and operations.

• Land-use development at local level (settlements)will be subject to development approval inconformity with integrated development plans.

• The settlement plan should be cognisant of thedesignated public transport corridors and nodescontained in regional, metropolitan or urban IDPs.Thus, it will be necessary to contextualise thesettlement within such a spatial plan. Every newsettlement will be either adjacent to, or distantfrom, a major line-haul public transport corridor (inrare cases the public transport corridor may evenbisect a settlement). The form of the settlementshould be strongly influenced by its spatialrelationship to line-haul public transport corridors,modal interchanges and feeder corridors; in thisregard, specific guidelines on planning principlesand design standards will be provided in latersections. At this juncture, it is sufficient to note thatin terms of the White Paper, settlement plans willneed to give effect to the policy of locatingemployment activities within (or close to) the publictransport corridors and nodes (interchanges).Likewise, the settlement plan should facilitate theprovision of higher density and mixed land usesadjacent to public transport facilities.

• A high density of development is important forpublic transport, in that it supports differentiatedpublic-transport provision and enhances operatingefficiency.

Legislation

Local government and transport legislation is in thecourse of preparation and will establish institutionsand planning processes and procedures that will giveeffect to the White Paper’s objectives and policiesrelating to both urban settlement and publictransport. It can be expected, however, that localgovernment, land development and land transportlegislation will seek to promote integrated planning.

This means that settlement plans will be subject topolicies set out in integrated development andtransport plans, as indicated earlier. Accordingly, inthe short term, settlement planners can be guided bythe objectives and policies set out in the White Paperwhich will, in due course, be given effect through theLand Transport Act. An important component of theAct will be the establishment of transport authorities,who will be responsible for planning for publictransport. Settlement planners must consult transportauthorities as an essential part of the planning process.

Moving South Africa

Moving South Africa (MSA) (South Africa, Departmentof Transport 1998) was a project of the NationalDepartment of Transport, completed in September1998, which aimed to develop a long-term transportstrategy for South Africa. The strategies identified inMSA entitled “Towards a transport strategy for 2020”,will impact on settlement-planning. Appendix C tothis sub-chapter contains a summary of thesestrategies. The following are the main features of MSAwhich are significant to settlement-planning:

• Line-haul, mass public transport will beconcentrated into relatively few public transportcorridors to provide conditions that will attracthigh-density mixed land uses. It is expected thatmost new urban employment activities will beencouraged to locate within such corridors.

• The quality of public transport and the extent ofsocial support for the services will depend on themarket segments served in each of the corridors.Settlement planners should thus be aware of thecustomer segmentation in the settlement, as thiswill provide an indication of the type of servicethat can be expected.

• Moving South Africa has developed a broad set ofguidelines for determining the type of publictransport infrastructure which will be appropriateto each corridor. These are only guidelinesbecause, in due course, transport authorities willexamine corridors on their own merits anddetermine their particular public transport policies.The guidelines will, however, influence settlement-planning. They are as follows:

- High passenger-volume (also referred to as“ridership”) corridors with more than 40 000passengers per direction per day will probablysupport a rail - or dedicated public transportroad - infrastructure in congested areas. Publictransport nodes (stations and interchanges) inthese high-ridership corridors will besupported by feeder services rendered bybuses or minibus taxis.

3 An Integrated Transport Plan is defined in guidelines prepared by the Committee of Land Transport Officials (COLTO).

- Moderate-ridership corridors with 10 000 to40 000 passengers per day per direction arelikely to be served by a road infrastructure, withpriority or dedicated lanes for public transportover parts of the corridor. The line-haul servicesin these corridors will largely be provided bybuses, supplemented by both buses and taxis atnodal public transport interchanges.

- Low-ridership corridors will characteristicallyhave fewer than about 10 000 passengers perday per direction, and are likely to have someroad-based priority schemes. Many of theselow-ridership corridors will be feeder corridors.All the roads can be expected to be paved andthe line-haul function or feeder function willfall primarily to taxis or small road-basedvehicles.

Settlement planners will need to ascertain where theexisting public transport corridors are located, relativeto the proposed settlement. In planning thesettlement it will be necessary to ascertain the type ofcorridor that will serve the settlement. This meansnegotiating with transport authorities to identifywhether there will be extensions to nearby line-haulservices, or whether the settlement will be served by afeeder service. In the case of the latter, the location ofexisting nodal points and modal interchanges will bean important consideration in the alignment of thelow-ridership feeder corridor serving the settlement.Likewise, the location of the corridor or feeder facilitywithin the settlement will need to give cognisance tothe accessibility standards discussed earlier.

Figure 5.2.1 shows the urban densification optionsconsidered by MSA. MSA notes that high central-citydensities will enhance public transport use andsustainability, but in South Africa this solution isproblematic due to historic land tenure patterns.

MSA notes that the tendency towards continuingdecentralisation of workplace locations is complicatingthe task of creating “compact cities”. While it isargued that some compaction may be achievable as ameans of increasing density in some cities, and is notruled out, it is suggested that the predominant patternin South Africa should be the “corridor city”. MSAargues that the corridor approach fits more easily withexisting South African urban land-tenure patterns. Theappropriateness of the corridor approach is driven notonly by the already decentralised distant townshipsand the low density of inner-ring suburbs, but also byrecognition of the decline in central business district(CBD) vitality and the dispersion of development tosatellite nodes. The favoured corridor optionrecognises the existing vacant land between townshipsand suburban areas which should be taken intoaccount in settlement planning. These areas, ifdeveloped, can build on existing flows on majorcurrent corridors.

Figure 5.2.1: Urban densification optionsSource: South Africa, Department of Transport (1998)

MSA states that corridors already exist to some extentin South African cities and, accordingly, their strategyfocuses on densification of existing corridors and thecreation of new corridors for future urban settlement-planning. The short-term focus should be on reigningin the centrifugal tendencies in South African cities to

Industrial

Vacant

RailwayHighway

Physical barrier

Homeland

Compact city option

Decentralised node

Vacant land

Centralised area

Corridor bands

Corridor densification option

Homeland

buffer

3



4



prevent the future dispersion of development. MSAwill be looking for strategies to attract decentralisingactivity towards public transport corridors. Thisapproach should have a strong influence onsettlement-planning.

PRINCIPLES TO ACHIEVE THEFUNDAMENTAL RESTRUCTURING OFPUBLIC TRANSPORT

The Department of Transport, through the CSIR, iscurrently assessing the processes and actions necessaryto achieve a fundamental restructuring of urbanpublic transport and create sustainable high-prioritypublic transport systems.

Settlement planners may take it as given that theobjectives, policies and strategies outlined in thepreceding sections will be pursued through transportpolicy implementation, which should begin to shapeITPs as part of the process of urban development. Theideal of an interconnected network which serves avariety of destinations and is fully integrated willrequire a number of interventionist strategies and asupportive land-use structure. Evidence from citiessuch as Curitiba (Brazil) and Singapore suggests thatthis can be achieved only through strict adherence toprinciple and through an approach based on acommitted spatial and network form.

The principles for fundamental restructuring are thefollowing:

• P r o b l e m - s o l v i n g a p p r o a c h e s a n dprogrammes for restructuring publictransport should be incremental, practicaland focused on the long-term vision (thecorridor form of urban development)

Within this principle there are two aspects with aland-use or settlement dimension:

– Public transport efficiency criteria are the key tothe development of land-use. In time to come,transport planning and travel-demandmanagement will impact on spatial patterns inSouth African cities, helping to make the urbanland market more responsive to publictransport as a locational determinate.

– The high-priority public transport network willform the structural component for focusedspatial development initiatives. Decentralised,retail and industrial developments and theirrelation to new settlements should be viewedas key elements in support of bidirectionalpublic transport flows. This will require a reviewof decentralisation node location, as futuredesign will be geared towards compactdecentralisation nodes.

A public-transport priority network should bedeveloped (a few lines with frequent service arepreferable to many lines with infrequent service).This will mean that settlement planners shouldnote that, in most instances, the public transportcomponent of new settlements will be feederservices and transfer nodes, except where thesettlement falls within one of the higher-densitycorridors.

• Appropriate nodes and technology shouldbe selected to provide cost-effective servicesat predefined service levels, based onprinciples of efficiency

The public transport corridor and modal hierarchywill be assessed in terms of the length of thecorridor, the convergence of routes and therelationship to the surrounding routes. For thisreason it will be necessary for settlement plannersto consider more than just the nearest point ofaccess to public transport for the settlement. It willbe necessary to understand the entire transportnetwork or system when plugging a newsettlement into any urban area.

Settlement planners must be aware that publictransport routes may be upgraded from feeder orlow-priority routes to high-intensity lines orroutes over time, as the urban area grows.Accordingly, the settlement must be designedwith some flexibility to facilitate the applicationof different technologies as the demand atparticular nodes and along the corridor grows.Where public transport routes are planned aspart of the settlement plan, the demandimplications of nodes and the potential forconcentrations of land use along the corridorlength, should be given attention during theplanning of the layout.

• The potential for transfer between routesshould be maximised

Modal transfer centres will serve as the focus forthe high-priority public transport network. Wheresuch points lie within - or at the edge of - asettlement, they should serve as focal points for themovement network in the settlement. Pedestrian,cycle and public transport feeder roads shouldconverge radially on central transfer points, whichshould be designed as pedestrian-friendly. Toensure that these points do not become clogged bystanding and waiting buses and minibus taxis,separate holding areas should be provided in thesettlement. Care must be taken to design theholding areas so that they do not cause unsightlyimpediments to movement within the settlement.The nodal transfer centres, whether stations orroad-based interchanges, should be planned andmanaged as mixed-use centres, containing retail

facilities, offices, community services, and evensome residential activities.

• Seamless services that contribute to theconcept of a centrally operated andcontrolled public transport system shouldbe developed

Seamless services have a uniform and shared fareand ticket system applied to all modes, andcustomers can transfer between travel modes witha minimum of delay and discomfort. This principlecan be supported by settlement planners if theyensure that a public-transport network, orpotential network, is provided which is direct andwhich is physically conducive to comfortable andconvenient transfer. In the design of the transportnetwork, every effort should be made to make theroute and facilities associated with it highly visibleand accessible to the community.

• Commercial, retail and industrialdevelopment activities should be located atappropriate nodes (convergence points onthe public transport network), preferablywithin the priority corridor structure

These spatial components of the fundamentalrestructuring of public transport are illustrated in

Figure 5.2.2, which highlights the principles thatshould be applied to achieve fundamentalrestructuring of public transport. Settlementplanners should be cognisant of the need forpublic transport nodes to be prioritised in terms oftheir location relative to the high-prioritynetwork, and should be based on meeting certainminimum thresholds of demand. A clearly definedapproach to settlement land-use planning isnecessary for the support of an efficient,structured public-transport system. Nodes whichfall short of the threshold of demand necessary tosupport a high-frequency public transport serviceshould have further development discouragedwithin them, both by zoning regulation and theuse of incentives and disincentives. This meansthat settlement planners need to understand atthe outset what the public transport thresholdsare, and should obtain this information byconsulting transport authorities about theirstandards for public transport in the vicinity.

Existing townships, particularly dormitorytownships, provide a special case in terms of nodalstructure. It is important that settlement plannerswho will be responsible for extensions of townshipsand infilling should understand that these types ofsettlement generally lack any kind of economic oractivity node. They are, however, powerful

5



Fundamentalrestructuring

principles

Public transportnetwork supports

high-priorityhigh-frequency

services

Practical phasedprogrammes

focussed on along term vision

Commercial retailand industrialdevelopment

restricted to highpriority nodes of

corridors

High densityresidential

developmentencouraged withinhigh priority publictransport network

Public transportinvestment shouldpreempt land-use

change

Car travel andaccess are

restricted whereappropriate

Pricing of publicversus private

transport reflectspublic transport

priority

The road hierarchyand associated spatial

developmentsupports public

transport

Planning and managementphilosophy

Public transport priorityover

private car

Publictransport

supportivespatial

structure

Publictransportnetworkstructure

Hierarchicalnetwork structure

in support ofefficiencyprinciples

Integratedseamless networksupported by joint

fare structures

Maximised potentialfor inter-route

transfers

Figure 5.2.2: Principles to achieve the public transport supportive structure necessary for fundamentalrestructuring

Source: Shaw (1998)

6



generators of demand for public transport. For thisreason it is suggested that potential nodes4 beidentified within or immediately adjacent totownship areas. Under ideal circumstances,employment and amenity-related growth shouldbe located at these potential nodes. It must,however, be recognised that developers may beresistant to considering investing in such nodes,thereby constraining the ability to developefficient bidirectional ridership patterns. Thesettlement plan should make space available forthe relevant nodes to develop, even though theremay be resistance to invest at the outset.

• High-density residential developmentshould be encouraged within the priorityhigh-frequency public transport corridorstructure

Settlement planners need to understand thathigher-density residential development should beencouraged on unused or under-utilised landwithin the corridor structure of the high-prioritypublic transport network. While it is recognisedthat the current South African housing deliveryprocess does not encourage high-densitydevelopment, one of the most significant futurechallenges to settlement planners will be to finddelivery mechanisms and design solutions thatpromote higher-density residential development asa support mechanism for more efficient publictransport. This should apply particularly to theareas adjacent to high-frequency public transportcorridors and to nodes within all types of publictransport corridor.

• Public transport priority and infrastructureinvestment should pre-empt initiatives withrespect to land-use

In the urban areas of the future, as the primary andfeeder public transport route network is developedthere will be a need for flexibility in the networkwithin settlements to enable lesser traffic routes tobe upgraded as demand increases. This is not to saythat large reserves need to be set aside toaccommodate possible future public transport, butthat the internal circulation or movement systemshould be designed so that ultimately road-basedservices can be provided with stops at 800 to 1000 mintervals, with each of the stops having nodality andgood access to the surrounding settlement forpedestrians.

• The road hierarchy, and the associationbetween this hierarchy and spatialdevelopment, should support publictransport

Settlement planners should be cognisant of thenegative aspects of creating car-orientated“closed” road networks which are designed toinhibit through-traffic. Provision must be made forthe penetration of neighbourhoods by publictransport. The road hierarchy should promotedirect public transport routing and, wherenecessary, public transport priority, and encouragesuitable pedestrian access to surrounding land uses.Small residential cells may be designed as “closed”networks, providing that cycle and pedestrianthrough-movement is facilitated (for details seeSub-chapter 5.1).

In considering the public transport routes throughor adjacent to a settlement, settlement plannersare reminded to give consideration to the currentand proposed future function of the route,whether a primary public transport corridor or afeeder corridor. There is a need to separate theprimary public transport route from the private car-based arterial road network, and vice versa. Publictransport priority and a public transport supportiveroad hierarchy are essential to the success of thepromotion of high levels of service for publictransport. Unfortunately, attempts to give priorityto public transport over a considerable portion ofthe road network are unworkable because of theextensive coverage which would be needed. Itwould only be possible where there was reallysignificant demand for public transport. However,areas of the network offering the highestaccessibility need to be transferred from mixed-traffic conditions to dedicated rights-of-way forpublic transport.

If there is to be a priority node and/or corridorwithin a settlement, the planner should note theneed to make a distinction between the core andthe frame of the high-priority node. The coreshould be identified as the area of the greatestpedestrian activity. Parking should be omittedfrom the core in favour of dedicated pedestrianactivities. Parking facilities may be provided withinthe frame of a node.

One of the most significant components ofsettlement planning in support of public transportin the future will be decentralised nodes. Theplanners of new settlements need to ensure thatnodes with large commercial floor space should notbe provided in areas not served by public transport.

4 A potential node is a point in a public transport network where the public transport movement isconcentrated and transfers from one travel mode to another take place, providing conditions conducive forlocal economic development, based on the traffic at the node.

Thus a settlement unconnected to the primary orfeeder network through nodes should not bedeveloped as a decentralised activity centre.

• The pricing of public versus privatetransport should reflect public transportpriority

Settlement planners need to recognise that atargeted approach towards the management ofboth accessibility and the associated form of thepublic transport is needed. A key element in thefuture management of accessibility in buildingSouth African cities will be to move away from anapproach in which infrastructure improvements arecommissioned to relieve congestion, irrespective oflocation. In future, infrastructure improvementsshould be based on the enhancement ofaccessibility, particularly by public transport.

• Restrict car travel and access underappropriate circumstances

Settlement planners should restrict motor vehicleaccess within CBDs and other nodes. Along high-priority public transport routes the access ofpedestrians to fronting properties should bepromoted, whereas vehicle access should restricted.

The Phase One report of the Department ofTransport’s fundamental restructuring projectcontains an assessment of four alternative cityforms with associated public transport networkstructures. The results, highlighted in Figure 5.2.3provide settlement planners with an overview ofthe impact of different city forms on passenger-volume conditions, average transfers per trip, tripsper capita and the directional mix of traffic.Settlement planners should, therefore, take painsto understand the network to which the settlementis to be attached.

PUBLIC TRANSPORT OBJECTIVES

The following objectives should be applied to giveeffect to the principles outlined in the precedingsection, and to ensure that the settlement is conduciveto the provision of efficient and convenient publictransport:

• providing for an urban structure of walkableneighbourhoods clustered together to form townsand cities of compatibly mixed uses, in order toreduce car dependence for access to activities;

• ensuring that walkable neighbourhoods and access

7



Inbound

Outbound

Inbound

Outbound

Inbound

Outbound

Inbound

Outbound

Inbound

Outbound

Suburb CBD

Average transfers per trip

Not available

Ridership conditions

Moderate passenger turnover

Public transport trips per capita

London : 328

Theoretical ridership profile(morning peak):

Suburb CBD


High passenger turnover


Curitiba : 202



Curitiba : 1,4

Node Node


High/moderate passenger turnover


Stockholm : 322



Stockholm : 0,66

Suburb CBD


Township CBD

Ridership conditionsLow passenger turnover

Public transport trips per capitaPretoria : 156

Average transfers per tripPretoria (Atteridgeville) : 0,23

Radial network concept

Example city:London, Paris

Arterial corridor andfeeder concept

Example city:Curitiba

Hub and spoke concept

Example city:Gothenburg, Stockholm

Dispersed radial concept

Example city:Pretoria

Example of four public transport network concepts

Figure 5.2.3: Example of four public transport network conceptsSource: Shaw (1998)

8



to services and facilities are designed for all users,including those with disabilities;

• facilitating development that supports theefficiency of public transport systems, with safe anddirect access; and

• providing a variety of plot sizes and housing typesto cater for the diverse housing needs of urbandwellers at densities that can support the provisionof viable public transport.

The design and layout of a settlement can have aprofound influence on its sustainability. A number ofobjectives need to be pursued which will contributetowards creating living environments that are moreaffordable for residents. The design should

• reduce dependence on cars by encouraging walking,cycling and the use of public transport; and

• give access to facilities for all users of theenvironment, and provide opportunities for locallybased business and employment.

As a global phenomenon, recent neighbourhooddesign concepts have been given titles such as “transit-oriented design” (TOD), “traditional neighbourhooddesign” (TND), “green-house neighbourhoods” and“urban villages”. In each case the underlying objectiveis to create neighbourhoods which reduce dependencyon private vehicles and are more energy-efficient.

GUIDELINES FOR PUBLIC TRANSPORTSUPPORTIVE SETTLEMENTS

Planning settlements that are accessibleto public transport

The process of planning for public transport includessite and contextual analysis, right down to the detailsof street alignment and form, plot sizes and shapes.The “coat-hanger” around which the settlementshould develop is the public transport network. Thisshould be supported by a movement network whichshould, as a priority, facilitate multi-directionalpedestrian movement, focused on a highly accessiblepublic transport system.

In respect of the public transport component ofsettlement-planning, the planning should takeaccount of and address the following questions:

• How big is the settlement, how will it be developedand at what density?

• Where is the settlement, relative to the mainactivities in the urban area in which it is situated?

• Where is the settlement located relative to existing

public transport, either rail- or road-based?

• How will the settlement be connected to theexisting public transport network, whether road orrail or both?

• Will the settlement be sufficiently large for themain public transport line-haul system to beextended through it, or will it be located to oneside of the major public transport route, or at somedistance from the corridor, requiring a feederpublic transport service?

• What will be the likely demand for public transportgenerated by the settlement?

• Where will the main access to public transport bewithin the settlement?

• What will be the spacing of public transport stopsin the settlement?

• How can the settlement be planned so that themovement system provides the maximum access topublic transport?

• What is the relationship between the movementsystem for the settlement and the proposed publictransport services?

Obviously, these and other questions will inform theplanner with regard to the integration of themovement and public transport networks. Specificguidelines on the site and contextual analysis, as theyrelate specifically to public transport, are provided inthe following section.

Contextualisation and connection

This should be undertaken at an early stage to identifyopportunities and constraints presented by the site.The processes take into account all constraints - such asopen space, topography and servitudes - and includean analysis of the regional structure andneighbourhood form in existing surrounding areas. Ofrelevance to the public transport planning is thefollowing:

On a map (as exemplified in Figure 5.2.4), and whererelevant, quantify the following information:

• existing and planned neighbourhoods, towns andregional centres;

• other significant features such as regional parks;

• freeways, arterial roads, public transport routes,bus stops and rail stations; and

• the location of rail stations.

Map, describe and where relevant, analyse, thefollowing information:

• servitudes and street reserves;

• linkage to and from the site;

• distance and direction to public transportinfrastructure; and

• distance and direction to local shops and schools.

The foregoing context and site analysis applies only topublic transport. Obviously there are other contextualand site-analysis factors which need to be taken intoaccount by settlement planners, including topography,drainage, vegetation, etc.

Figure 5.2.4 exemplifies the concepts ofcontextualisation and connection. It shows the siteand the spatial relationship between the site andexisting urban development, indicating the location ofthe main transport infrastructure, existing and futureroads and road reserves and future developments of

9



Soshanguve

Existingsettlements

K2

Futureurban

settlement

PWV 9

Soshanguvestation

0 0,75 1,5km

Futureroad

reserve

Futurefreeway

Railway

K4

400m 400m

Klip-kruisfontein

Futureregional

park

Arterialroads

FutureCBD

Station

Road 2758

K63

800m

The site

Figure 5.2.4: Context and site analysis map

10



regional significance, such as a future CBD and railstation and a future regional park. This example issuperimposed on an actual settlement, but theelements (such as the proposed future regional park)are hypothetical. The figure illustrates some of thesite conditions that will influence the movement andpublic transport network. Topography and theinfluence of slope are not shown, but the planner iscautioned to note the importance of topography tothe public transport movement system (see Sub-chapter 5.1). It is obvious from this context and siteanalysis how the site needs to be developed to tie inwith the existing settlement and infrastructure. Thefreeway shown in the figure represents a constraint onthe development of the site. This constraint wouldrequire settlement planners to negotiate with roadand/or transport authorities, to provide measures toeliminate severance and to help minimise theenvironmental impact of the freeway on thedevelopment of the settlement. In this instance,settlement planners should persuade road authoritiesto provide freeway bridges or underpasses to link thecommunities on either side of the freeway. In thesituation depicted in the figure, the entire layout andsettlement plan will be influenced by the number andtype of movement connections which the roadauthority may be willing to provide. Differentcircumstances will prevail, and there may be caseswhere the local authority or transport authority willrequire the site developer to pay for providinglinkages. This decision usually hinges on the stage ofthe planning of the future freeway.

Public transport framework

Planning information requirements should address -but not be limited to - the following matters:

• the contents of the Integrated Transport Plan,including policy statements on the public transportnetwork, rail concessions, bus contracts, minibusinitiatives and public transport infrastructure;

• public transport demand (the origins anddestinations of trips) the placement of bus routes,proposed bus stop locations (including calculationsof walkable catchments served within a 400 metreradius);

• all existing/proposed rail station locations(including calculations of walkable catchmentsserved within an 800 m radius;

• provision for pedestrians and the disabled;

• an actual or potential cycle network plan;

• layouts to facilitate effective traffic managementaround schools and to facilitate safe access toschools;

• traffic management in and around proposedactivity centres;

• measures to control traffic speed; and

• proposed intersection controls, including prioritysystems signalled by the use of a clear movementhierarchy.

Guidance on the technique to use walkablecatchments as the basis for accessibility planning andcalculating catchments is listed in Appendix A.Examples of processes for restructuring publictransport demand for different settlement types andmarket segments are provided in Appendix B.

An example of the recommended process for thedevelopment of settlements supportive of publictransport is illustrated in Figure 5.2.5.

In consulting with transport authorities to ascertainfuture proposals in respect of road and railinfrastructure, as well as public transport services, theplanner is cautioned to note that, in some cases, thesettlement should influence and modify plannedtransport facilities. Some hard-nosed negotiation maybe necessary. A hypothetical public transportframework is illustrated in Figure 5.2.5.

It will be noted from Figure 5.2.5 that the main publictransport corridor is to be found to the west of thesettlement and comprises a commuter railway line,which provides for long distance movement, and a“road-based” activity spine within the corridor, toprovide for regional movement between stations andbetween different districts of the urban area. In thiscase, the location of the road-based activity spine maybe questioned because it duplicates and competeswith the rail service. An alternative location further tothe east and bisecting the settlement may bepreferable, to provide a viable threshold for the road-based public transport service. The regional, road-based “activity spine” needs to be well connected tothe rail at interchanges and stations. The figuredepicts a future station at the centre of a proposedfuture central business area. Such a station should beserved by feeder road-based public transport in whichcase there will be a need to plan for a public transport,interchange to facilitate this process. Although notpart of the settlement plan, the station and the publictransport interchange will exert a strong influenceover the road alignments in the settlement, asdepicted in the figure. The technique of using 800 mcatchments around stations, and 400 m catchmentsaround bus stops, has been used to provide thestructuring elements or transport framework for thesettlement. The figure shows the activity nodes in thecentre of the public transport catchments, which arethe focal points on the feeder routes and should bespaced at 800 m intervals. Such a design will providefor flexibility, even if feeder routes are not initially

provided in both directions. For example, the bus stopspacing could initially be lower on the activity spine,with all feeder routes from the settlement feedinginto the public transport interchanges, associated withrail stations rather than into stops at 800 m intervalson the activity spine as indicated in the figure.

It is important that flexibility should be provided in thedesign. It will be noted that the transport framework

has made provision for the freeway to be crossed ataround one kilometre intervals. This is an importantprinciple and standard which should be adhered to inurban areas in order to minimise severance and theenvironmental impact of freeways.

11



Futurefreeway

Klip-kruisfontein

Railway

Soshanguvestation

0 0,75 1,5km

Soshanguve

Activity spineline-haulpublic transport

Railcatchment

= 800m

Modal

Interchange

Line-haulbus stop

Feeder bus stop

Busminibuscatchments... = 400m

Bus/minibusfeederroutes

Futurearterial

K2

K63

PWV 9

Station

N

Figure 5.2.5: A transport framework for settlement planning

12



Integration of public transport andmovement networks

When designing a movement network in support ofthe public transport network, the different patterns ofmovement of buses, freight vehicles, cars, bicycles andpedestrians should be borne in mind (the readershould refer to Sub-chapter 5.1 for guidance onmovement networks). Typically, cars and goodsvehicles seek to make direct journeys at the highestpossible speed. The aim should therefore be to getthese vehicles from a neighbourhood to a through-route as quickly as possible. Buses and minibuses, onthe other hand, are required to serve passengers andto offer an attractive and convenient alternative to cartravel. Buses should be able to proceed directlythrough the centre of neighbourhoods, picking up andsetting down passengers as close as possible to theirorigins and destinations.

Buses and minibuses normally travel along publicroads shared with other traffic. Such roads are usuallyclassified by traffic engineers within a functional roadhierarchy. Bus operations can be expected to be foundon many of the strata. Accordingly, settlementplanners should provide public transport networks onroads on which the traffic functions and characteristicsof the road are harmonised with the moderate speed,mixed-traffic and pedestrian-crossing requirements ofsuch a facility. Guidance on public transport in relationto the road hierarchy is provided below:

• Major arterials. The arterial network in intendedto accommodate major traffic movements and tolink the major districts of towns and cities.“mobility” routes, which have a limited number ofinterchanges or intersections and a large degree ofaccess control to fronting properties. Major arterialroads such as urban freeways and dualcarriageways are not suitable for bus services andshould only be used for limited-stop and expressservices. In the case of limited stop and expressservices operating on freeways, stopping placesmay be provided as indicated in Figure 5.2.6.

• Minor arterials. Minor arterials feed traffic fromthe major arterials into and from the main urbandistricts and provide the linkage between them.These are generally the ideal roads for line-haulbus and minibus taxi movement. While there areusually some restrictions on frontage access andrestraints on street parking on this type of road,particularly during peak hours, the standard ofintersection spacing tends to be lower and there isconsiderable cross-traffic and pedestrianmovement, and there are many pedestrianfootways at the roadside. The amount ofinteraction and cross-traffic produces a reducedspeed differential between buses and other traffic,meaning that buses can stop at the kerb withoutcausing undue delay or danger for other road

users. Bus lay-bys should, however, be provided,and in congested areas on this type of roadwaypriority lanes should be provided for road-basedpublic transport.

• Collectors. Collector roads are the link betweenthe urban main road system (arterials) andneighbourhoods. These should penetrate theneighbourhoods and, together with minorarterials, are the appropriate level in the roadhierarchy upon which public transport services,particularly feeder services, should be provided.

The majority of stopping bus and minibus feederservices will be found along the collector type of

(3) Bus slip roads and stops at points between interchangeRamped footwayBus stop

Bus stopRamped footway

Bus lane Stop

Bus bayStop

All purpose road

Motorway

(1) Bus stops on interchange slip roads (for services entering or leaving an urban motorway)

Bus stop Footway

Bus stop

Footway

(2) Bus stops for through services at an interchange

Bus stopRamped footway

Ramped footwayBus stop

Figure 5.2.6: Location of bus stops on major arterialroads of freeway standard

Source: Greater Glasgow PTE (1973)

road, which should preferably be at least 7,3 mwide. Widths in excess of this tend to encouragehigher speeds which are not desirable on mixed-traffic facilities.

• Activity streets. Hitherto, such streets have notformed part of the urban road hierarchy and havenot been planned, but have evolved. They arestreets that experience mixed traffic and intensefronting land use activity. Many activity streets startlife as high-mobility arterials but, because of theirhigh accessibility, become congested and attractcommercial land use. Access-seeking traffic beginsto predominate over through-traffic. Activity streetsare the ideal locus of road-based public transportservices. Settlement planners should provide layoutsand land-use plans which facilitate the emergenceof “activity streets” as the basis of public transportcorridors. The scale, geometric characteristics anddimensions of an “activity street” cannot bespecified prescriptively. An activity street could varyfrom collector-road scale, with a narrow cross-section, typical of a European village “high street” toa minor arterial in a generous cross-section. Typically,there should be interaction between one side of thestreet and the other, with much pedestrian crossing,so the scale of the street should be modest.

• Local (access) streets. Public transport should beprecluded from using this type of street, whichshould be designed to facilitate mixed trafficwithin neighbourhoods in safety and at low speed.

The specifics of the design and layout of the road andmovement networks are dealt with in section 5.1.

The following section provides some additionalguidelines in respect of the local road and movementnetworks in relation to public transport. Figure 5.2.7shows a public transport feeder route bisecting aneighbourhood unit with a radius of 400 m. The centre,or point of highest accessibility, is the point at whichpublic transport services will be provided. It is evidentfrom the layout that, because of the open road network,public transport is highly accessible along the publictransport route. The figure also indicates that, ideally,higher-density mixed land-use should be providedadjacent to the route. It also shows that service roadscan be provided for access to fronting shops.

Figure 5.2.8 shows a variation of the same network toillustrate the point that intensive neighbourhoodactivity should be located at the centre or mostaccessible part of the neighbourhood, whereas moreextensive activity, some of which may have an inter-neighbourhood function, may be located further awayat the periphery, but will still be accessible on foot, toresidents in the neighbourhood. An example of thelatter is a primary school.

Figure 5.2.9 shows a “closed” street network which ischaracteristic of residential networks provided in therecent past. This type of network is a “car-orientednetwork” in that pedestrian movement is channelledalong the streets and the only access to the central

13



Publictransportfeederroute

“Open” movement network with high density mixedland use in support of public transport

Figure 5.2.7: A public transport feeder route in an open networkSource: WAPC (1997)

14



“public transport road” is the intersection at the centreof the figure. It is evident that such a layout will beinconvenient to pedestrians, particularly those tryingto access the central road from the closed loops.

The “closed” network depicted in Figure 5.2.9 can bemodified to facilitate pedestrian access to the centralpublic transport feeder routes at appropriate points,while retaining the closed road network whichprecludes through traffic (see Figure 5.2.10). This is bymeans of mid-block pedestrian or cycle gates placed atstrategic locations on the facility. The figure alsoshows bus lay-bys provided in a widened reserve at themost accessible point. Such ”closed” street networksmay be desired by some communities as an

impediment to vehicle-based through traffic, and topreserve the security and or environmental benefits ofclosed networks. Settlement planners should,however, bear in mind that open networks designedwith appropriately scaled reserves and narrow roadstend to inhibit through movement and have greaterflexibility. Through traffic tends to be curtailed wherespace for parking is limited and the streets aredesigned to facilitate pedestrian movement, streetparking and slow vehicle movement.

The foregoing examples provide some guidance as tohow the public transport framework interfaces withthe neighbourhood movement and street networks.

Extensiveactivity(local)

Intensiveactivity(neighbourhood)

“Open” street and movement network in relationto land use

Figure 5.2.8: A public transport feeder route in relation to neighbourhood activitiesSource: WAPC (1997)

15



Figure 5.2.10: Modification of a closed road network to provide an open movement network

Bus lay-by

Publictransport

feeder route

Pedestrian/cycle gate

“Closed” street network with “open” movementnetwork facilitating access to public transport

Figure 5.2.9: Car-oriented network

Car orientednetwork

“Closed” street network inconvenient forpedestrians and public transport

16



Integration of land use and publictransport

Land-use elements

To attract customers to public transport, plannersneed to understand the influence of land use andurban design on travel behaviour. As indicated inthe previous section, better integration of land useand public transport is possible when publictransport considerations are included in settlementplanning. Municipalities have the legal authorityand regulatory instruments to enforce urbandevelopment that is supportive of public transport.In terms of integrated development plans, it isimportant that development proposals should bereviewed in the light of traffic generation,potential public transport ridership, and ease ofoperation for public transport. This section of theguidelines describes what public transport-oriented land development means in terms ofurban structure, road networks and designstandards which are favourable to public transport.Changes to by-laws and regulations governing landdevelopment should be contemplated by allmunicipalities as part of their integrateddevelopment plans.

Figure 5.2.11 shows some typical land-useproposals which would be supportive of publictransport. At the centre of the public transportcatchments are cross-roads on the public transportnetwork. These roads may be mixed-traffic minorarterials and/or collector roads linked to thearterial road system. They are focused on accessibleactivity nodes at the centre of the neighbourhoods,based on a 400 m walking distance for residents.The activity nodes will largely attractneighbourhood retail and community facilities butwill also be the location of bus stops. The figurealso shows that, particularly on the most significantpublic transport route leading to the proposedfuture central business district, mixed high-densityland uses may be planned to support publictransport, and in some circumstances, tradingactivity may be encouraged. The figure shows howthe feeder routes converge on the major nodes.The central node should combine central placeactivity, retail, office and service functions, as wellas a modal interchange. It is evident that thecentral area should be highly accessible by road-based public transport.

It should be noted that the street network withinthe major public transport corridor is an existingstreet network, which may be incompatible withthe principles being propounded in this guideline.It is inevitable that, as major public transportcorridors evolve in urban areas, there may be aneed for redevelopment to encourage higherintensity land uses in support of the activity in the

corridor. Activity nodes are likely to develop ataccessible points in the corridor, as indicated in thefigure.

Factors contributing to viable andsustainable public transport

There has been extensive research to demonstratethat the features of public transport-friendly urbandesign include development density, the land-usemix, the configuration of the urban road networkand the design of movement or circulation systemswhich accommodate both pedestrians and publictransport vehicles. Throughout this guidereference has been made to settlement planners,but it is increasingly realised that urban settlementsshould be the product of multi-disciplinary workinvolving landscape architects, architects, urbanplanners and designers as well as traffic andtransport engineers. Greater effort is required todesign streets from a holistic perspective, asadvocated in this guideline, taking account of allforms of movement, including bicycles,pedestrians, cars, and public transport.

It is important to remember that the use of publictransport involves pedestrian movements at eitherend of the public transport trip. An unpleasantpedestrian experience will inhibit growth in publictransport patronage. Accordingly, very importantfactors in promoting public transport are perceivedproximity to the boarding point of publictransport, walking distance to the final destination,the overall street and site designs, pedestrianfacilities, and amenities on the sidewalks.

Development density

The two aspects of settlement density which areimportant to public transport are the location ofdense or less dense settlements, relative to publictransport services, and continuous density along apublic transport route.

In general, as residential and employment densitiesincrease, so do the number of passengers perkilometre along the route also increase, justifyingmore frequent or higher levels of public transportservice. This helps to make public transport muchmore attractive.

At metropolitan or city-wide scale, it is importantthat settlements should be continuous; that is, theyshould not be permitted to “leap-frog” agriculturalland or parkland, as was formerly the case with thelower-income dormitory settlements in SouthAfrica. Municipalities affected by discontinuousdevelopments will experience higher costs percapita for infrastructure such as roads and sewers.This will also apply to public transport services. Insettlement planning, the costs of new public

transport services should also be factored into theassessment of the municipal infrastructure requiredfor the settlement.

Relationship between density and thelocation of employment

Future settlement planning should take cognisanceof the need to develop balanced communitiescontaining employment activities within thecommunity. The settlement should seek to clusterbusinesses and employment activities into a few

areas of significant development, to help createthe critical mass which public transport requires toserve areas cost-effectively. Scattered travelpatterns should be avoided so that public transportreflects movement towards a single centre.Empirical research has found that public transportridership increases markedly when a threshold ofone employer per 100 m2, in a centre with morethan 10 000 jobs, is attained. Public transport istherefore heavily influenced by the critical mass ofemployees, but also by the availability of freeparking. Where parking is restricted, public

17



Figure 5.2.11: Land-use elements in relation to the transport framework

18



transport ridership is also enhanced. One of themost serious impediments to the use of publictransport in urban areas is the decentralisedsuburban “business park”. Settlement plannersmust be cognisant of the detrimental effects ofsuch land uses on public transport, and ensure thatemployment is centred within public transportcorridors.

There are two factors that discourage the use ofpublic transport in office or business parks; namely,there is little incentive for employees to considerusing public transport when there is free parking,and office parks are usually located some distancefrom existing public transport services.

Relationship between public transport andresidential density

For public transport to be feasible a minimumthreshold population is necessary. However,because of the variety of residential marketsegments in South Africa and the relationshipbetween residential and employment activities, ithas not been easy to establish minimum thresholdsfor residential density. In lieu of clear thresholdsand guidelines it is advisable for settlementplanners to take note of relationships establishedabroad. For example, Table 5.2.1 shows publictransport services related to residential density as aresult of empirical studies in North America.According to Pushkarev and Zupan (1997) thedesired threshold for dwelling densities per hectareis around 10 for hourly local bus services, rising toaround 40 dwellings per hectare for very frequentpublic transport services at intervals of less than 10minutes.

Mixed land use and public transport

Mixing land uses means combining commercial andother uses of various types - for example

permitting personal services and restaurants to belocated near industry or commerce. Residentialsettlements should include convenient serviceswithin walking distance. The opportunity to walkto and from bus stops and accomplish errandsconveniently is a further motivation to use publictransport rather than to drive. The central or focalpoints within any neighbourhood which form partof a settlement should comprise the non-residential land uses such as convenience stores,retail shops, parks, schools and other amenities.The mix of land uses in close proximity to aneighbourhood centre will enable people toaccomplish several trip purposes, often by walking.Current zoning often requires strict land-usesegregation, resulting in large distances betweendifferent activities, increasing single-purpose trips.This can be discouraged by settlement plannerswho provide conditions conductive to the use ofpublic transport.

Providing for buses, minibuses and busstops

Alignment of public transport routes

Public transport routes should be planned to followa reasonably fast and direct itinerary passing asclose as possible to the centres of neighbourhoodsserved by the route. Circular routes should beavoided. Streets used as bus/minibus routes shouldhave a maximum gradient of 1 in 15 (6,7%). Wherewarranted by demand for public transport, parallelbus routes outside town centres should not be lessthan about 800 m apart, in order to provide eachroute with a reasonable catchment area.

Planning to facilitate bus services in newsettlements

Settlement planners should take intoconsideration the fact that areas of intense

Frequent Service (5-10 minute service intervals) 37

Frequent bus service with some express routes

(15 minute intervals) 22

Local bus (daytime 30 minute intervals and extended

services at 60 minute intervals) 17

Local bus (daytime 60 minutes intervals) 10

Table 5.2.1: The relationship between public transport services and residential density

TYPE OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT SERVICE GROSS RESIDENTIAL DENSITY (DWELLINGS/ha)

Source: Pushkarev and Zupan (1977)

pedestrian activity such as health clinics, old agehomes, schools and bus centres are best locatedwith ready access to the public transport services.As noted elsewhere in this guide, the walkingdistance to the nearest bus stop should not bemore than 400 m from the furthest house. High-density housing developments should be situatedcloser to the roads along which buses willoperate. Development to a depth of at least 200 mon both sides of bus routes is desirable.

Settlement planners should ensure that properfacilities for buses and minibuses are provided fromthe outset. The following principles need to beborne in mind:

• roads, which may be used as bus or minibusroutes, should connect activity centres directlyand be suitable as regards width, alignmentand construction;

• corner radii should take into account the factthat buses have a large swept turning circle (inthe order of 20 to 25 m in diameter);

• bus bays and turning areas should be providedas appropriate (see Figure 5.2.12);

• the minimum width of road for bus operationsin new developments should be 7,3 m, or 9 mwhere there are more than 30 buses per hourusing the road; and

• where possible, bus services should havebalanced traffic in both directions at peak time.This can be achieved by having employmentareas concentrated at nodes along the main buscorridors.

Figure 5.2.13 shows different road layouts,reflecting the history of planning practice. Thegrid network found in townships that developedbefore 1950 provided direct pedestrian access toservices, shops and public transport.

Sub-divisions over the last 30 years have tended tofocus on the internal neighbourhood structure,with roadways designed to reduce travel speedsand discourage through traffic. This type of layouttended to discourage the use of public transport.

This current guide seeks to provide a compromiseor a combination that provides the best of bothworlds - namely a movement network that catersfor direct pedestrian movement in all directionsand a road network which inhibits through traffic.These variations are depicted in Figure 5.2.13.

Factors that encourage pedestrian activity andhave a direct impact on the attractiveness ofwalking to bus stops and waiting for buses include

• barrier-free routes, with crosswalks, overpassesand ramps;

19



20m

3,25

m

20m

11m

24,5

m

0,8m

R= 13m

6m

R=9m0,5m

R=15m

Standard singlebus bay

Standard doublebus bay

Bus bay forhigh speed roads

A. Roundabout

B. Banjo

20m

3,25

m

23m

20m

3,3m

46m

11m

Figure 5.2.12: Dimensions of bus bays and bus turning circlesSource: Greater Glasgow PTE (1973)

20



Figure 5.2.13: Road layouts reflecting evolvingplanning practice

Source: BC Transit (1995)

• good lighting and an environment which isperceived to be safe, because it is overlooked byhuman activity;

• sidewalks, seating and shelters; and

• pleasant views and other attractions, includinglandscaping and plantings.

The convenient location of bus stops is significant,and they should be placed relative to buildingentrances. This aspect is as important to publictransport customers as convenient parking is to carusers.

Modal choice and relative cost efficienciesfor infrastructure and operations

Although this subject is beyond the scope ofsettlement planners, they should be aware thatlayout of the movement network and the spatialarrangement of land uses can impact bothpositively and negatively on public transport.Where modal choice is a consideration, painsshould be taken to avoid duplication of publictransport infrastructure such as stops andterminals.

The relationship between public transportand commercial sites

Commercial sites in settlements which aresupportive of public transport usually face thestreet and provide easy access for customersapproaching by foot rather than by car.

Design features which encourage pedestrian flowinclude continuous sidewalks, trees and benches,and street furniture that provides a buffer betweencirculating traffic and the sidewalk. Figure 5.2.14shows the ideal relationship between a commercialactivity site and public transport.

Bus stops

The information that follows applies to both busesand minibuses. The location of bus stops must beplanned as part of the movement network at theoutset, to achieve the best arrangement. Thespacing of bus stops needs to be a compromisebetween the achievement of as high an operatingspeed for buses as possible and the placement ofstops within an acceptable walking distance oftraffic generators, attractors and transfer points.Bus-stop spacing depends on the density ofroadside development. Where development is notintense, such as in residential suburbs, stops shouldbe around 800 m apart. In nodal activity centreswhere there is a high concentration of trip ends,stops should be closer together, with an averageseparation of around 300 m. If there is more than

Bus route

Collector road

Arterial road

Loca

l road

Bus route

Pedestrianpath

Busstop

Bus route

one bus service along a road, transfer is facilitatedif all the services use the same stop, providingcongestion is avoided.

Bus stops close to railway stations should bearranged to provide the minimum walking distancefor transferring passengers. At business centresstops should be sited so that buses depositpassengers at the main frontage of the centres.

For reasons of road safety, bus stops on oppositesides of a single two-way carriageway should bestaggered by a least 45 m, so that buses stop tail-to-tail. This dimension may be reduced where lay-bys are provided.

For the convenience of passengers, stops nearintersections or junctions should be located as closeas possible to the junction consistent with safety.Generally, bus stops should be located at the farside of the junction to minimise interference withleft-turning traffic and to maintain traffic-signalefficiency. If public transport is to be promoted,facilities should be provided at bus stops. Theseinclude shelters. In siting shelters, care must betaken to maintain adequate sight distance fordrivers emerging from side roads. Recommendedminimum distances are as follows:

CONCLUSION

If settlement planners are to succeed in providing anenvironment which is conductive to the use of publictransport, the greatest attention to detail should beprovided in respect of the development itself and itsrelationship with surrounding areas. The greatestattention should be provided for pedestrian amenity.Site design features that make public transport moreattractive are required but, given the pressures on theroad system, it is time to de-emphasise land-use designfor the convenience of car users, and refocus towardspedestrian movement and public transport. Publictransport-friendly designs can be achieved withoutdetrimental results for car users.

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Activitysite

in rearParking

siteActivity

P

P

Pedestrians prefer short distances fromeither automobiles or transit; and transit tripsare shorter when there is no route diversion

Transitroute

Figure 5.2.14: Relationship between bus stops and a commercial siteSource: BC Transit (1995)

50 23

65 31

80 38

SPEED LIMIT (km/h) MINIMUM DISTANCEAFTER LEFT TURN (m)

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Armstrong-Wright, A (1986) Urban transit systems:guidelines for examining options. World Bank TechnicalPaper No 52. The World Bank, Washington DC.

BC Transit (1995). Transit and land use planning.Surrey, British Columbia.

Behrens, R and Watson, V (1998). Movement networks.Urban Problems Research Unit, University of CapeTown.

Bernick, M and Cervero, R (1997). Transit Villages inthe 21st Century. McGraw-Hill, New York.

Calthorpe, P (1993). The next American metropolis:Ecology, community, and the American dream.Princeton Architectural Press, New York.

COLTO (Committee of Land Transport Officials (nd).Guidelines for the preparation of an integratedtransport plan TPG 1.

Department of the Environment and Transport (1994).Planning policy guideline: Transport PPG 13, HMSO,London.

Department of the Environment, Transport and theRegions (1998). Plans, streets and movement: Acompanion guide to Design Bulletin 32; Residentialroads and footpaths, HMSO, London.

FTA (1994). Planning for transit-friendly land use: Ahandbook for New Jersey communities. Federal TransitAdministration, US Department of Transportation.

Greater Glasgow PTE and Strathclyde Regional Council(1973). Guidelines for bus operation in urban areas,Glasgow.

IHT (forthcoming). Planning for public transport indevelopment. Institution of Highway andTransportation, London.

MCA Urban and Environmental Planners (1998).Planning and design of public transport systems.Unpublished report prepared for the CSIR. Cape Town.

Pushkarev, B S and Zupan, J M (1997). Publictransportation and land use policy, Indiana UniversityPress, Bloomington, Indiana.

PTRC (1991). Urban transport in developing countries.PTRC Education and Research Services, London.

Shaw, A (1998). Fundamental restructuring of theplanning management and operation of urban publictransport networks. Report No CR 98/018. Division ofRoads and Transport Technology, CSIR, Pretoria.

Simpson, B J (1994). Urban public transport today. E &FN Spon. London.

South Africa (1996). White Paper on NationalTransport Policy. Department of Transport.

South Africa, Department of Transport (1998). MovingSouth Africa: Towards a transport strategy for 2020,Pretoria.

TRC Africa (1999). Public Transport. Unpublishedreport prepared for the CSIR. Pretoria.

Tri-Met (1996). Planning and design for transithandbook: Guidelines for implementing transitsupportive development. Tri-County MetropolitanTransportation, District of Oregon, Portland.

TRL (1993). Public transport in third world cities, Stateof the Art Review/10. HMSO. London.

Westerman, H L (1996). The relationship between roadand land use planning. Austroads Project RSM 34,University of New South Wales, Sydney.

Western Australia Planing Commission (WAPC) (1997).Liveable neighbourhoods: community design code,Western Australian Planning Commission, Perth.

APPENDIX A

PUBLIC TRANSPORT CATCHMENTS AS THE BASIS FOR NEIGHBOURHOOD PLANNINGSource: Western Australian Planning Commission (1997)

Walkable catchments, when depicted on maps, show the actual area within a five minute walking distance fromany centre or bus stop, or ten minutes from any major transport interchange, such as a railway station. The centreshould ideally be an activity node for either a neighbourhood or a local community served by public transport. Thewalkable catchment helps in planning a settlement in such a way that it is easy to evaluate the ability to movethrough the urban area to access centres.

Walkable catchment calculations are expressed as the actual area within five minutes walking distance, as apercentage of the theoretical area within a five minute walking distance. The theoretical five minute walkingdistance is shown as a circle with a radius of about 400 metres around a focal points, such as a crossroad. Thisprovides an area of 50 hectares. When calculating a ten minute walking distance, the radius used is about 800metres, resulting in a circle with an area of 200 hectares (see diagram below). The higher the percentage of actualto theoretical five minute or ten minute walk, the better the “walkability”. A good target for a walkablecatchment is to have 60 per cent of the area within the stipulated walking distance.

Process for calculating walkable catchments.

1. On the settlement site map draw circles of 400 metre radius around desired focal points, and 800 metre radiuscircles around rail stations which are either existing or planned.

2. Starting from the centre, measure along the centre line of all planned streets to a distance of 400 metres.

3. Estimate the boundary of the plots within a 400 metre walk. This will provide the actual area from which thecentre can be accessed along the planned streets within a five minutes walk.

4. In the case of stations the same exercise may be completed for a ten minute walking distance using 800 metresas the distance measure. On each circle the result will be a map showing the actual distance within both thefive minute walk and the ten minute walk from rail stations.

5. Using a grid of scale hectares,calculate the approximate areaand hectares and the landaccessible within a five or tenminute walk and express this as apercentage of either the 50 or 200hectare circles. The percentagewill indicate the efficiency of thelayout.

Note that the walkable catchmentshould always count the area of landused for dwellings, but not includepublic open space contained in theaccessible area.

It should be noted that in fine-tuningthe calculations, there are practicalinfluences, such as short-cuts throughparks or along pedestrian paths.These should only be included wherethere is a high degree of surveillancefrom adjoining development andwhere there is good lighting.Similarly, the walkable catchmentmay need to be reduced where thereis poor surveillance and routes mayultimately be perceived as unsafe.

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APPENDIX B

GUIDELINES FOR ESTIMATING PUBLIC TRANSPORT DEMAND AND ASSOCIATED PUBLICTRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN SETTLEMENTSSource: South Africa, Department of Transport (1998)

The demand for public transport in any settlement is related to car ownership (affected by household incomes),the form of development (density, proximity to services, etc) and the quality of the services. Settlement plannersneed to understand public transport demand, in order to size facilities appropriately. In short, in planning asettlement, it is necessary to understand whether the public transport component is scaled to mini-bus taxis orbuses or trains. The following examples may be helpful. They are based on differing combinations of the 400metre radius of “walkable” neighbourhoods.

Conditions

1. A “walkable” public transport catchment of 400 m radius, encircling an area of 50 ha.

2. A “walkable” public transport catchment of 800 m radius for rail, encircling an area of 200 ha.

3. In the dwelling density range which is common in South Africa, of between 5 and 30 dwellings per hectare,around 60 per cent of a neighbourhood can be expected to be developed for residences. Thus in a 50 haneighbourhood the following may be expected:

plot sizes of 200 m2 = 30 du/ha = 1 500 unitsplot sizes of 600 m2 = 10 du/ha = 500 unitsplot sizes of 1 000 m2 = 6 du/ha = 300 units

4. Plot sizes usually approximate car ownership and household income, with the smaller plot sizes being associatedwith lower income and car ownership.

Assumptions

The following assumptions may be applied to public transport demand estimation for a low income settlementbased on parameters observed in Cape Town in the current “Moving Ahead” transport study:

1. Size of settlement = 50 ha (400 m walking radius).

2. Income of residents = < R40 000/household/year.

3. Non-residential development= 2 ha office/retail= 4 ha industrial= 4 ha schools and parks= 10 ha roads and public spaces.

4. Residential modal split = 85 per cent public transport.

5. Office and retail modal split = 60 per cent public transport.

6. Work trip generation rates for households earning < R40 000 per annum = 1,6 trips to work/day.

7. Average trip length = 14 km/trip.

8. Directional split = 70 per cent from neighbourhood to city centre; 30 per cent from neighbourhood to outernode.

Calculations

Public transport trip productions for a settlement of 30 du/ha (gross):

1. Total number of households = 10 000 m2 /ha x 0,6 = 1 500 du (200 m2 stands).

2. Commuter trip generation (TOTAL)Residential generation = 1,6 x 1 500 = 2 400Office/retail attraction = 2,0 x 250 = 500Industrial attraction = 4,0 x 100 = 400 .

3. Commuter trip generation (PUBLIC TRANSPORT)Residential generation = 2 400 x 0,85 = 2 040Non-residential = 900 x 0,6 = 540.

4. Total trips to work = 2 580.

Deductions

1. In the above example the demand for movement out of the settlement in peak work commuter periodsamounts to around 1 500 to 1 700 passenger trips (2 040 trips generated, with some having local and othersexternal destinations). There are 540 total neighbourhood trip attractions).

2. Around 1 600 peak period (x 3 hour) commuter trips would approximate a maximum peak hour demand ofabout 1000 trips per hour.

3. With a road-based public transport supply policy of 5 minute intervals for bus services in the peak, this wouldtranslate to a demand of about 12 buses per hour.

4. In a transport corridor comprising five such neighbourhoods on a single route, the capacity to meet suchdemand (5 000 passenger trips) would amount to 50 buses per hour.

5. In such conditions, a transport authority would need to consider higher capacity public transport options, eachof which would impact on traffic movement in the corridor. Such options might include:

• articulated buses;• bus priority and traffic management schemes; and• alternative transport nodes modes such as light or heavy rail.

6. In the foregoing circumstances the transport planning authority should be involved in planning the settlementto ensure that conditions on the ground facilitate effective public transport.

7. The above example represents an extreme case of a neighbourhood where residents would be heavilydependent upon public transport.

Forecast

It is not advisable for settlement planners to make long-term forecasts of demand for public transport. As a cross-check, however, the calculations outlined in this Appendix can be used as a consistency check to determine whencritical thresholds are likely to be reached in respect of public transport. At that stage, the necessary infrastructureadjustments can be made.

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APPENDIX C

THE MOVING SOUTH AFRICA (MSA) STRATEGY WITH REFERENCE TO LAND USE AND LANDMANAGEMENT ISSUESSource: South African, Department of Transport (1998)

Urban transport focuses on three categories of strategic action:

The first action is the densification of transport corridors. This requires the substantial reversal of apartheidland use planning to halt dispersion, but it is essential to achieve needed economies of scale in the transportsystem. The strategy will need an aggressive mix of controls and incentives, and will require appropriatelyintegrated coordination of the many institutions with a stake in the urban arena.

Land use patterns are the single greatest driver of the poor performance of the urban transport system in meetingcustomer needs, and so any solution will require either altering land tenure or working within its existing context.Distance, density, and employment location are all facets of land use that affect the layout of South African citiesand, subsequently, the economics and service levels of public transport.

Corridorisation lowers overall system costs - not only for transport but for other infrastructure, too - and alsoenables lower subsidies, raises travel speeds, and improves frequencies.

Today there is still a tendency towards continuing decentralisation, especially of workplace locations, which furthercomplicates the task of creating compact cities. Some degree of compact city may be achievable in some areas ofsome cities, and the MSA strategy does not rule out the option in some circumstances. However, the predominantpattern should be the corridor city. The corridor approach fits more easily with the existing South African urbanland tenure patterns. Its appropriateness is driven not only by the decentralised distant townships and the lowdensity inner-ring suburbs, but also by a recognition of the decline in CBD vitality and the dispersion ofdevelopment to satellite nodes. This pattern recognises the existing vacant land occupying the space between mosttownships and suburban areas, and also builds on existing flows along major current corridors.

Corridors already exist to some extent in South African cities. Therefore, the strategy focuses on densification ofexisting corridors and creation of new corridors for major new developments. It is essential to prevent the furtherdispersion of development, and to create incentives for any decentralisation away from the CBD to occur withinthe corridor context. The major trade-off against the corridor densification strategy is the higher cost of land fornew housing projects closer to the CBD. Analysis shows that transport and other utilities generate savings over timewhich compensate for the increased cost of land.

Housing targets are driving the need to build on cheap, available land, which is causing dispersion. Transport andother utilities have to be provided to serve these dispersed housing developments, bearing increased long-termcosts.

Because of the uniquely local nature of land use decisions, the most challenging part of implementing the corridorvision will be the co-ordination across and within government to overcome the obstacles. Some national policies,as in housing, encourage continued dispersion, based on the economics of land acquisition. These policies will needto be harmonised to fit into a paradigm that encompasses the systems cost of all community infrastructure, not justone component like housing or electricity.

The MSA strategy recognises many other obstacles exist to corridor densification, and overcoming these potentialpitfalls will require strong co-operation across government. In particular four different public entities will need toact in close co-operation and co-ordination:

• National Government must provide the overall strategic vision for urban development, including transport. Itmust also create a framework for absorbing systems costs and aligning the incentives for different nationaldepartments to follow the framework. Out of this activity will come guidelines for internalising systems costswithin land developments.

• Provincial Government must create broad provincial land use strategies that account for full systems cost, withinthe context of the national government framework. In addition, they will need to orient the subsidy policy tosupport the corridors, and are responsible for urban roads.

• The Roads Agency will need to align investments in national roads in urban areas with the local corridorstrategies developed by local entities.

• Local Government and Metropolitan Transport Authorities will be responsible for developing land use andtransport plans, and will now need to be integrated into planning for major commercial and residentialdevelopments. The subsidy allocation procedure must be linked into the corridor densification strategy.

The second action works to optimise modal economics and the service mix. Investment in corridors isprimarily roads-based, because densities of new corridors are unlikely to support new rail lines. The strategy is oneof regulated competition, with integration of modes facilitated. Optimising modal economics requires addressingthe use of road space, and the strategy proposes tough road space management to prioritise public transport. Aprincipal lever of the recommended strategy is that of subsidies, which will be targeted and providing affordableaccess to the stranded and subsidising the most economic mode on each corridor.

The third strategic action entails improving firm-level performance, a task which predominantly fallsto private firms. The strategy requires effective regulation of all modes, especially minibus-taxis and theenforcement thereof. It emphasises tendering for subsidised routes and other forms of contract management, withbuilt-in incentives for productivity innovation and reinvestment.

Implementing the strategy will require overcoming some significant obstacles. Changing the nature of land-useplanning, road space management, planning and regulation, and subsidy targeting will need agreement on theobjectives and strong political will.

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Hard open spaces

Chapter 5.3

5.3

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

AIM OF THIS CHAPTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

THE ROLE OF HARD OPEN SPACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

FUNCTIONS OF HARD OPEN SPACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Social functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Economic functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Movement functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Political or symbolic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

DIFFERENT GENERIC FORMS OF HARD OPEN SPACES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Mixed-mode streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Pedestrian-orientated streets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Squares/plazas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Parking areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Public transport stops and stations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

THE INFLUENCE OF USER GROUPS ON THE PLANNING AND DESIGN OF HARD OPEN SPACE . . . . . . . . 3

GUIDELINES FOR THE PLANNING AND DESIGN OF CERTAIN GENERIC FORMS OF HARDOPEN SPACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

General qualitative guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

General quantitative guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Specific qualitative guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Specific quantitative guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Management guidelines to promote multifunctional use of hard open spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

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Hard open spaces Chapter 5.3

ii


Chapter 5.3 Hard open spaces

LIST OF TABLES

Table 5.3.1 Integrated hard open space system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Table 5.3.2 Public facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Table 5.3.3 Private and public domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

Table 5.3.4 Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7

Table 5.3.5 Continuity and rhythm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

Table 5.3.6 Scale and proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

Table 5.3.7 Environmental factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11

Table 5.3.8 Location and typologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12

Table 5.3.9 Vertical edges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28

Table 5.3.10 Horizontal surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

Table 5.3.11 Public furniture and signage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38

Table 5.3.12 Ratios and thresholds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .43

Table 5.3.13 Dimensions and distances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45

INTRODUCTION

Public space includes almost all land that does notbelong to private institutions or individuals. Soft openspace (addressed in Sub-chapter 5.4) is the unbuilt or“green space” flowing almost in natural lines throughthe settlement. Hard open space, on the other hand,is accessible and built public space within the builtenvironment and can be viewed as either semi-publicor public hard open space.

Within existing developments, open spaces are usuallythe result of space-left-over-after-planning. Theyshould, however, be effectively designed from theoutset in order to serve as purposeful public spaces. Agreenfields development thus poses the opportunityfor hard open space to be designed with a purpose initself. Purposeful spaces should respond to user need,be carefully accommodated and sensitively designed.Then only can they be sustainable spaces that can beeffectively used by future generations.

With the renewal or upgrading of existing areas, hardopen spaces should be redesigned to better fulfil thepublic’s demand for a quality environment withaesthetic appeal and a functional purpose. During therenewal/upgrading process, existing left-over-spacesbetween buildings can be redesigned to serve aseffective public spaces that only serve aswalkthroughs. Through renewal programmes thesespaces and their directly linked areas could be given anew lease on life.

AIM OF THIS CHAPTER

In encouraging the effective functioning and urbanityof cities and thus also hard open space, it is importantto provide guidelines for development, which is theaim of this chapter. These guidelines illustrate howcertain generic forms of public space should beplanned to avoid being merely meaningless leftoverspace.

In using these guidelines it is important to note thatthe specifics of a situation (the contextualdeterminants, such as context, site, climate, functionand cultural determinants, and the symbolic aspects,such as culture, identity of place, user characteristics)should be considered in the planning and designprocess. Even though this chapter focuses on aneighbourhood/sub-metropolitan level, the guidelineshave to be applied in a broader context within ahierarchy of hard open spaces. Through theinterpretation of contextual and culturaldeterminants, certain distinctive elements of hardopen spaces can be derived, evolving towards a uniquerelationship between the place and the contextualenvironment in which it functions. It is vital for thereader to bear in mind that the guidelines shouldmerely serve as tools. They provide a means to an endand, to produce successful hard open spaces, theyshould be combined with the designer’s own creativityand ingenuity.

THE ROLE OF HARD OPEN SPACE

In terms of settlement systems, hard open spaces fulfila crucial role in providing continuity through variousother elements of settlements. The public space (hardand soft) between buildings is the heart of the builtenvironment and one of the fundamental form-givingelements of settlements. Through the integration ofboth the soft and hard open space systems with thebuilt environment, a certain urban structure is created.The quality of public spaces is the result of the planningand development of a settlement. Densification andthe reduction in the size of private space make theavailability and quality of the public space system ofutmost importance to the public realm.

A vital relationship exists between movementnetworks and hard open space, as the movementnetwork is mostly encompassed by, or accommodatedwithin, public hard open spaces.

According to Rapoport (1977) the relationshipbetween different spaces is as important as the spaceitself. This relationship is twofold as, on the one hand,it has to do with the continuity and flow of spacebetween different scales or levels of spaces and, on theother, it has to do with flow of space from private topublic domains.

This continuity between hard open spaces and softopen spaces is very necessary if the different settingsfor social, economic and environmental developmentare to be integrated.

FUNCTIONS OF HARD OPEN SPACE

In order to effectively derive and utilise guidelines forthe planning and design of hard open spaces, thepoint of departure should be the functions takingplace, or which ought to be taking place, within hardopen spaces. Function should altogether relate to theability of the open space to foster healthy publicliving. It has to promote activities as diverse aspossible in a multifunctional manner, in order toproduce a vibrant environment for people.

In terms of structure there exists a continuum of hardopen spaces with different degrees of publicness.These vary from semi-public hard open spaces to publichard open spaces. Based on the degree of publicness,function will vary between these spaces.

For discussion purposes the functions of hard openspaces can be broadly classified on the basis of eitheractive or passive use, encompassing social functions,movement functions, economic functions and politicalor symbolic functions.

Social functions

• Social functions include activities such as play, sportand recreation. Open spaces are especially used bychildren for play and recreation. A possibilitywhich has not been adequately capitalised on, yet,is the conversion of open spaces to hard surfaceplaygrounds for games like basketball, etc.

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• Cultural entertainment (Moughtin 1992, p 89), suchas performing musicians and artists, also forms partof social functions taking place on hard openspaces.

• Another important social activity of hard openspaces is lingering or resting. Public places shouldfunction as magnets which draw people tothemselves or to the associated public facilities.With the correct mix of surrounding land usesthese spaces could become attractions and visitors’destinations.

• Hard open spaces, due to their locality betweenprivate spaces and public spaces, are veryfunctional meeting and socialising places(Moughtin 1992, p 89) for business people, shoppers,the unemployed, friends and the elderly during theday, and largely for the young at night. The spacesare particularly important to the least mobilesections of the population as very visible places tomeet and enjoy conversation with others.

Economic functions

• The function of street vendors (trading) is aneconomic activity taking place on hard open spacesthat has become a vital part of the South Africanurban experience. Street vendors are dependenton open spaces such as streets or public transportfacilities where there is a flow of pedestrians, andthey are in direct contact with their customers.

• Hard open spaces also cater for outdoor markets indesignated areas, as well as through themultifunctional and temporary use of parkingareas, streets and sidewalks (Rapoport 1977, p 100).

• Hard open spaces are the ideal setting forgatherings like festivals or market places(Moughtin 1992, p 89), which function in parallelwith the space as an agent for social interaction.

• Access to facilities such as public services, civicbuildings (clinics, libraries, etc.) and shoppingspaces are an important function of hard openspace (Moughtin 1992, p 89).

Movement functions

• Hard open spaces provide access to public facilitiesand transport, not only via walkways andsidewalks, but also to places for waiting andintermodal transfer at stops or stations.

• In terms of movement or access, hard open spacesare usually located at points of relatively highaccessibility.

• Hard open spaces also encompass spaces such asintersections and traffic junctions.

• Parking is an important activity that takes place inhard open space.

Political or symbolic functions

• Hard open space can provide a venue forceremonial occasions and parades.

• An important symbolic function of hard openspaces is the provision of suitable, identifiable andaccessible settings for civic buildings.

DIFFERENT GENERIC FORMS OFHARD OPEN SPACES

Most of these briefly discussed generic forms of hardopen space can and should be used and managed asmultifunctionally as possible.

Mixed-mode streets

Mixed-mode streets are streets that contain a mix ofmotorised and non-motorised users. Although thesestreets are in part dominated by vehicular movement,they include the hard open space components ofsidewalks, bicycle paths and space for the provision ofengineering services. Variations and uses of sidewalksand road reserves can be exploited. Road reserves can,for example, be applied to better locate informaltraders by making sidewalks wider and catering forsidewalk parking.

Pedestrian-orientated streets

Pedestrian-orientated streets can be regarded asstreets set out for the main purpose of pedestrian use,such as the “woonerf” concept and arcades. Variationson use and function are available, including playstreets, streets closed (temporarily or permanently)and alleys used for trading, markets, recreation andentertainment.

Squares/plazas

Various forms and uses for squares and plazas exist.The most common uses are as atriums, courtyards,intimate inner-city parks, markets, meeting places, andspaces for entertainment, sport and recreation.

Markets

It is impossible to distinguish between permanent andinformal markets, such as informal trading onsidewalks or markets in parking areas or streets.Retailing forms an important part of hard open spaces,and includes convenience and specialist markets.

Parking areas

Parking areas are also considered hard open spaces,but their present use leaves much to be desired.Parking in the street and in front of shopping centres,office blocks, churches and public buildings is mostcommon. Opportunities exist for a variety of uses;especially with regard to different times of night andday and different days of the week.

Public transport stops and stations

Various forms of hard open space relate to stops andstations for public transport, such as bus stops, taxiranks and bus depots. These spaces can also be usedmultifunctionally for informal markets and meetingplaces.

THE INFLUENCE OF USER GROUPS ONTHE PLANNING AND DESIGN OFHARD OPEN SPACE

In order to identify various user groups, a hierarchy ofactivities could be set out (Van Zyl 1997). The first ofthese sets of activities is “necessary activities”. Theseactivities include those that are more or less essentialaspects of living - shopping, waiting for a person,running errands. A second category of activities is“optional activities”. These are activities participatedin if there is opportunity and if time and place make itpossible.

Users can be identified by the level of theirparticipation in necessary or voluntary functions,whether static or dynamic. Users can also be identifiedin terms of their demographic characteristics (age,gender, race, income group, culture, ethnic group,children, teenagers) or in terms of their location-specific activity, in which case activity equals the user,such as the selling of vegetables.

Some of the various user groups that need specialmention and attention in the design of hard openspaces, as well as some of their specific needs, are:

• children need formal and informal play areas, andsafety;

• elderly people need convenient access, seating,safety and shelter;

• youth need space for activity, safety,multifunctional uses, socialising and lingering;

• disabled people need adequate ramps and accessas well as safety;

• traders need public facilities, shelter and publicamenities;

• shoppers need public facilities, convenience andaccess;

• higher income groups need hard open space thatprovides the setting for private space; and

• lower income groups need to utilise hard openspaces, such as streets, as part of the urban room;incorporating socialising and playing space.

It should, however, be borne in mind that the time atwhich activities take place can vary between day andnight, as well as between weekdays and weekends,and this will influence the user group involved. So aspecific hard open space can cater for different groupsat different times or simultaneously.

Various cultural and income groups also use hard openspaces differently and have different perceptionsregarding open space, urban qualities, environmentalquality and cognitive domains of space (Rapoport1977, pp 24-5).

GUIDELINES FOR THE PLANNINGAND DESIGN OF CERTAIN GENERICFORMS OF HARD OPEN SPACE

General guidelines applicable to hard open space ingeneral are set out first. These are followed byguidelines specific to the following generic forms ofhard open space:

• mixed-mode streets;• pedestrian-orientated streets;• squares;• markets;• parking areas; and• public transport stops and stations.

For both general and specific categories, qualitativeguidelines are defined first, after which quantitativeguidelines for each generic form follow. In the case ofthe specific category, qualitative guidelines refer to:

• location and typologies;• vertical edges;• horizontal surfaces;• public furniture; and• signage.

Quantitative guidelines for the specific categoryrefer to:

• ratios and thresholds; and• dimensions and distances.

The guidelines are provided in tabular form and,where applicable, illustrated diagrammatically.

3



4



General qualitative guidelines

Table 5.3.1: Integrated hard open space system

Create an effective hardopen space system thatintegrates the differentelements of a settlementto contribute to ameaningful urbanstructure.

• Provide physical,visible and perceptualconnectivity betweencluster and linearopen spaces.Establish strong andlegible linkagesbetween various hardopen spaces. 1

• Align the hard openspace system and softopen space systemwith main publicbuildings, such ascommunity centres orplaces of worship. 2

• Ensure quality ofcontextual linkagesthrough thecontinuation ofspecial activities orfunctions.3

• Enhance structuralsimilarity of thestreet throughassociationalsymbolism (personalexperience) andcultural symbolism(common areas ofunderstanding inculture) to ensurethat as many peopleas possible can relateto the space. 4

5



Table 5.3.2: Public facilities

For a meaningful urbanstructure, link symbolicelements or publicfacilities to certain hardopen spaces in relationto their importance andcharacter.

• Create special publicplaces, as publicspaces and publicinstitutions are thefocal point ofcommunity life.Public furnitureshould support thedesired character ofthe space.

• Concentrate buildingswith public facilities,amenities andcollective servicepoints adjacent topublic spaces. 1

• Locate publicbuildings in relationto formal publicspaces and importantmovement routes.Hard open spaceshould announce thebuildings andaccommodateinformal activitiesthat respond to thesebuildings. 2

• Balance thecomposition ofbuilding groups, andplace the focal pointnear the middle ofthe group (Moughtin1992, pp 56-7). 3

• Locate symbolicand/or focal points inthe middle of acluster space or atthe terminationpoints of a linearspace.

6



Table 5.3.3: Private and public domains

Ensure definition of thepublic space througheffective design of aninterface between publicand private domains.

• Thresholds should actas sharedenvironments(meeting places) ortransitional spacebetween public andprivate space. 1

• Visual permeabilitythrough an interfacecan enrich the publicdomain and willaffect the wayprivate space is used.It becomes acontrolling andenabling constraint. 2

• Enhance the visibilityand legibility of therelationship and thetransition betweenprivate and publicdomains (Rapoport1977, p 23). 3

7



Table 5.3.4: Enclosure

Ensure appropriate senseof enclosure that is on ahuman scale and fits intothe context within whichthe space is situated.

• Enclosure is neededfor the public spaceto act as an urbanroom. 1

• The degree ofenclosure and natureof enclosing elementsdetermine thecharacter of thespace. 2

• Proportion shouldnot be vehicledominated. Use treesas enclosing elementsand to create ahuman scale. 3

• Define the boundaryof the space bymeans of a unifiedwall or a series ofpavilions linked withlandscaping. 4

8



Table 5.3.5: Continuity and rhythm

Continuity and rhythmof and within spacesshould enhance legibilityand interest.

• Create rhythmic andspatial progressionalong a spacethrough thecomposition ofactivities or change inland uses (Moughtin1992, p 58). 1

• Establish acontinuation ofspecial activities orfunctions that exist inthe node, within thelinkages towards thenode.

• Perception of hardopen spaces is relatedto the concepts ofspeed andcomplexity.Movement relates tocomplexity and thenumber of changesthat take placewithin a specific unitof time (Rapoport1977, p 241), Due tothe relative slowmovement ofpedestrians, a greaterdegree of complexityand a large numberof changes areneeded. Fastervehicle movementrequires moresimplicity and lesschanges per unit oftime. This holdsimplications for therichness of detail tobe provided onbuildings. 2

9



Table 5.3.6: Scale and proportion

Visual recognition andsurveillance.

• Height of detail onbuildings that couldbe appreciated fromcertain distancesaway from thefacade:

- Up to 2 m high tobe appreciatedfrom 0,5 m away.

- Up to 4 m high tobe appreciatedfrom 2,5 m away.

- Up to 6,5 m highto be appreciatedfrom 5 m away.

- Up to 12 m highto be appreciatedfrom 10 m away. 1

• To maintain contactfor safety betweenpedestrians on streetlevel and people inadjacent buildings, amaximum of 5 m isrequired. To ensureprivacy forinhabitants ofbuildings at thisdistance, the streetshould be atminimum 0,6 m lowerthan the ground levelof the building.2

• To maintain privacy, aclear distance of atminimum 11 m isneeded, otherwisevisual obstructingelements, such astrees, should beprovided. 3

General quantitative guidelines

Enclosure. • Buildings should beseen as a whole froma distance that is twiceits height at a 27°angle.

• Relationship betweenradius and height toensure enclosure(Moughtin 1992, pp 100-1);

- Full degree ofenclosure is 1:11;

- Threshold forenclosure is 1:2(beyond thisproportion spaceleaks out);

- Minimumenclosure is 1:3(prominent objectsare perceivedbeyond the space);and

- Loss of enclosure is>1:3 (space loses itscontainingfunction). 4

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Visual recognition and surveillance (continued).

• Human scale:

- Intimate humanscale: 12 m(maximum distanceto see facialexpression);

- Normal humanscale: 21 to 24 m(25 m at maximumto recognise aface);

- Public human scale:140 m (135 m atmaximum todistinguish ahuman);

- Monumental scale:1 500 m (maximumdistance for vista).

Table 5.3.6: Scale and proportion (continued)

11



Table 5.3.7: Environmental factors

Solar access. • Locate highestbuildings to thesouthern side of theopen space, withlower buildings ortrees (as enclosingelements) on thenorthern side. 1

• To provide adequatesolar access to abuilding, the distancebetween twobuildings should bedetermined with thefollowing: tan(latitude of the area+10°) divided by theheight of theadjacent building tothe north. Forexample, at Midrand(with a latitude of22°) the following isapplicable:

- If the adjacentbuilding is 2,85 mhigh (one storey),the distancebetween the twobuildings shouldbe 4,6 m.

- If the adjacentbuilding is 5,7 mhigh (two storeys),the distancebetween the twobuildings shouldbe 9,1 m.

- If the adjacentbuilding is 8,85 mhigh (threestoreys), thedistance betweenthe two buildingsshould be 14,2 m.2

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Table 5.3.7: Environmental factors (continued)

Wind protection. • An obstruction suchas trees can providethe necessaryprotection againstwind. The groundarea protected, isgenerally 10 timesthe height of theobstruction. 3

Ensure a meaningfullocation in terms of themovement network andurban structure.

• Design the roadnetwork toaccommodate variousand diverse functions.

• Meeting of specialstreets should resultin squares and focalpoints (Moughtin1992, p 80). 1

• Concentrate intensiveactivities alongcontinuous vehicle-orientated andpublic-transportroutes. Locatemajority of publicbuildings also alongthese routes. 2

• Locate buildings closeto the street toincrease pedestrianactivity, reduceresident isolation,and foster pedestrianservices such as retailoutlets along streetsconnecting higherdensitydevelopments.

Table 5.3.8: Location and typologies

Mixed-mode streets

Specific qualitative guidelines

Increase intensity anddiversity in the streetreserve.

• High informationroutes areexperienced as short,but remembered aslong. Ensurecomplexity andinterest along roadsand in space alongroutes (Rapoport1977, pp 217-220).

• Create rhythmic andspatial progressionalong an axis/street,via composition ofactivities or change inland uses (Moughtin1992, p 59).

• Block lengthsinfluence access andeconomic thresholds.Design optimal blocklengths to fosterdiverse activity andeconomic viability.

Table 5.3.8: Location and typologies (continued)

Mixed-mode streets (continued)

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14



Increase intensity anddiversity in the streetreserve.

• Effectively design thewhole reserve,including the spacesbetween the roadsurface and thebuilding entrances.Design for and makea distinction betweenthe following:

- building zone(arcades,canopies,commercial signs,enclosed cafesand sidewalkcafes);

- sidewalk zone(sewers, gratings,kerbs, urban art,benches, bicycleracks, hawkerstalls, informationkiosks, trees, cycleareas, pedestrianareas, newspaperstands, telephonebooths, firehydrants, trafficsigns, refuse bins,mail boxes,planters, streetlighting, parkingmeters and busshelters); and

- vehicular zone(banners,manholes, trafficsignals, on-streetparking,decorativelighting andtelephone poles).3



15



Define the street as asafe and unique publicspace.

• The general patternof buildings shouldhelp to define thestreet. 4

• In pavilion-typebuildings, use trees todefine the street. Thestreetscape designshould incorporate aconsistent theme,strengthening theassociation ofunrelated buildings.When a street is notstrongly defined at itsedges, focal points -at the ends or atregular intervals -could provide a senseof place. 5

• Land uses shouldenliven the street andensure surveillance ofit. Parking structuresshould not dominatestreet frontages. 6

• Distinguish betweenso-called front-and-back uses anddefinition, whichtake place within thestreet realm, butwhich differ forvarious urban usersand cultures. 7

• Intersections androad crossings shouldbe designed to besafe for pedestriansand vehicles. Thisincludes the design ofsidewalks andcrosswalks, trafficsignals and otherintersectiontreatment. 8



16



Define the street as asafe and unique publicspace (continued).

• Modify existingleftover space toaccommodate easypedestrian crossing ofstreets. 9

• Where pedestrianroutes cross streets,ensure visibilitythrough landscapingand signage. 10

• To enhance safetyfor pedestrians onsidewalks(Untermann 1984,pp 25-28):

- minimise conflictwith cars;

- cater for thedisabled;

- provide sidewalks;

- provide parking,between road andpedestrian;

- the busier thestreet, thebroader thesidewalk shouldbe;

- place kerbbetween sidewalkand street; and

- design road todiscouragespeeding.



Accommodate a varietyof users in the street.

• The effectiveseparation ofpedestrian andvehicular movementshould be at a scalewhich encouragesactivity andpedestrian comfort.

• For movement, thestreet should includea surface for cars,together with bicycleand pedestrian lanes.

• Other facilities to beaccommodated arethose for informaltraders, small-scalebusinesses (such asdecorative kiosks forflowers), landscapedstrips and spaces ofrelief and relaxationin bustling areas.

Increase intensity anddiversity in the street.

• In pedestrian arcades,provide spaces ofrelief and relaxationin bustling areas.

• In pedestrian-dominated streetsrelated to residentialuses, such as thewoonerf street,provision should bemade for other uses,such as recreationand socialisation,which are related tothe main residentialuse.

• Visitor parking can beprovided in thestreet.

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• Create a symboliclocation for a specialstreet through itsrelative locationwithin a geographicalarea.


Define the street as asafe and unique publicspace.

• Design detail todiscourage trafficthrough the area,and speeding.

• Design soft moundsand plant treesseparating footpathsand buildings fromthe road.

• Footpaths shouldpreferably bedesigned adjacent tobuildings thatoverlook them, asopposed to blankwalls (Cartwright1980, p 32).


Pedestrian-orientated streets (continued)

Accommodate a varietyof users in the street.

• Concentrate publicfacilities according tofunctionalrelationship, tofacilitate sharing ofresources (halls,playing fields,equipment).

• The street ascommunal area canprovide the settingfor the integration ofcollective services inlower-incomeresidential areas.

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19





• Locate largest andmost importantbuildings inassociation withlargest and mostimportant squares.

• Create symboliclocation by relativelocation within ageographical area.

• Enhance legibility ofthe structure(Rapoport 1977, p116; Lynch and Hack1984) via the localityof squares atmovement-decisionpoints.

• Give importantsquares, dominancein the settlement(Moughtin 1992, pp56-7) - for example,by letting buildingsthat surround them,occupy high groundor dominate theskyline.

• Provide contrastinghard open spaceswith greater or lessactivity.

Squares

Increase intensity anddiversity in the square.

• Integrate indoor andoutdoor spaces tomake them moreuseful. Plan spaces tobe small and informalin character andquality, so as to beinviting, comfortableand non-oppressive.

• Use of the squareand activities in thesquare depend onthe activities at theedge, especially onthe ground floor.Develop restaurants,small shops and retailstores around thesquare; exclude largebanks, travel agentsand offices thatattract fewpedestrians.

20




Increase intensity anddiversity in the square (continued).

• Urban squares couldbe used as markets,with either thecentral area of thesquare or the edgesas demarcated spacefor trading.

Define the square as asafe and unique publicspace.

• Design identifiablegateways as legibleentrance points tothe square (Rapoport1977, p 95). Entrypoints should behighly visible andlinked to majorcontextual routes(Rapoport 1977,p 383).

• Ensure surveillance ofthe square throughits visibility fromadjacent buildings.

• From a central pointone should be able toappreciate all sides ofthe square.1

• To enhancememorability,buildings that aresimple in geometricshape should beplaced together(Moughtin 1992,p 72). One prominentbuilding shoulddominate the group.

Squares (continued)

Define the square as asafe and unique publicspace (continued).

• To contextualise thesquare and designthe correctproportion within thecontext, take thetypology ofsurrounding buildingsinto account. Giveattention to size,height, unifyingelements, theme,shape of space androof lines. Continuityin height of buildingsaround a squareenhances enclosure.Enclosure is reducedwith the degree ofdifference in buildingheight.

• Design for a sense ofpermanence, throughrobustness ofbuildings, which arecompatible for adiversity of uses.

• Enclosure depends onthe way buildings aregrouped. Create asense of enclosure,especially on corners,otherwise space getsfragmented.2

• One or two sides of asquare should beenclosed withbuildings. The othersides could beenclosed bysomething else, suchas trees.3

• If the physical senseof enclosure is less,the sense ofplace/activity/meaningshould be higher.

21




Squares (continued)

22



Accommodate a varietyof users in the square.

• Enhance the symbolicmeaning of citysquares.Accommodatesymbolic elementsand places (statues,objects ofremembrance andmemorable places)that reflect sharedcommunity valuesand events.

• Encourage the use ofbandstands, publicdisplay areas,outdoor dining space,roller-skating andother features thatattract crowds.

• Encouragerecreational facilitiessuch as theatres,restaurants, cafes,movie houses, andlibraries with late-night hours, hotels,and teenage meetingrooms, extending theusage of the squareto night-time.


Squares (continued)


• Incorporate marketsat points of greatestaccess in the urbanstructure, such as atmodal interchangesand intersections.

• Ensure thepermeability of, andshort cuts through,the market.

Markets

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Increase intensity anddiversity in the market.

• Plan the market toconvey a sense ofpermanence. Thisshould be achievedwith compatiblebuildings that canaccommodatechanging uses overtime.

• Create opportunityfor formalcommercial andinformal tradingactivities. Theconcentration ofactivities willencourageinteraction andgenerate economicexpansion.

• The size of themarket will changeover time. Expansionand contraction ofthe market can occurover short periods.The market should,however, be plannedin such a way as toretain its intensity atall times. As phasedgrowth takes place,the market shouldoperate as a totalityat each stage of itsdevelopment.

Markets (continued)

24



Define the market as asafe and unique publicspace.

• The gateways to themarket place shouldconvey a friendlyinvitation, where asense of belongingcould be experiencedby users.

• The market shouldhave an acceptablesense of place thatshould be defined bymeans of a primaryspace, supported bysecondary spaces. 1

• The primary spaceshould form themajor communalspace around whichmarket stalls shouldbe positioned. Avertical elementshould preferably beplaced at its centre.This should form areference point thatwill enhance legibilityof the market. 2

Accommodate a varietyof users in the market.

• Markets with small-scale activities requireless formal marketinfrastructure.Market activity maybe intermittent andcould take ondifferent forms. Thespaces should thus bedesigned to be asmulti-functional aspossible.


Markets (continued)



• Organise parking insmall lots around theperimeter of the coreof activities andmovement. Parkinglots should lead tothe core and shouldprovide pedestrianaccess to all streets. 1

• Integrate a parkingarea with thesurrounding areathrough linking it tonatural movementroutes andaccommodating shortcuts. 2

• Parking should belocated in smallerareas closer todestinations,especially in higherdensity developmentand at local shops. 3

• Parking shouldpreferably be locatedaway from the streetat the back ofbuildings. If parkingis provided at thefront, a maximum oftwo rows of parkingshould be provided.Parking structuresshould not dominatestreet frontages. 4

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Parking areas

26




Increase intensity anddiversity in the parkingarea.

• Manage activities inparking areas forvarious uses andeffective utilisationof space throughdifferent times of theday, such as theclosing of parkingareas to act asmarkets in theevening or play areason weekends.

• Type and intensity ofuses can vary overtime as the demandfor parking increasesor decreases(differences betweenday and night, timesof the day, days ofthe week or month).

• Accommodatedifferent uses thatincrease latency andallow for socialchange withoutphysical change.

Define the parking areaas a safe and uniquepublic space.

• The way buildingsare arranged aroundthe parking areashould ensureadequatesurveillance. 5

Accommodate a varietyof users in the parkingarea.

• Allow for informaltraders to tradewithin the parkingarea in an organisedway.

• Accommodatemultifunctional useof elements withinthe parking area,such as trees.

• Accommodatepedestrian routesthrough the parkingarea. 6

Parking areas (continued)

27




Increase intensity anddiversity at the stops andstations.

• Organise informaltrading around thestop and within thestation.


• Locate publictransport stops andstations onconvenient routesbetween differentland-use activities.

• Locate stops orstations at points ofhighest accessibility.Integratedintermodal transportnodes and change-overs should bepromoted to ensuresustainable physicaldevelopment.

• Incorporate stationswithin theirsurroundings bymeans of theeffective utilisationand design ofexisting leftoverspace. 1

• Stations and stopsshould be located atmore frequentintervals and closer todestinations inhigher-density andmixed-usedevelopments.


Define the stops andstations as safe andunique public spaces.

• Attend to the qualityof the stops in termsof safety, shelter,character or imageand visibility.

Accommodate a varietyof users at the stops andstations.

• Provide adequatespace and facilitiesfor informal tradersat stops and stations.

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Table 5.3.9: Vertical edges

Mixed-mode streets

Create easy access to andfrom the street.

• Permeability of publicspace can beenhanced throughthe provision ofmaximum alternativeroutes (Bentley et al1987, p 10). Smallblocks give morechoice of routes thanlarge blocks. 1

• Enhance permeabilityby not absolutelysegregatingpedestrian andvehicular movement.

• Design forpermeability andaccess to occur atvisible entrances.

• Provide shortcuts tointermediate distancesubstitutes, such asbus, bicycle and taxi.

Establish appropriateinterfaces.

• The building facadeshould be linked tohuman activitiesalong the route toensure visibility ofpedestrians and thussurveillance of thestreet. Surveillance ofthe street should alsobe facilitated fromupper storeys. Theway this edge ismade will alsodetermine the feelingof the upper-storeyspace. 2

• Arcades provide adefined human spacebetween the buildingand the street.Arcades should alsoprovide shelteragainst bad weather.

Table 5.3.9: Vertical edges (continued)


Establish appropriateinterfaces (continued).

• Interfaces can ensurecoherence andinterest, and willprovide a visualstimulus to passers-by. Colonnades asinterface couldprovide a coherentsimple rhythm on theoutside (which relatesto fast-movingvehicles) andcomplexity on theinside (which relatesto pedestrians).

• Interface betweenpedestrians and carsshould be definedthrough a row of on-street parking orthrough landscaping(Untermann 1984,pp 25-28). 3

• Garbage receptaclesor unsightlyequipment should bescreened, especiallyfrom pedestrian-movement routes.

Ensure a unified andinteresting edge surfacedesign.

• Unify street designand street frontagesof buildings to createa special street withan identifiablecharacter. Newbuildings should fitinto the existingcontext and attentionshould be given tosimilar elements suchas roof lines, baywindows andwindow proportion(Moughtin 1992,p 2, 143). 4

• A number ofdistinctly identifiableelements alongroutes should beprovided, withcontinuity of shopfronts (Moughtin1992, pp 56-57). 5

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30





Create easy access to andfrom the street.

• Access for pedestriansand bicycles shouldbe made easy, whileaccess for vehiclesshould be moredifficult andcontrolled. Uselockable bollardswhere applicable. 1

• Access for vehiclesmust be madedifficult. 2


• In residentialdevelopments, it ispreferable not tohave any fences orwalls on the streetboundary. However,should fences be putup, it is proposedthat palisade fencingthat providemaximum visibility,be erected. Thisshould ensuresurveillance of thestreet. 3

• Transition frompublic to privatespace should beappropriately madethrough the provisionof perceptual locks.This will contribute tothe clear distinctionbetween anddefinition of publicand private spaces. 4


• To organise a unifiedcharacter, it isproposed that theinterface be designedas a single entity.

31




Pedestrian-orientated streets (continued)

Create easy access to andfrom the square.

• Provide direct accessto and continuedroutes through thesquare.1

• Design forpermeability with asmany shortcut routesthrough the squareas possible.1

• Link the square tomajor contextualroutes.1


• Establish a boundarywhich can be a wall,windowed façade ornatural features suchas trees. Do notdesign large expansesof blank walls.2

• The interface shouldaddress issues ofhuman comfort, suchas shelter from sun,wind and rain and achoice between sunand shade and publiclighting.2


• Enhance the sense ofenclosure with unityin walls and similararchitecturaltreatment ofbuildings (Moughtin1992, p 72). Localstyles and materialsshould be usedconsistently.3

• Squares should creatediscontinuity orinterruption in thebuilt form in order toprevent boredom.When approached atan angle, the effectcan be dynamic.3

Squares

32




Create easy access to andfrom the market.

• Edges of marketsshould providemaximumpermeability for easyaccess to and frommarket activities. 1

Create easy access to andfrom the parking area.

• Provide adequatestacking space forvehicles waiting toturn into the parkingarea.

• Provide amplededicated pedestrianroutes wherepedestrians canaccess the parkingarea.

• Conflict betweenpedestrians andautomobiles shouldbe reduced throughlocation and designof vehicular andpedestrian access toparking facilities. 1


• Design boundaries asmeeting placesbetween differentdomains. Theboundary should actas interface betweenpublic space andprivate space orbetween inside spaceand outside space.

• Design edges to beused for shelteragainst wind or rain.


• Plant shade trees inthe parking strip tocontinue the treesfound insurroundings.

Parking areas

Markets

Table 5.3.10: Horizontal surfaces

Mixed-mode streets

Ensure accessibility andconvenience fordifferent user groups.

• Paving materialsshould provide safewalking surfaces.

• Provide clearmarkings forpedestrian crossingsat intersections. 1

• Walking routesshould be provided aslevel as possible,avoiding unnecessarychanges in elevationthat can causeaccidents.

Create easy access to andfrom the stop or station.

• Enhance convenienceand safety throughprovision of the mostdirect pedestrianaccess to and frompublic transportfacilities.

• Reduce the walklength with short cutsto intensify activity,and to supportintermediate distancesubstitutes, such asbus, bicycle and taxi.




• Integrate bus or taxistops for shelter andsafety in the designof the interface ofthe adjacentbuilding.

• Interfaces such asoverhangs canprovide shelter toinformal traders orpeople waiting fortransport.


• Provide a landscapedsetback for ranks,depots and stationsfrom the street.

33



Create diversity andinterest.

• Pedestrian activityareas should receivespecial pavementtreatment withcoordinatingmaterials andpatterns to create aspecific character forthe precinct. 2

• Design simplecontinuous routeswith complex viewsespecially forpedestrian movement(Rapoport 1997, pp217-8). 3

• Planting andpavement treatmentin pedestrian streetsshould be related toactivities and uses inadjacent buildings.

• Street landscaping, inparticular, should beselected anddesigned accordingto a special theme fora given area,providing a sense ofplace in addition toits other amenities.

Consider specificconditions of surfaces.

• Functionality ofsurfaces in terms ofkinaesthetic elementssuch as change oflevel, curves withimplications forspeed of movementand tactile elementssuch as texture underfoot, should be takeninto account.

• Climatic elementssuch as air movementand extremetemperatures shouldbe considered. Sunexposure should beconsidered for earlymorning and lateafternoon.

34



Table 5.3.10: Horizontal surfaces (continued)

Mixed-mode streets


35




• Adequate provisionshould, for example,be made forparaplegics, elderswho want to sitdown and youthswho want to play.


• A combination of softand hard surfacesshould be provided,with certain surfacesbeing dedicated for amain use such as thecarrying of vehicles.However, secondaryuses should bepromoted anddesigned for.



• A variety of surfaces(hard and soft)should be providedto increase maximumchoice of use.

• Surfaces should be asmaintenance-free aspossible.

• Be aware of theinfluence of climaticconditions on chosensurfaces. Attentionshould, for example,be given tostormwater runoffand excessiveheating.

36





• Avoid sunken squareswith difficult access,which make peoplefeel uncomfortable.Keep squares level orjust slightly belowsidewalk grade.

• Ensure easy access forparaplegics to allfacilities around thesquare.

• Choose surfaces thatwill most likelyaccommodate sportsactivities such asroller-skating.


• Movement spaces aswell as resting placesshould form part ofthe route. Thedifferent kinds ofspaces should bereflected in thepaving pattern. 1


• Sunlight anddrainage must beevaluated andappropriatelyaddressed aslimitations orpotential assets indesign.


• Traders with trolleysshould be able to geteasy access to themarket.


• Demarcate positionof stalls throughdifferent pavingpatterns.


• Design surfaces foreasy cleaning.

Squares

Markets



• Provide dedicatedpedestrian walkwaysseparate from theparking surface,between the buildingand the parkingarea. 1


• For 30º, 45º and 60ºparking, the trianglein front of eachparking bay shouldbe landscaped. 2

• Brick paving, asopposed to concreteblocks or asphalt,should be consideredto provide a moreinteresting surfacetexture and pattern.


• Use landscaping andtrees to reduce theimpact of large areasof asphalt.

• Where appropriate,parking surfacescould consist of grassblocks to give asofter, parklikeimage.


• Provide for use ofstops and stations bywheelchairs anddisabled people.

• Pedestrian crossingsat stops should haveclear markings. Takeroad conditions,traffic intensity andspeed into account inthe detail design.

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• The paving patternshould assist indefining the publictransport stop as aunique public space.


Parking areas

38



General quantitative guidelines



• When it rains,surfaces should notgather water or bemuddy in order forpeople not to wait inthese conditions andthen board publictransport.

Public transport stops and stations (continued)

Table 5.3.11: Public furniture and signage

Provide functional andaesthetically pleasingpublic furniture.

• Provide adequatebicycle racks nearentries of buildingsto prevent vandalismor theft.

• Provide adequateseating space.Planters as part ofthe landscaping canalso be designed forthis purpose.

Coordinate signage. • Street signs and otherinformation signsshould be uniform toprovide a uniqueprecinct character.

• Signs should clearlyconvey their messagebut should be locatedand sized not toblock views to andfrom adjoiningbuildings. Theyshould also not beexcessive in size andnumber.

Mixed-mode streets

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• Furniture shouldsupport theenvisaged characterof the street.

• Furniture couldinclude fountains,litter bins, busshelters, benches,lighting or basketballrings, depending onthe context withinwhich the street issituated.

Coordinate signage. • Signage shouldsupport the creationof a unified characterfor the street andconvey informationto local residents. Anotice board could beused for thispurpose. 1

• Within a woonerftype of street,signage shouldmainly convey themessage to vehiclesthat they shoulddrive slowly, due to anumber of otherusers occupying thestreet for differentreasons.

• Within an arcade,signage will mainlybe geared topedestrians,indicating wherewhat can be found. 2

Table 5.3.11: Public furniture and signage (continued)


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• Some permanentbenches should bearranged in order forgroups of people totalk to one another.1

• A choice of seatingshould be considered,such as movablefurniture. Movablechairs make idealseating because eachuser can determinethe direction he orshe wants to face,and move it to gainprivacy, sit in or outof the sun or have abetter view.2

• Provide seating inpassive areas next toactive areas, toencourage people tolook towards eitherside. Design forinteraction amongpeople sitting down,and avoid conflictbetween peoplewalking and sitting.3

• Appropriate levels oflighting should beused to enhancesafety and accent andhighlight landscaping.Accent lighting,directed upwards intotrees, provides lowintensity, but oftendramatic illuminationof nearby pedestrianareas.4

• Use sustainablelighting featureswhere light energy isnot dispersed into theair.

• Regular intervals oflights should bemaintained andincorporated intostreetscapeimprovements.


Squares

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Provide functional andaesthetically pleasingpublic furniture(continued).

• Light poles andfixtures should fitinto and preserve thehistorical character ofthe streetscape.

Coordinate signage. • Provide informationthrough signage thatis colourful,interesting andtheme-based.


Squares (continued)


• Market facilities andservices should bespread evenly inclusters over themarket area, to beaccessible for all.

• Secondary spacesshould provide thesettings for thelocation of theseclusters of communalservices.

• Communal services tobe provided arestandpipes, solidwaste bins, publictelephones, publictoilets, and meteredelectricity dispensers.These should beintegrated.

• Electricity will beneeded for lightingor manufacturedappliances. Waterwill be needed toclean the marketarea, also whereanimals areslaughtered. Water isalso needed forlaundry or vegetableareas, washingbasins, cooking, andgeneral hygiene.

Markets

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• Provide adequateshelters against rain,sun and wind, ifpossible. 1

• Provide places forwaiting wherechange intransportation modestake place and atintersections.

• Provide space forresting, eating ordrinking whilewaiting fortransportation.

• Provide benches atbus stops or shelters.Comfortable designand location of streetfurniture shouldadhere to the needsof potential users.


• Any extensive publicinvestment in marketinfrastructure shouldrespond to marketdevelopment, ratherthan precede it(Behrens and Watson1996, p 217).

Markets (continued)


• Where parking areasabut the sidewalk, alandscaped setbackshould be provided,with adequatefurniture such asbenches.

Coordinate signage. • Signage to parkingareas should becoordinated withsignage of thebuilding or thestreet, depending onits direct relationship.

Parking areas


On-street parking. • In areas of high carownership, twovisitors’ parkingspaces should beprovided onsite, inaddition to on-streetparking.

• In areas of low carownership, on-streetparking may besufficient.

Pedestrian movement. • 4,5 m per personallows a clear view ofthe ground ahead,for comfortableadjustment to meetchanging conditions.This serves a capacityof 1 000 pedestriansper hour (Untermann1984, p 54). However,different contextswould allow fordifferent walkingspaces. 1

• Stairs reduce walkingspeed to about onethird the speed oflevel conditions andconstrict traffic flows.

Table 5.3.12: Ratios and thresholds


• Provide adequatelighting to improvesafety.

• Provide enough andappropriate litterbins.

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Integrate and coordinatesignage.

• Integrate signagewith shelters atpublic transportstops. 2


Public transport stops and stations (continued)

Mixed-mode streets

Specific quantitative guidelines

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Table 5.3.12: Ratios and thresholds (continued)

Walking space. • Walking on sidewalksand squares differ.On squares, thecrucial spatialdimension is squaremetres; the morespace available toadjust one’s route,the faster apedestrian can walk.Less than 1 m2 perperson can force apedestrian to stopand less than 0,5 m2

is totallyunacceptable. Thegreatest densitypossible per m2 is6 people. 1

Squares

Market size. • Markets that aredesigned to be small,with no capacity toexpand, very often failas they are too smallto attract customers.Markets shouldaccommodate at least70 operators to beeconomically viable(Behrens andWatson 1996, p 217).

Parking ratio per landuse.

• Dwelling unit of 1habitable room:1,0 space/unit.

• Dwelling unit of 2habitable rooms:1,0 space per unit.

• Dwelling unit of 3habitable rooms:1,25 spaces per unit.

• Dwelling unit of 4habitable rooms:1,5 spaces per unit.

• Visitors: 0,5 space perunit.

• Hotels and motels:1 space per habitableroom + 10 spaces per100 m2.

Markets

Parking areas

Table 5.3.12: Ratios and thresholds (continued)

Parking ratio per landuse (continued).

• Residential hotels,boarding houses, etc:0,6 spaces perhabitable room.

• Old-age homes,orphanages, etc: 0,3spaces per habitableroom.

Table 5.3.13: Dimensions and distances

Travelling distances. • Design short andnarrow residentialblocks of ± 100 m x30 m to ensurepermeability and easypedestrian access.

• Shoppers carryingpackages or tendingto children are moreaware of time anddistance than peoplewho linger. Keepwalking distance andmaximum length of awalkway up to amaximum of 140 m.

• 20% - 25% ofpersonal trips areunder 1,6 km inlength. 20% are 1,6to 3,2 km, with only12% - 15% being 3,2to 4,8 km. Thus,almost one half of allurban trips are lessthan four kilometreslong. This hasimplications for theintensity ofinformation to beprovided.

Landscaping. • Minimise the impactof parking areas onthe livingenvironment throughthe provision of atleast 1 shade tree per3 parking bays. 1

• 10% of the parkingarea should belandscaped.

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Parking areas (continued)

Mixed-mode streets

46



Table 5.3.13: Dimensions and distances

Travelling distances. • Human scale is lostwith a linkage longerthan 1 500 m(maximum distanceto establish vista).

Ramps and stairs. • Clear space of rampsshould not benarrower than 1,2 m,allowing a person in awheelchair to passanother person.Ramps should havecontinuous handrailsand should form anintegral part of thedesign of thebuilding, not merelybe an add-on.1

• Ramps can have aslope of between 5%(1:20) and 8% (1:12).

• For continuouswalkways, cross-slopesof 1:12 should beavoided, with apreferred slope of1:16.

• Stairs should beavoided where largevolumes of foot trafficmust beaccommodated. Onstairs, a railing shouldbe provided on atleast one side with aheight of at least 450mm (Untermann1984, pp 29, 41).


Ramps and stairs(continued).

• On stairways, the risein height should notexceed 165 mm. 1,1 mis recommended as aminimum stairwaywidth to allowpassing in theopposite direction.The ideal proportionsfor outside steps aredetermined by theindicated formula. 2

For long slopes, alevel rest-platformshould be installed ata maximum distanceof every 20 treads.This platform shouldbe long enough for aperson to walk threepaces, which isapproximately 1,8 m.

Sidewalk widths. • With walking onsidewalks, the widthis a crucial dimension,since passing ispossible only whenthere is enoughwidth to pass easily(Untermann 1984,pp 25-28).Recommended widthfor sidewalks inmixed usedevelopment is 3,5 mto 4,5 m, clear of anystreet furniture(Cartwright 1980, p 42).

Table 5.3.13: Dimensions and distances (continued)


Public furniture andlandscaping.

• The minimum heightfor signs overpavements should beno less than 2,1 m(Cartwright 1980,p 99).3

• Planters, kerbs, railsand other raisedsurfaces can be usedfor seating. Anyheight up to 600 mmwill work, with400 mm being thebest. A width of atleast 160 mm isappropriate.

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Public furniture andlandscaping (continued).

• Appropriate distancesof plants to be placedfrom the facade ofbuildings are thefollowing:

- Flowers andclimbers: 0,5 mto 1 m away;

- Substantialbushes:minimum 1 maway; and

- Small decorativetrees: minimum2 m away.

• The bigger theground surface of theplants, the wider thesidewalk should be toensure safety andease of movementfor pedestrians. 4



Widths and slopes. • The maximumgradient of bicycletracks should be 5%(1:20), with amaximum cross-fall of2,5% (1:40).

• The maximumgradient of footpathsshould be 1:12 andthe minimumgradient should be1:200 (forstormwater), with aminimum cross-fall of1:30 (3,3%).

• The minimum widthof dedicatedpedestrian walkwaysin these streets is0,8 m.

• When planting slopeswith grass, bear inmind that maximumslopes for mowingmachines should notexceed 1:1.5, whilefor tractors theyshould not exceed 1:3(Cartright 1980, p 13).



Widths and slopes(continued).

• The minimum widthof a one-way bicycletrack is 2,75 m andfor a two-way track itis 3,6 m (Cartwright1980, p 43).

• The maximum widthfor a dedicatedpedestrian walkwayis 12 m.

Distances. • To maintaincoherence and safety,the maximum lengthof a pedestrian-orientated streetshould be 140 m,which is themaximum distancefor discerning action.

Public furniture. • Bollards should notbe higher than 800 mm to avoidinterference withmotorists’ sight lines(Cartwright 1980,p 67).

• A distance of 1,20 mbetween bollards willbar any car fromaccess (Cartwright1980, p 67). 1

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