GUIDELINES FOR

Fire Protection in Chemical,Petrochemical, and HydrocarbonProcessing Facilities

Center for Chemical Process Safetyof the

American Institute of Chemical Engineers3 Park Avenue, New York, NY 10016-5991

Copyright © 2003American Institute of Chemical Enginers3 Park AvenueNew York, New York 10016-5991

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, orotherwise without the prior permission of the copyright owner. AIChE™and CCPS® aretrademarks owned by the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. These trademarks may notbe used without the prior express written consent of the American Institute of ChemicalEngineers. The use of this product in whole or in part for commercial use is prohibited withoutprior express written consent of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. To obtainappropriate license and permission for such use contact Scott Berger, 212-591-7237,scotb@AIChE.org.

CCPS Publication Number G-83

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Guidelines for fire protection in chemical, petrochemical, andhydrocarbon processing facilities.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-8169-0898-2 (Hardcover)1. Chemical plants—Fires and fire prevention. 2. Chemicals—Fires

and fire prevention. I. American Institute of Chemical Engineers.Center for Chemical Process Safety. II. Title.

TH9445.C47G85 2003660’.2804—dc22

2003017934

It is sincerely hoped that the information presented in this volume will lead to an even more impressive safetyrecord for the entire industry. However, the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, its consultants, CCPSSubcommittee members, their employers, and their employers’ officers and directors and RRS Engineeringdisclaim making or giving any warranties or representations, express or implied, including with respect tofitness, intended purpose, use or merchantability, and/or correctness or accuracy of the content of theinformation presented in this document. As between (1) American Institute of Chemical Engineers, itsconsultants, CCPS Subcommittee members, their employers, and their employers’ officers and directors andRRS Engineering (2) the user of this document accepts any legal liability or responsibility whatsoever for theconsequences of its use or misuse.

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

PREFACE

The American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) has helped chemicalplants, petrochemical plants, and refineries address the issues of process safetyand loss control for over 30 years. Through its ties with process designers, plantconstructors, facility operators, safety professionals, and academia, the AIChEhas enhanced communication and fostered improvement in the high safetystandards of the industry. AIChE’s publications and symposia have become aninformation resource for the chemical engineering profession on the causes ofincidents and means of prevention.

The Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS), a directorate of AIChE,was established in 1985 to develop and disseminate technical information foruse in the prevention of major chemical accidents. The CCPS is supported by adiverse group of industrial sponsors in the chemical process industry andrelated industries who provide the necessary funding and professional guid-ance for its projects. The CCPS Technical Steering Committee and the techni-cal subcommittees oversee individual projects selected by the CCPS.Professional representatives from sponsoring companies staff the subcommit-tees and a member of the CCPS staff coordinates their activities.

Since its founding, the CCPS has published many volumes in its “Guide-lines” series and in smaller “Concept” texts. Although most CCPS books arewritten for engineers in plant design and operations and address scientific tech-niques and engineering practices, several guidelines cover subjects related tochemical process safety management. A successful process safety programrelies upon committed managers at all levels of a company who view processsafety as an integral part of overall business management and act accordingly.

A team of fire protection experts from the chemical industry drafted thechapters for this guideline and provided real world examples to illustrate some

xv

of the tools and methods used in their profession. The subcommittee membersreviewed the content extensively and industry peers evaluated this book tohelp ensure it represents a factual accounting of industry best practices.

xvi Preface

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The American Institute of Chemical Engineers wishes to thank the Center forChemical Process Safety (CCPS) and those involved in its operation, includingits many sponsors whose funding made this project possible; the members of itsTechnical Steering Committee who conceived of and supported this Guide-lines project, and the members of its Fire Protection Subcommittee.

If this Guideline prevents one chemical, petrochemical, or hydrocarbonprocessing facility fire, the efforts of all those involved in preparing this work willbe deeply recognized and rewarded.

The members of the CCPS Fire Protection Subcommittee were:

Robert M. Rosen, Chair, BASF CorporationSiegfried Fiedler, BASF CorporationGene Hortz, Rohm & Haas CompanyDuncan L. Hutcheon, ExxonMobilJoel Krueger, BP AmocoJohn Sepahpur, ChevronTexaco Energy Research & Technology CompanyJohn Sharland, FM GlobalWilliam A. Thornberg, Industrial Risk InsurersDella Wong, Aon Reed StenhouseJeffrey Yuill, Starr Technical Risks Agency, Inc.

John Davenport was the CCPS staff liaison and was responsible for overalladministration of the project. Additional contributors to the subcommitteewere Charles E. Fryman, FMC, and Dave Moore, Acutech.

Risk, Reliability and Safety Engineering (RRS), of League City, Texas(www.rrseng.com) was contracted to write this guideline. The principal RRSauthors of this guideline were:

xvii

John Alderman, PE, CSPBill Effron, CSPChristy FranklynTim McNamaraAdditional RRS staff that supported this project includes Donna Hamilton,

Marlon Harding, Ted Low, and Tom Lawrence.Daniel T. Gottuk, PhD and Joseph Scheffey, PE of Hughes Associates were

the primary authors of Chapter 5.CCPS would like to thank Bud Slye, PE, Loss Control Associates, who pro-

vided technical quality review.CCPS also gratefully acknowledges the comments and suggestions

received from the following peer reviewers; their insights, comments, and sug-gestions helped ensure a balanced perspective to this Guideline:

Dr. Ezikpe Akuma, New Jersey Department of Environmental ProtectionReginald Baldini, New Jersey Department of Environmental ProtectionMichael P. Broadribb, BP America, Inc.Keith L. Farmer, DuPont Engineering TechnologiesLes Fowler, BASF CorporationEric Lenoir, AIU-EnergyDarren Martin, Shell Chemical CompanyLisa M. Morrison, NOVA Chemicals, Inc.Dave Owen, Exxon-MobilAsit Ray, New Jersey Department of Environmental ProtectionThomas Scherpa, DuPont Engineering TechnologiesMilt Wooldridge, MRW & Associates, Inc.

The members of the CCPS Fire Protection Subcommittee and the peerreviewers wish to thank their employers for allowing them to participate in thisproject.

xviii Acknowledgments

ACRONYMS

ALARP As low as reasonably practicalAIChE American Institute of Chemical EngineersAISC American Institute of Steel ConstructionAHJ Authority Having JurisdictionANSI American National Standards InstituteAPI American Petroleum InstituteBI Business InterruptionBLEVE Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor ExplosionCCPS Center for Chemical Process SafetyCFD Computational Fluid DynamicsCFR Code of Federal RegistryCMPT Center for Marine and Petroleum TechnologyDCS Distributed Control SystemDOT Department of TransportationEANS Emergency Alarm Notification SystemEHS Environmental, Health, and SafetyEOC Emergency Operations CenterEPA Environmental Protection AgencyERP Emergency Response PlanERT Emergency Response TeamFCC Fluid Catalytic Cracking (Unit)FHA Fire Hazard AnalysisFMEA Failure Mode and Effects AnalysisFM Factory MutualFPS Fire Protection StrategyFRP Fiberglass Reinforced PlasticGRP Glass Reinforced Plastic

xix

HVAC Heating, Ventilating, and Air ConditioningHAZID Hazard IdentificationHAZOP Hazard and Operability StudyHSSD High Sensitivity Smoke DetectionHAZMAT Hazardous MaterialICS Incident Command SystemIEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics EngineersI/O Input/OuputIR Industrial RiskLEPC Local Emergency Planning CommitteeLFL Lower Flammability LimitLOPA Layer of Protection AnalysisLPG Liquefied Petroleum GasMERITT Maximizing EHS Returns by Integrating Tools and TalentsMFL Maximum Foreseeable LossMOC Management of ChangeMSDS Material Safety Data SheetNICET National Institute for Certification in Engineering TechnologiesNFPA National Fire Protection AssociationNLE Normal Loss EstimateNOAA National Oceanic and Atmosphere AdministrationOSHA Occupational Safety Hazard AssociationP&ID Piping and Instrumentation DrawingPC Personal ComputerPDA Personal Digital AssistantPE Professional EngineerPHA Process Hazard AnalysisPML Probable Maximum LossPFD Process Flow DiagramsPPE Personal Protective EquipmentPSM Process Safety ManagementPVC Polyvinyl ChlorideRMS Risk Management SystemRP Recommended PracticeRVP Reid Vapor PressureSFPE Society of Fire Protection EngineersSI Standard InstrumentationSIS Safety Instrumented SystemUFL Upper Flammability LimitUL Underwriters LaboratoriesUK United KingdomVCE Vapor Cloud Explosion

xx Acronyms

CONTENTS

Preface xvAcknowledgments xviiAcronyms xix

1Introduction

1.1. Scope 21.2. Who Will Benefit from This Guideline? 3

1.2.1. What Is Fire Protection? 51.2.2. Examples 5

1.3. Relation to Other CCPS Guidelines and Resources 5

2Management Overview

2.1. Management Commitment 72.2. Integration with Other Management Systems 82.3. Balancing Protection 82.4. Cost-Benefit 9

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3Fire Protection Strategy

3.1. Key Factors in a Fire Protection Strategy 113.1.1. Acceptable Loss 133.1.2. Cost of Fires 143.1.3. Insurance Coverage 163.1.4. Installed Systems versus Emergency Response 183.1.5. Prescriptive versus Performance-Based Design 20

3.2. Developing a Fire Protection Strategy 213.3. Integration with Other Management Systems 233.4. Integration with the Lifecycle of a Facility 23

3.4.1. Design 243.4.2. Construction and Commissioning 263.4.3. Operations 283.4.4. Decommissioning 28

4Overview of Fire Prevention Elements

4.1. Audit Program 304.1.1. The Audit Process 304.1.2. Qualifications and Staffing 314.1.3. Frequency of Audits 314.1.4. Application to Fire Protection 32

4.2. Layout and Spacing 324.3. Control of Ignition Sources 33

4.3.1. Electrical Area Classification 334.3.2. Personal Ignition Sources 334.3.3. Hot Work 344.3.4. Static Electricity 35

4.4. Employee Training 364.5. Housekeeping 37

4.5.1. Housekeeping Program 374.5.2. Process Area Housekeeping 384.5.3. Dust Control 394.5.4. Inappropriate Storage and Handling 394.5.5. Housekeeping and Equipment 404.5.6. Cleaning Materials 40

vi Contents

4.6. Incident Investigation 414.6.1. Incident Investigation Process 414.6.2. Application to Fire Prevention 41

4.7. Inherently Safer Design 424.8. Plant Maintenance 43

4.8.1. Poor Maintenance 434.8.2. Good Maintenance Program Elements 44

4.9. Management of Change 454.9.1. Personnel Changes 454.9.2. Process Changes 464.9.3. Maintenance Turnarounds 46

4.10. Material Hazards 474.10.1. Materials Hazard Evaluation Program 474.10.2. Material Safety Data Sheets 47

4.11. Alarm and Surveillance 484.11.1. Security 49

5Fire Hazard Analysis

5.1. Hazardous Chemicals and Processes 545.2. Recognize What You Want to Understand 575.3. Identification of Inventories 575.4. Define Fire Scenarios 585.5. Calculate Potential Fire Hazard 59

5.5.1. Ignition and Combustion 595.5.2. Heat Transfer 605.5.3. Fire Growth and Heat Release 605.5.4. Solid Materials 615.5.5. Enclosure Effects 61

5.6. Flash Fires 615.7. Fireballs 625.8. Liquid or Pool Fires 63

5.8.1. Release Rate 645.8.2. Pool Size 645.8.3. Flame Height 655.8.4. Duration of Burning Pools 665.8.5. Heat Transfer 685.8.6. Convective Heat Transfer above the Plume 68

Contents vii

5.9. Gas and Jet Fires 735.9.1. Estimating Discharge Rates 735.9.2. Jet Flame Size 755.9.3. Heat Transfer 765.9.4. Radiative Exposure 78

5.10. Solid Fires 805.11. Fire Impact to Personnel, Structures, and Equipment 80

5.11.1. Impact to Personnel 805.11.2. Impact to Structures 835.11.3. Thermal and Nonthermal Impact on Electrical and Electronic Equipment 895.11.4. Impact on the Environment 89

5.12. Examples 905.12.1. Example—Warehouse Pool Fire (Indoor) 905.12.2. Example—Process Jet Fire 925.12.3. Example—Storage Tank Fire 945.12.4. Example—Flowing Pool Fire 97

6Fire Risk Assessment

6.1. Fire Risk Assessment Overview 996.2. Fire Risk Assessment Methodology 100

6.2.1. Process Information 1026.2.2. Fire Hazard Identification 1026.2.3. Fire Hazard Analysis 1036.2.4. Likelihood 1046.2.5. Risk 1116.2.6. Other Risks 1156.2.7. Risk Tolerance 1176.2.8. Risk Reduction Measures 1196.2.9. Reassessment of Risk 120

7Fire Protection Fundamentals

7.1. General Design Criteria 1227.1.1. Automatic versus Manual Activation 1227.1.2. Isolation 1237.1.3. Depressurization 124

viii Contents

7.1.4. Approved/Listed Equipment 1267.1.5. Qualification and Competence of Personnel 1277.1.6. Life Safety 128

7.2. Fire Control 1327.2.1. Type of Fires 1327.2.2. General Control Methods 133

7.3. Passive Protection Systems 1407.3.1. Spacing and Layout 1407.3.2. Fireproofing 1437.3.3. Containment and Drainage 1547.3.4. Electrical Area Classification 1577.3.5. Ventilation/Exhaust 1637.3.6. Static Electricity, Lightning, and Stray Current Protection 163

7.4. Active Protection Systems 1667.4.1. Water Supply 1667.4.2. Fire Water Demand 1697.4.3. Water Distribution 1707.4.4. Fire Water Pumps 1757.4.5. Detection and Alarm 1827.4.6. Gas Sensing Detectors 1937.4.7. Sprinklers 1967.4.8. Water Spray Systems 2027.4.9. Water Mist Systems 2077.4.10. Foam Systems 2097.4.11. Foam–Water Deluge and Water Spray Systems 2197.4.12. Clean Agents 2197.4.13. Carbon Dioxide Systems 2217.4.14. Dry Chemical 2247.4.15. Steam Snuffing 2267.4.16. Portable Fire Suppression Equipment 226

8Specific Design Guidance

8.1. Process 2348.1.1. Process Structures and Areas 2348.1.2. Drainage and Containment for Process Structures and Areas 2388.1.3. Flammable Gas Detection Systems 2468.1.4. Fixed Fire Detection 2508.1.5. Fire Protection 2518.1.6. Structural Steel Protection 255

Contents ix

8.1.7. Manual Firefighting Equipment 2628.1.8. Process Vessels 2638.1.9. Columns, Scrubbers, and Reactors 2648.1.10. Isolation Valves 2678.1.11. Fired Heaters 2678.1.12. Heat Exchangers 2728.1.13. Pumps 2738.1.14. Compressors 2748.1.15. Cable Trays 2778.1.16. Pipe Racks and Piping 2808.1.17. Pipe Trenches 281

8.2. Storage 2828.2.1. Storage Tanks 2828.2.2. Unstable/Reactive Material Storage 2978.2.3. Outdoor Storage 297

8.3. Buildings 3008.3.1. Control Buildings 3018.3.2. Computer Rooms 3058.3.3. Laboratories 3078.3.4. MCCs, Substation Rooms, and Buildings 3098.3.5. Clean Rooms 3108.3.6. Warehouse Protection 3118.3.7. Temporary Buildings and Office Trailers 314

8.4. Loading Racks and Marine Terminals 3148.4.1. General 3158.4.2. Loading Racks 3168.4.3. Marine Terminals 318

8.5. Utilities 3208.5.1. Cooling Towers 3208.5.2. Air Compressors 3228.5.3. Electric Generators 3228.5.4. Boilers and Thermal Oxidizers 3238.5.5. Transformers 3238.5.6. Waste Handling 324

9Installation of Fire Protection Systems

9.1. Approval Process 3279.1.1. External 3279.1.2. Internal 329

x Contents

9.2. Sequence 3299.3. Timing 3299.4. Selection of Installation Contractors 3309.5. Installing the System 3309.6. Monitoring of the Installation 3319.7. Managing Field Modifications During Installation 3319.8. Acceptance Testing 331

9.8.1. Water Supply Systems 3329.8.2. Fire Water Pumps 3369.8.3. Water Tanks 3369.8.4. Sprinkler Systems 3369.8.5. Water Spray Systems 3399.8.6. Carbon Dioxide Systems 3409.8.7. Foam–Water Sprinklers and Water Spray Systems 3409.8.8. Clean Agent Systems 3419.8.9. Foam Systems 341

10Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance

10.1. Ownership of Fire Protection Systems 34310.2. Qualifications of Personnel 345

10.2.1. Fire Protection Focal Point 34510.2.2. Inspection Personnel 34510.2.3. Testing and Maintenance Personnel 34510.2.4. Fire Protection Service Companies 345

10.3. Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance Programs 34610.3.1. Inspections 34710.3.2. Testing 34810.3.3. Maintenance 34810.3.4. Identification of Deficiencies 34810.3.5. Frequencies of Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance 34910.3.6. Documentation of Inspection and Testing 34910.3.7. Impairment Handling 349

10.4. Inspection and Testing Requirements 35010.4.1. Fire Protection Systems and Equipment Covered 35010.4.2. Water-Based 35010.4.3. Fire Water Distribution System 35010.4.4. Fire Pumps 350

Contents xi

10.4.5. Foam Systems 35310.4.6. Portable Fire Extinguishers 35410.4.7. Dry Chemical Extinguishing Systems 35510.4.8. Carbon Dioxide Extinguishing Systems 35610.4.9. Clean Agent Systems 35610.4.10. Mobile Fire Equipment 35710.4.11. Fireproofing 357

10.5. Inspection Checklist Examples 358

11Fire Emergency Response

11.1. Considerations for Emergency Response Organizations 36011.1.1. Response Effectiveness 36011.1.2. Management Issues 36011.1.3. Cost Evaluation Factors 360

11.2. Develop Organization Plan 36011.3. Outside Responders 363

11.3.1. Integration of the Facility and CommunityResponse Organization ICS 364

11.4. Training and Drills 36711.4.1. Training 36711.4.2. Drills and Exercises 37211.4.3. Critiques 372

11.5. Notification 37311.6. Operating Procedures for Fire

Emergency Response Equipment 37411.7. Fire Pre-Plans 374

ACase Histories

Introduction 379Case History 1 Large Vessel Explosion 381Case History 2: Pipe Rupture Leads to an LPG Tank BLEVE 382Case History 3: Fire Turns into an Ecological Disaster 383Case History 4: Exchanger Leaks, Burns Cooling Tower 384Case History 5: Insufficient Sprinkler Density 386

xii Contents

Case History 6: Jet Fire 388Case History 7: Internal Column Fire 389Case History 8: Electrical and Instrumentation Room Explosion 390

BUnderstanding Fires

B1. Introduction 393B2. Fire Triangle 394

B2.1. Fuel 395B2.2. Oxygen 395B2.3. Heat 396

B3. Common Terms for the Flammability of Materials 396B3.1. Flash Point 397B3.2. Fire Point 398B3.3. Flammability Limits 399B3.4. Autoignition 400B3.5. Minimum Ignition Energy 401B3.6. Burning Velocity 401B3.7. Stoichiometric Ratio 401

B4. Modes of Heat Transfer 402B4.1. Conduction 402B4.2. Convection 403B4.3. Radiation 404

B5. Effects of Fire Confinement 405B5.1. Confinement of Combustion Products 406B5.2. Restrictions to Ventilation 406B5.3. Heat Fluxes Within the Module 406

B6. Hazardous Chemicals and Processes 407B6.1. Gases 408B6.2. Liquids 408B6.3. Hazardous Chemicals 409B6.4. Other Hazardous Effects 410B6.5. Process Fires 410

CComputer Tools for Design

C1. Introduction 413

Contents xiii

C2. Evolution of Computer Fire Modeling 413C3. Computer Model Applications 414C4. Compartment Fire Simulations 415

C4.1. The Zone Model 415C4.2. The Field Model 416C4.3. The Post-Flashover Model 417

C5. Egress/Evacuation Models 417C6. Smoke Movement Models 418C7. Thermal/Structural Response Models 418C8. Conglomerate/Miscellaneous Fire Models 419C9. Fire Models and Analytical Tools Specific to the Petrochemical Industry 420

C9.1. Public Domain/Unrestricted 420C9.2. Restricted 420

DSample Fire Pre-Plan 423

References

American Petroleum Institute (API) References 427Center for Chemical Process Safety (CCPS) References 428National Fire Protection Association References 429General References 432

Glossary 439

Index 447

xiv Contents

1INTRODUCTION

This Guideline provides tools to develop, implement, and integrate a fire pro-tection program into a company’s or facility’s Risk Management System. Figure1-1 highlights the guidance provided in this Guideline.

For the thirty-year period of 1970 through 1999, 116 fires resulted inlarge-scale property damage (greater than $10MM) in the hydrocarbon andpetrochemical onshore industries, and totaled over 4.5 billion dollars adjustedfor year 2000 dollars (Marsh Risk Consulting, 2001). This is an average ofapproximately 39 million US dollars per occurrence, and includes losses inrefineries, petrochemical plants, gas plants, marine terminals, and offshore oiland gas operations. Consequential business losses are two to three timesproperty damage losses.

During the five-year period of 1995 to 2000, 50 large-scale fire losses haveresulted in losses totaling approximately 2 billion dollars, or an average of 40million dollars per occurrence. These numbers indicate that although the aver-age dollar loss per occurrence is about the same for both time frames, thenumber of large losses is increasing. These incidents reinforce the importanceof utilizing a systematic approach for addressing fire hazards in the hydrocar-bon and petrochemical industries.

A Risk Management System (RMS)1 is vital for effective loss prevention.Fire protection is an essential part of an RMS. Appropriately designed, installed,and maintained fire protection systems are paramount to mitigating the directconsequences, and preventing the escalation, of fires in processing facilities.

1

1 Some companies use the term Hazard Management System or HSE Management System.

1.1. Scope

Information on fire protection codes and standards are available from severalsources, including the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), the Societyof Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE), the Fire Suppression Systems Association(FSSA), and the American Petroleum Institute (API). Jurisdictions that providerequirements for fire protection include federal, state, and local agencies. ThisGuideline bridges the regulatory requirements and industry standards withpractical application and provides:

� A useful tool for making fire protection decisions� Specific examples of fire protection criteria

While life safety issues are not a primary focus of this Guideline, they are anintegral part of good fire protection design.2

There is a very close relationship between fires and explosions. In manyinstances, an explosion is the initial event, followed by a significant fire. Some-times the fire can be the trigger that causes the explosion, such as a BoilingLiquid Expanding Vapor Explosion (BLEVE). This Guideline does not addressthe prevention of explosions, methods to quantify the severity of explosion, orexplosion suppression techniques. Explosions are specifically addressed in

2 1. Introduction

Figure 1-1. Fire Protection Guidance in This Guideline

2 For additional information on life safety issues, refer to NFPA 101.

Guidelines for Evaluating the Characteristics of Vapor Cloud Explosions, FlashFires, and BLEVEs (CCPS, 1994) and Understanding Explosions (CCPS, 2003a).

1.2. Who Will Benefit from This Guideline?

Because fire protection is an important aspect of risk management and loss pre-vention, this Guideline will benefit many different people within an organization.

� Corporate Leadership—Senior executives define the basis for the devel-opment of fire protection philosophies. Their commitment and recogni-tion of the value of fire protection is vital to integration into an RMS andimplementation of fire protection strategies.

� Site Managers—Site Managers are responsible for developing and main-taining the facility’s fire protection philosophy and strategies.

� Line Management—Line Managers are responsible for maintaining fireprotection systems and for assuring personnel are trained on their use.Line Managers are the champions of a facility’s entire RMS. They ensurethat policies and procedures, including fire protection, are integratedand implemented. They also ensure that fire protection systems aretested and maintained.

� Project Managers—Project Managers are responsible for executing pro-jects, usually from design through startup and commissioning. A ProjectManager is responsible for determining the basic fire protection designconcepts to apply in the execution of a project. The Project Manager isresponsible for implementing the decisions and abiding by the projectprocedures associated with amending and adding to the fire protectionsystem.

� Engineers—Engineers are responsible for specifying and designing fireprotection systems that meet their company’s fire protection require-ments. This still leaves room for making decisions when designing fireprotection systems and knowledge of performance vs. prescriptivemethods is beneficial.

� HSE Professionals—Health, Safety, and Environmental (HSE) Profes-sionals provide technical guidance to engineers and typically are in anassurance role for fire protection systems.

All fire protection decision makers will benefit from this Guideline.

Figure 1-2 provides an overview of the contents of this Guideline and alsoprovides examples of how each Chapter can assist in establishing fire protec-tion programs, fire protection decision making, design, installation, etc.

1.2. Who Will Benefit from This Guideline? 3

4 1. Introduction

Figure 1-2. Guideline Overview and Contents

1.2.1. What Is Fire Protection?

This Guideline focuses on fire protection. For the purpose of this Guideline, fireprotection and fire prevention are defined as:

� Fire Protection—The science of reducing loss of life and property fromfire by control and extinguishment. Fire protection includes fire preven-tion, detection of a fire, providing systems to control or mitigate the fire,and providing manual firefighting capabilities.

� Fire Prevention—Activities whose purpose is to prevent fires from start-ing. Fire protection and fire prevention go hand-in-hand. All fire protec-tion programs include a fire prevention program. For example, controlof ignition sources is very important in minimizing the risk of fire, butdoes not meet the definition of fire protection in this Guideline.

Much of process safety deals with the prevention of catastrophic events,such as fires and explosions. This is accomplished by containing hazardousmaterials within the process system. The Center for Chemical Process Safety(CCPS) has developed many Guidelines that assist companies in this effort (seeSection 1.3 and References).

1.2.2. Examples

Fire protection is often driven by the likelihood of potential consequences.Examples of incidents resulting in fire are provided in Table 1-1.

1.3. Relation to Other CCPS Guidelines and Resources

Other CCPS Guidelines provide additional resources for topics discussed in thisGuideline. Some of these include:

Guidelines for Engineering Design for Process Safety

Guidelines for Evaluating the Characteristics of Vapor Cloud Explosions, FlashFires, and BLEVEs

Guidelines for Facility Siting and Layout

Guidelines for Technical Planning for Onsite Emergencies

Guidelines for Integrating Process Safety Management, Environment, Safety,Health and Quality

Guidelines for Technical Management of Process Safety

Guidelines for Safe Warehousing of Chemicals

1.3. Relation to Other CCPS Guidelines and Resources 5

Additional resources include the National Fire Protection Association(NFPA), the Society for Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE), Fire Suppression Sys-tems Association (FSSA), and the American Petroleum Institute (API). Refer tothe References section of this Guideline for specific resources.

6 1. Introduction

Table 1-1Examples of Major Fire Incidents

Year / Location Incident Description

1984Mexico City, Mexico

LPG Terminal—A major fire and series of catastrophic BoilingLiquid Expanding Vapor Explosions (BLEVEs) killed 500 peopleand destroyed the LPG terminal.

1998New Brunswick, Canada

Process Facility—A fire originated in the feed heater of ahydrocracker and resulted in one fatality and significant damageto a Hydrocracking Unit.

1998Ras Gharib, Egypt

Terminal—16 tanks, containing approximately 30,000 barrels ofcrude oil each, caught fire after being struck by lightning.

1999California, USA

Process Facility—A fire in a process unit resulted in threefatalities, significant downtime, and public scrutiny of refineryoperations.

2000Ohio, USA

Warehouse—A pharmaceutical warehouse fire resulted indamage to adjacent warehouses and a total property loss of 100million dollars.

2MANAGEMENT OVERVIEW

Fire protection is a science that stretches as far back as the Roman Empire. Theaqueducts and the Corp of Vigilantes gave the Romans what they needed forfire protection and control. Through the years, the practice of fire protectionhas evolved from a problem-solving approach to a mature, systematic disci-pline.

Most processing facilities, due to the materials being handled, have a highpotential for loss due to fire. Management teams (like individuals) tend tobelieve that major incidents, such as fires, are unlikely to occur at their facility.This perception is not accurate. The statistics related to the number of fires donot vary widely year-to-year and losses continue to occur. To effectively imple-ment a fire protection program, it is important to understand that a significantloss is possible. Top management personnel should view fire protection as abenefit - an integral part of the recovery of operations after an incident - and notjust as a cost.

This book will assist organizations in making informed, risk-based deci-sions to determine the appropriate level of fire protection.

2.1. Management Commitment

All responsible organizations will have a fire protection program to protect theirassets. For some, it may be fire extinguishers in the warehouse; while for othersit is a department of professionals supplementing numerous automatic firedetection and suppression systems. Due to the nature of the program, it is oftennecessary to involve several individuals, each having a specific, assignedresponsibility.

7

Management commitment to support the fire protection program is nec-essary if fire protection is to be available when needed. The commitmentincludes ensuring adequate staffing, resources, and technical support is pro-vided. While fire protection is included with new capital projects, sufficientresources to maintain these systems must be included in the facility’s budget formaintenance.

Management has a responsibility to fully define the roles and responsibili-ties of each individual. These duties should not be assigned as an add-on or leftto chance as this creates the impression that fire protection is not a priorityissue. No matter the size of the organization nor the complexity of the program,the need for an effective fire protection program is always present.

2.2. Integration with Other Management Systems

While the implementation of risk management systems may vary from com-pany to company, they are a fundamental activity in the chemical, petrochemi-cal, and hydrocarbon processing industries. A company’s approach to riskmanagement reflects its beliefs and values.

An organization needs to develop a strategy for fire protection. This allowsfor cost-effective and efficient implementation and continuous improvementin fire protection systems. This strategy must be reviewed and updated periodi-cally because of the many changes that take place within processing industries.

A strategy for fire protection is only one part of an overall framework ofguidance to allow consistent, methodical evaluation and management of haz-ards and risk. There are many ways to approach risk management; however astrategy and procedures for fire protection must be established and followed.

2.3. Balancing Protection

Three factors contribute to the extent of any fire loss. The first involves an act,omission, or system failure allowing an ignition source and fuel to combine.The second involves the potential for continued fire growth and escalation. Thethird factor is extinguishment.

Providing the right level of protection can be a delicate balancing act.Overprotection results in unnecessary capital expenditure and higher ongoingcosts. The larger the system and the more complex its components, the morecapital will need to be invested and the greater the requirements for training onfire protection system operations, testing, and maintenance. Overprotectionmay result in an over confidence in the ability of the system to address all situa-tions and a subsequent deterioration in readiness. There are minimum require-

8 2. Management Overview

ments for maintaining each system and the more systems or more complex thesystem, the more maintenance that is required.

While less protection may initially reduce the capital investment and theongoing maintenance costs, the additional risk to company assets, employees,the environment, and the public could be substantial. The potential for escala-tion increases due to the lack of fire protection systems. Should a companychoose less protection, potential adverse affects such as damage to reputation,increased insurance costs, loss of business and customers, as well as possiblecharges of criminal negligence could become a factor in the event of anincident.

2.4. Cost-Benefit

The use of cost-benefit analysis plays an important role in the decision-makingprocess for fire protection systems. A cost-benefit analysis sums the expectedbenefits and is divided by the sum of the expected costs. A challenge often liesin determining what “expected” means and estimating the value of moneyover the time period the fire protection is in use. In fire protection, theexpected benefits can be defined as the difference between the cost of a losswithout protection and the cost of a loss with protection. The expected costsinclude the initial costs of the fire protection as well as any annual testing andmaintenance costs. The likelihood of an incident is factored in to obtain resid-ual risk. This residual risk is compared to the benefit to determine what benefitis available each year versus the annualized cost.

2.4. Cost-Benefit 9

3FIRE PROTECTION STRATEGY

Management of risk is a fundamental activity of companies in the chemical,petrochemical, and hydrocarbon processing industries. Most companies havedeveloped a formal strategy of how risks will be managed. These strategiesreflect relevant corporate beliefs and values.

The way these strategies are implemented may vary from company tocompany, but come under the classification of a Risk Management System(RMS), which is the nomenclature used in this guideline. An RMS provides aframework of guidance to allow consistent and methodical evaluation andmanagement of hazards and risk. A fire protection strategy is considered anintegral part of an RMS. There are many ways to approach the development ofan RMS, however key decisions must be made and strategies established.Figure 3-1 illustrates an example of an RMS and how a fire protection strategyfits within an RMS.

The objectives of this Chapter are to clarify the considerations involved indeveloping a fire protection strategy and provide guidance on how that strategycan be integrated into other management systems.

Section 3.1 discusses key factors a company may consider in the develop-ment of their fire protection strategy. Section 3.2 discusses how to develop afire protection strategy. Section 3.3 discusses the need for integration withother facility management systems and Section 3.4 outlines the need for fireprotection through the lifecycle of the facility.

3.1. Key Factors in a Fire Protection Strategy

Key factors that should be reviewed by a company in determining their fire pro-tection strategy are discussed in this section. These factors will assist company

management in determining their approach to fire protection. Determining anappropriate fire protection strategy involves considering and balancing anumber of technical and economical factors, including:

� Protection of personnel

� Environmental impact

� Impact on national economy

� Value of a business

� Nature and cost of major incidents that could potentially occur

� Potential business interruption

� Loss of market share

� Loss of company reputation

� Amount of loss acceptable to company

� Insurance coverage limits (risk transfer)

� Type of fixed fire protection, automatic or manual, passive or active

� Emergency response capabilities

� Maintenance and testing capabilities

12 3. Fire Protection Strategy

Figure 3.1. Integration of Fire Protection into a Risk Management System

These factors can be highly interrelated and should not be consideredindividually. Figure 3-2 illustrates key factors of a fire protection strategy thatwill be discussed in this guideline.

3.1.1. Acceptable Loss

One approach in beginning the development of a fire protection strategy is todefine the level of risk that the company is able or willing to accept. Acceptableloss is defined as the cost of a loss event (repair/replacement, including demoli-tion and debris removal, plus consequential business loss) that is within thecapability of the company, business unit, or division to absorb financially andculturally. This loss can be retained within the company or partially transferredto others through insurance.

For example, a company, based on financial requirements, may choose alow deductible ($1 million/incident); another company, with different financialrequirements, may elect a higher deductible ($5 - $10 million). For businessinterruption (BI), market conditions may influence the need for insurance cov-erage. For example, when capacity is high, a company may elect to have BIcoverage, however, if market conditions are weak, BI coverage may not bewarranted.

3.1. Key Factors in a Fire Protection Strategy 13

Figure 3.2. Key Factors of a Fire Protection Strategy