guide to living birds

Guide to

LIVING BIRDS

J. E. WEBB Professor of Zoology, Westfield College,

University of London

J. A. WALLWORK Reader in Zoology, Westfield College,

University of London

J. H. ELGOOD Formerly Associate Professor of Zoology,

University of lbadan, Nigeria

M

© J. E. Webb, J. A. Wallwork and J. H. Elgood 1979

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission

First published 1979 by THE MACMILLAN PRESS L TO London and Basingstoke Associated companies in Delhi Dublin Hong Kong Johannesburg Lagos Melbourne New York Singapore and Tokyo

British Ubrary Cataloguing in Publication Data

Webb, Joseph Ernest Guide to living birds. 1. Birds - Classification I. Title II. Wallwork, John Anthony Ill. Elgood, John Hamel 598.2' 01' 2 aLan

This book is sold subject to the standard conditions of the Net Book Agreement

The paperback edition of this book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade or otherwise, be lent, resold, hired out, or otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published and without a similar condition including this condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser.

ISBN 978-1-349-03615-8 ISBN 978-1-349-03613-4 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-03613-4

Preface

This Guide to the Living Birds is one of a series

covering between them the entire animal kingdom. Each

guide uses an annotated classification to give a basic

understanding of the animals under consideration, including

their relationship with other animals and the inter-

relations within the group. Thus this book first views

birds as highly specialised tetrapod vertebrates and then

presents a pattern of their diversity.

Although the concept developed in all these guides is

the same, they differ to some extent in their approach.

In most groups of animals classification is based on

structural features alone. But in birds their basic

structure is so uniform (except for details often difficult

to see) that ecological and behavioural differences must

also be used. Birds have an immense popular appeal due

largely to the ease with which they can be seen in the

field. They are relatively large, colourful, diurnal

animals that do things. They migrate, establish territory,

court and breed and most have recognisable voices.

Moreover television cameras are now bringing many of them

to our attention from remote parts so that the worldwide

coverage of this guide is useful. We have been concerned,

therefore, to present a reasoned, if slightly unorthodox,

classification that should not offend the scientist, but

will appeal to the amateur ornithologist.

Birds, like mammals, being comparative newcomers in

evolutionary terms, have very interesting patterns of

distribution, sometimes only explained by the movements

of the continents in the past. (Continental drift has

been dealt with at some length in the companion, volume on

the reptiles.) A major feature of the guide, therefor~,

is the inclusion of maps showing the areas occupied by

almost all the bird families that are not worldwide.

Such maps are, of course, only approximate since birds

iii

continually change their range through migration, human

introduction and re-introduction and Man's destruction of

habitat.

There are so many excellent major works on birds that

to present any sort of literature list would be virtually

impossible in a small book. But a New Dictionary of Birds

edited by A. Landsborough Thomson, Nelson, Edinburgh & London, 1964 has provided the basis for the classification

used. The popular (English) names used and the division

of families into genera and species have been largely

taken from A Checklist of the Birds of the World,

E.S. Gruson, Collins, London, 1976. For a more detailed

account of the structural and biological features of each

family of birds Fundamentals of Ornithology, J, Van Tyne & A.J. Berger, Dover, New York, 1959 is suggested, though

this work follows a slightly different classification,

especially in the arrangement of the song birds.

It is worth mentioning that this book is in no sense

a 'Field Guide' of which there are many for the identification

of birds from particular areas such as Britain, Europe, West

Africa, North America. The Guide to the Living Birds is

an organised summary for the student which, in addition,

will give the answers to such questions as - how many kinds

of kingfisher are there? - in what parts of the world are

they found? - what are their nearest relatives? - do all

have mainly blue plumage?

We are again grateful to Mrs. Margaret Clarke for the

meticulous preparation of the typescript for photolithography

and we are greatly indebted to Mr. Phil Brooks who made the

drawings of the birds which are an integral part of the book.

iv

JEW

JAW

mE London, August 1978

Contents Page

INTRODUCTION

The uniformity of bird architecture .............. 2

Problems of bird systematics .•..•.••.•........... 2

The current phylogenetic classification of birds . 3

The systematic treatment used in this guide ...... 6

Geographical distribution .•.............••....... 9 Scientific names

Use of the guide

12

13

2 THE BIRDS ....... o....................................... 14

3

Class Aves 18

P A R T I G R 0 U N D B I R D S 32

RATITES AND TINAMOUS 34

Superorder Ratitae ·················••oo•••••••• 36

Order Struthioniformes •••••••o•oo•••········· 41

Family Struthionidae ······••o•o•••••••••o 41

Order Rheiformes .•....••..••....... o • o • • • • • • • 42

Family Rheidae ... o ••••••••••• o o ••••••• o • • 42

Order Casuariiformes ••••••o••••••o ........ 0 •• 43

Family Casuariidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Family Dromaiidae ••••••••o••••••••••••••• 45

Order Apterygiformes .......•.•........••..... 46

Family Apterygidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 46

Superorder Tinamae .........•........•••..••.... 47

Order Tinamiformes ········•o••·············•o 47

Family Tinamidae ....•.............•...... 47

4 GAME BIRDS, CRANES & ALLIES ....•......•................. 49

Superorder Carinatae ••o••••••••••o••••········· 51

Order Galliformes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . 52

Suborder Galli . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Family Megapodidae . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 54

Family Cracidae ••••••••••o••············· 55

v

5

CONTENTS

Family Tetraonidae

Family Phasianidae

Family Numididae .•..•••••.•••••.•.•••••..

Family Meleagrididae ••.••••..••••••••.•••

Suborder Opisthocomi ....•••••.••••••.•.•.••

Family Opisthocomidae ..••••.•••••••••.••.

Order Gruiformes .•...•.•••.•.••...••••.••••••

Suborder Mesoenatides

Family Mesoenatidae

Page

56

57 58

59 60

60

61

63

63 Suborder Turnices .......•••.•..•••.•••••••• 64

Family Turnicidae ..•••.••....••••••••••.. 64

Family Pedionomidae . . . • • • • • • • . . . . • • • • • • • • 6 4

Suborder Grues • • . • • • • • . . . • . • • • • • • • • • • . • • . . . 66

Family Gruidae • • • • . • • • . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • . • . 66

Family Aramidae . • • • . • • . . . • . • • • • . • • • • • • • . . 6 8

Family Psophiidae . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . . • • • • 69

Family Rallidae • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • 70

Suborder Heliornithes •••••••••••••••••••••• 71 Family Heliornithidae ••••••••••.•••••••.• 71

Suborder Rhynocheti . . • • . . . . • . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . 72

Family Rhynochetidae ••••••••••••••••••••• 72

Suborder Eurypygae ...••.••••••••••••••••••• 73

Family Eurypygidae • • • • . . . . . . . • • • • . • • • • • • • 7 3

Suborder Cariamae • • • • • • • • . • • . . . . • • . . • • • • • • • 7 4

Family Cariamidae • • • . • • . • • • • . • . • • • . • • • • • • 7 4

Suborder Otides . • • • • • • • • . . • • • . • . . • . • . • • • • • • 7 5 Family Otididae 75

PART II A Q U A T I C B I R D S 76

SHORE BIRDS 78 Order Charadriiformes .••••••••••.•••.•••••••• 80

Suborder Charadrii

Family Jacanidae •••••••••••.•...•••••••.•

Family Rostratulidae •••••••••••.•••••••••

Family Haematopodidae •••••••••.••••••••••

Family Charadriidae

Family Scolopacidae •••••••••·•••·••••••••

Family Recurvirostridae •••••.••••••••••••

vi

81

82

83

84 85 86

87

6

C 0 N T E N T S

Family Phalaropidae

Family Dromadidae

Family Burhinidae

Page

88 89 90

Family Glareolidae •••••••..•••••••••••... 91

Family Thinocoridae •••••••••.••••••••..•• 92

Family Chionididae •.••••..••..••••.•..••. 92

Suborder Lari • • • . . • • • • • • . . . • • • . • • • . • • • • . . • • 93

Family Stercorariidae •••...••••..••••.••. 94

Family Laridae • • • . . . • • • • • . . . . • • • • • • • • • • • . 94

Family Rhynchopidae .••....••••...•••••••• 97

Suborder Alcae . • . • • . • • • • • • . . . • . • . • • . • • . • . . . 99

Family Alcidae . . . . • • • • • • • • • • . . . . • • • • . . . . • 99

FRESHWATER BIRDS 100

Order Gaviiformes ..•••••...••••••.•.•••••.••• 102

Family Gaviidae ••••••••••.....•••••..•••• 102

Order Podicipediformes •••••••••••••••••······ 104

Family Podicipedidae ..•••••..•••••••••••• 104

Order Ciconiiformes •••••.•••••...•••••••••••• 105

Suborder Ardeae • • • • • • • • • • . . . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 106

Family Ardeidae •••••..•••••..•••••••••••• 106

Suborder Balaenicipites •••.••••..•••••••••• 107

Family Balaenicipitidae •••••••••••••••••• 107

Suborder Ciconiae ...•••.•..........•••••... 108

Family Ciconiidae •••••••••••••••••••••••• 109

Family Scopidae . • • • • • • • • . . • . • • . . • • • • • • • . • 110

Family Threskiornithidae ••..•••••.••••••• 111

Suborder Phoenicopteri ••..•••••..•••••••••• 113

Family Phoenicopteridae •••••••••••••••••• 113

Order Anseriformes •••••••...••••••.•••••••••• 114

Suborder Anhimae ••••••..•••••••.••••••••••• 115

Family Anhimidae ••.••••••••••••••••••••••• 115

Suborder Anseres •••. , •••• , • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 116

Family Anatidae ••.••••••••••••••••••••••• 116

7 MARINE BIRDS • , •••• , , ••••••••••••••••••••••• , ••• , •• , • • • • • 117

Order Procellariiformes •••••••••••••••••••••• 119

Family Diomedeidae ••••••••••••••••••••••• 120

Family Procellariidae ••••.••••.•••••••••• 121

Family Hydrobatidae •••••••••••••••••••••• 123

vii

C 0 N T E N T S

Family Pelecanoididae

Page

124

Order Pelecaniformes ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 125

Suborder Phaethontes ••••·•••••••••••••••••• 126

Family Phaethontidae •••••••••·••••••••••• 126

Suborder Pelecani •.•••••••••••••••••••••••• 127

Family Pelecanidae ••••.•••••••••••••••••• 127

Family Sulidae • • . • • • • • • • • • . . • • . • • • • • • • • • • 129

Family Phalacrocoracidae .••.••••.•••••••• 130

Family Anhingidae ·············•·••••••••• 131

Suborder Fregatae ••••••••••.••••••••••••••• 132

Family Fregatidae •••••.•.•••••••••••••••• 132

Order Sphenisciformes ••.••••••.•.•••••••••••• 133

Family Spheniscidae •••••••••••••••••••••• 133

P A R T III P E R C H I N G B I R D S 135

8 BIRDS OF PREY • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 136

Order Falconiformes •••••••.•••••••.•••••••••• 139

Suborder Cathartae • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 140

Family Cathartidae .••••••••••.••••••••.•• 140

Suborder Falcones •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 141

Family Accipitridae •••••••••••••.•••••••• 141

Family Falconidae •••••••••••••••••••••••• 143

Suborder Sagittarii •••••••••••••••••••••••• 144

Family Sagittariidae ••••••••••••••••••••• 144

Order Strigiformes •.••••••••••••••••••••••••• 146

Family Tytonidae • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 146

Family Strigidae ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 147

9 ARBOREAL BIRDS

PIGEONS, PARROTS, CUCKOOS & COLIES •••••••••••••••••••••• 148

Order Columbiformes •••••••••••·•••••••••••••• 151

Suborder Pterocletes ••••••••·•••••••••••••• 152

Family Pteroclididae ••••••••••••••••••••• 152

Suborder Columbae •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 153

Family Columbidae •••••••••••••••••••••••• 153

Order Psittaciformes ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 154

Family Psittacidae ••••••••••••••••••••.•• 154

Order Cuculiformes •••••••••••••••••••••.•.••• 156

Suborder Cuculi ••••••••••.••••••••••••••••• 157

viii

C 0 N T E N T S

Page

Family Cuculidae ••••••••••••••••••••••••. 157

Subfamily Cuculinae •••••••••••••••••••• 156

Subfamily Phaenicophaeinae ••••••••••••• 156

Subfamily Crotophaginae •••••••••••••••• 156

Subfamily Neomorphinae ••••••••••••••••• 156

Subfamily Couinae .•••..••..•••••••••••• 156

Subfamily Centropodinae •••••••••••••••• 156

Suborder Musophagi ••••••••••·•••••••••••••• 158

Family Musophagidae ••••••.••.•••••••••••• 158

Order Coliiformes •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 159

Family Coliidae ••••••••••••.•.••••••••••• 159

10 ARBOREAL BIRDS

ROLLERS, TROGONS, WOODPECKERS & ALLIES •••••••••••••••••• 160

Order Coraciiformes ••••••••··•••••••••••••••• 162

Suborder Alcedines ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 163

Family Alcedinidae ••••••••••••••••••••••• 164

Family Todidae ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 165

Family Momotidae • • • • • • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 166

Suborder Meropes •••••••••••••••••••••••••o• 167

Family Meropidae •••••••••• o •••••••••••••• 167

Suborder Coracii ........................... 168

Family Coraciidae •••••••••••••••••••••••• 169

Family Leptosomatidae •.•••••••••••••••••• 170

Family Upupidae ••••••••••••••••••••••••o• 171

Family Phoeniculidae •••••••••••••••••o••· 172

Suborder Bucerotes ••••••••• o • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 17 3

Family Bucerotidae ••••••••••••••••••••••• 173

Order Trogoniformes •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 174

Family Trogonidae •••••••••••••••••••••••• 174

Order Piciformes ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 176

Suborder Galbulae • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 177

Family Galbulidae •••••••••••••••••••••••• 178

Family Bucconidae ••••••• o •••••• o ••••• o • • • 17 8

Family Capitonidae •••••••••••••••.••••••• 180

Family Indicatoridae ••••••••••••••••••••• 182

Family Ramphastidae •••••••••••••••••••••• 183

Suborder Pici .............................. 184

Family Picidae ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 184

ix

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Page

AERIAL FEEDERS 186

Order Apodiformes •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 188 Suborder Apodi • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 189

Family Apodidae •.•.•••••••••.•.•••••••• 189

Family Hemiprocnidae ••••••••••••••••••• 190

Suborder Trochili • • • • • • • • . • . • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 191

Family Trochilidae ••••...•.•••••••.•••• 191

Order Caprimulgiformes .••••••.••••••••••••••• 193

Suborder Steatornithes ••••••.••••••••••••.• 194

Family Steatornithidae ••••••••••••••••• 194 Suborder Caprimulgae ••••••...•••••••••••••• 195

Family Podargidae ••••••••••••.••••••••• 195

Family Nyctibiidae ••••••••••.•••••.•••• 196

Family Aegothelidae •••••••••••••••••••• 197 Family Caprimulgidae •••••••••••••••••.• 198

12 PRIMITIVE PASSERINES ••••.••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••••• 199

Order Passeriformes ···••••••••••••••••••••••• 200

Suborder Eurylaimi ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 201

Family Eurylaimidae •••••••••••••••••••• 201 Suborder Tyranni ••••••••••••••.•••••••••••. 202

Superfamily Furnarioidea ••••••••••••••••• 203 Family Dendrocolaptidae •••••••••••••••• 203 Family Furnariidae ••••••••••••••••••••• 203

Family Formicariidae ••••••••••••••••••• 203

Family Conopophagidae ••.•.••••••••••••• 204

Family Rhinocryptidae •••••••••••••••••• 204

Superfamily Tyrannoidea •••••••••••••••••· 205 Family Pittidae • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 205

Family Philepittidae ••••••••••••••••••• 205 Family Xenicidae ••••••••••••••••••••••• 207

Family Tyrannidae •••••••••••••••••••••• 207 Family Pipridae • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 207

Family Cotingidae •••••••••••••••••••••• 208 Family Phytotomidae ••••.••••••••••••••• 208

Suborder Menurae ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 209

Family Menuridae ••••••••••••••••••••••• 209

Family Atrichornithidae •••••••••••••••• 210

X

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Page

THE SONG BIRDS 211

Suborder Oscines . • • • • • . • • • • . • • • • . • • • • • • • • • • 214

Section I The non-arboreal song birds 215

Family Alaudidae •.•.••••..••••••.•.••••.. 216

Family Hirundinidae ••..••••••••••.••.•.•• 216

Family Motacillidae 217

Family Campephagidae ••....••••..•..••.... 218

Family Pycnonotidae •••••••.•••••.•••.•••. 219

Family Irenidae

Family Laniidae

220

221

Family Vangidae .•.•••••..•••••••••••••••• 222

Family Bombycillidae ••••..••••...•••••••• 223

Family Dulidae ••••••..•••••.••••••••••••• 22 4

Family Cinclidae •••..••••••.••.•.•••.•••• 224

Family Troglodytidae ••••••..••••••••.••.• 225

Family Mimidae ••••••••••.••.••••••••••••• 226

Family Prunellidae ..•••. ••••••••••••••••• 227

Section II Flycatchers and their allies 228

Family Muscicapidae •.•••••.•.•••••••.•••• 228

Subfamily Turdinae ••••••.•.•••••••••••. 229

Subfamily Timaliinae ••••••••••••••••••• 231 Subfamily Panurinae (Paradoxornithinae). 233 Subfamily Sylviinae •••••.•.•••••••••••• 234

Subfamily Muscicapinae (sensu latu) •••. 235 Subfamily Pachycephalinae •••••••••.•••• 236

Section III The arboreal song birds 237

Family Paridae ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 238

Family Sittidae ..••.••••••••••••••••••••• 238 Family Certhiidae •.•.••••••••.••••••.•••• 241

Family Climacteridae •.•••.••••••••••.•••• 241

Family Dicaeidae ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 242

Family Nectariniidae •••••···••••••••••••• 243

Family Zosteropidae •••••••••••••••••••••• 244

xi

C 0 N T E N T S

Page Family Meliphagidae •••.•.••.•.•..•..•.••. 245

Family Parulidae •....••••••••••••••.••••• 246

Family Drepanididae •••••••••••••••••••••. 247

Family Vireonidae •••••••••••••.•••.•••••• 247

Family Icteridae •••••••••••••••••••••.••• 248

Section IV Song birds which are basically 249 seed-eating

Family Estrildidae •..••.•••••••••.••.•••• 250

Subfamily Estrildinae .••.•.•••••..•.••. 249

Subfamily Viduinae •••••.••.••••••.••••• 249

Family Ploceidae •••.••••....•..•..•..•••• 251

Subfamily Bubalornithinae •••••••••••••• 249

Subfamily Ploceinae ••••••••••••••••..•• 249

Subfamily Passerinae ••••••••••••••••••• 249

Family Fringillidae ••••••••.•.•••••.••••• 252

Subfamily Carduelinae •..••.•••••.•••••• 2~9

Subfamily Fringillinae ••••••••••••••••• 249

Subfamily Geospizinae •••••••••••••••••• 249

Family Emberizidae ••••.•.•.•..••••••••••• 253

Subfamily Pyrrhuloxiinae ..••.•.••..•••• 249

Subfamily Emberizinae •..••••••••••.•••• 249

Section V

Subfamily Tersininae

Subfamily Thraupinae

The larger song birds

249

249

254

Family Sturnidae •••••••••••.•.••••••••••• 255

Family Oriolidae •.••••••••••••••••.•.•••. 256

Family Dicruridae ••••••••••.••..••••••••• 257

Family Callaeidae ••••••••••·••••••••••••• 258

Family Grallinidae •.•..••..•••••••••••••• 258

Family Artamidae ••••••••.•••••••••••••••• 259

Family Cracticidae ••••••••••••••••••••••• 260

Family Ptilinorhynchidae ••••••••••••••••• 261

Family Paradisaeidae ••••••••••••••••••••• 262

Family Corvidae •.••••••••••••.••••••••••• 263

14 GLOSSARY •...•••..•••••.•.••..•...•••••.••••..••••..•••••• 264

List of generic names quoted •••••..•..•••••••••••• 275

List of common names quoted ••••••••••••••••••••••• 283

xii

1 Introduction

There is no doubt that birds have a very great appeal

to man and provide an important recreational pursuit.

One main reason for this is that birds are much easier to

see than other animals. Many birds are quite large, nearly

all are diurnal, some are very numerous and, as a class,

they are ubiquitous with many species conspicuously sharing

man's environment.

A further reason for the popularity of birds is their

aesthetic appeal. Many are quite remarkable for their

beauty of line or coloration. They are among the few

animals with colour vision and have exploited brilliant

plumage in courtship display. Many aspects of bird

behaviour, such as the patterns of flight, feeding and even

breeding activity, are not too difficult to watch. Finally

one aspect of behaviour, bird voice, merits special mention

since birds mostly have distinctive loud calls ranging from

the screech of a barn owl to the elaborate song of the

nightingale.

Birds have undoubtedly evolved from the reptiles but

whether from tree-living or running forms is still in dispute.

Archaeopteryx, which combines reptilian and avian characters

and thus appears to link reptiles and birds, is known only

from a few fossil specimens found in Bavarian slates of

Jurassic age. These features include, on the one hand,

toothed jaws, claws on the fore-limbs and a long tail

typical of reptiles, and, on the other, feathers, a wish

bone and light limbs typical of birds. Some authorities

regard Archaeopteryx as the earliest known bird, others as

2

I N T R 0 D U C T I 0 N

a feathered dinosaur and thus argue that feathers were first

evolved as thermo-insulators that were subsequently elaborated

for flight. By the early Tertiary era many of the modern

bird orders and even families had already been established

and the class then evolved rapidly to give the diversity

and numbers of species of the present avifauna.

There are good reasons for regarding birds as the most

advanced of the vertebrates. Birds have evolved many

features of structure and physiology surpassing those of

other vertebrates, even including the mammals, though the

latter have developed an elaborate learned behaviour,

culminating in the intelligence of the higher primates,

which is not matched by the birds.

The uniformity of bird architecture

Although there is a small number of flightless birds,

the entire pattern of avian structure is clearly an

adaptation for flight. This applies even to the

flightless forms like the ostrich and the penguins suggesting

that they, too, have evolved from flighted ancestors. But

these adaptations, in meeting the strict aerodynamic

requirements of flight, have left little room for structural

experiment. This means that, apart from size, coloration

and the form of the beak and the foot, there is a high

degree of structural uniformity throughout the entire

class, contrasting with the diversity of, say, the mammals

where bats, whales, cats and horses manifest wide structural

differences through adaptation for very different modes of

life. This uniformity of bird structure makes any system

of classification that relies on morphological differences

difficult to construct.

Problems of bird systematics

Birds are the most numerous, in species, of all

vertebrates except the teleost fishes. The differences

between closely related species, often apparent only to the

specialist, are matters of slight difference in plumage

2


(perhaps seen only during the breeding season) ~nd in

behaviour, notably in voice. It is almost axiomatic that where species of similar appearance occur together their

calls will be distinctive, as exemplified by the willow

warbler, wood warbler and chiffchaff.

A problem in all systematics, but one that is

particularly acute in the birds, is the recognition of

convergence. Similar features in two or more different

birds may indicate close relationship or they may be due

to the convergence of unrelated forms adapted to sintilar

modes of life. In constructing a classification based on

phylogenetic principles it is important, but often difficult,

to distinguish between these two causes of similarity. An

example of convergence is the general similarity, but

particularly in bill structure and coloration, of the Old

World hornbills and the New World toucans, both being

adapted to reach fruit at the tips of branches in tropical

forests. But their feet differ quite fundamentally in

toe arrangement. As it is generally held that the foot

is more conservative than the bill and is therefore a more

reliable, though less conspicuous, indicator of relationship,

these two groups are not classified together.

Most bird phylogenies rely on such obscure characters

as patterns of feather tracts, arrangements of leg muscle

tendons and even the proteins occurring in their egg

albumens, which are not suitable for the day to day

identification of museum skins nor are they applicable to

field observations. It will be appreciated, therefore,

that it is very difficult to construct a classification

of birds based solely on presumed phylogenetic relationships

which is at the same time a workable 'filing system'.

The current phylogenetic classification of birds

Most ornithologists now recognise 27 distinct orders

of living birds together with a few more that are extinct.

Some like the moas of New Zealand have become extinct quite

recently, but we are not concerned with fossil birds in

3


this book. The list of orders opposite is taken from the

New Dictionary of Birds (edited by Sir Landsborough Thompson

1964) and arranged in a sequence in widespread use today

but originally proposed by Wetmore in 1930.

The group of orders of rather similar, large, flightless

birds, called the Ratitae, are at the head of the list,

while all but one of the remaining orders comprise the

Carinatae, or flying birds. These two groups of orders

are sufficiently distinct to be ranked as superorders.

Between them, and intermediate in many ways, are the

tinamous, an order of weak-flying South American birds,

often considered as a third superorder and accorded this

rank here. This division into three superorders is

reasonably well established, but at and below the ordinal

level the situation is very much more fluid.

Taxonomists have different attitudes to classification.

Some, 'the lumpers', tend to coalesce related taxa at all

levels; while others, 'the splitters', tend to divide them.

For example the Cuculiformes comprise two rather distinct

types of bird, the cuckoos and their allies and the turacos.

The lumper places cuckoos and turacos in one order; the

splitter creates two separate orders, Cuculiformes and

Musophagiformes. At present the tendency is very much

more toward the lumper philosophy than formerly which means

that fewer species, genera, families and even orders are

recognised now than used to be the case.

The fluidity of classification is further.illustrated

by the position of two somewhat aberrant single bird

species, the whale-headed stork and the secretary bird.

There has been recent controversy about whether the whale

headed stork is a true stork (family Ciconiidae) or a

heron (Ardeidae) or whether it is sufficiently distinct to

warrant a family of its own, the Balaenicipidae. Similarly

a case has been made for removing the secretary bird,

usually regarded as a long-legged bird of prey, from the

Order Falconiformes and placing it as an aberrant crane in

the Order Gruiformes. That such controversies are still

4


SUPERORDER

-{

STRUTHIONIFORMES

RHEIFORMES RATITAE

CASUAR!IFORMES

APTERX'GIFORMES

TINAMAE ------- TINAMIFORMES

SPHENISCIFORMES

GAVIIFORMES

PODICIPEDIFORMES

PROCELLARIIFORMES

PELECANIFORMES

CICON!IFORMES

ANSERIFORMES

FALCONIFORMES

GALLIFORMES

GRUIFORMES

CHARADRIIFORMES

CARINATAE ------1- COLUMBIFORMJ;:S

5

PSIT'J'ACifORMES

CUCULIFORMES

STRIGIFORMES

CAPRIMULGIFORMES

APODIFORMES

COLIIFORMES

TROGONIFORMES

CORACCIIFORMES

PICIFORMES

PASSERIFORMES


unresolved emphasizes the paucity of structural criteria

on which avian relationships can be established and the

doubts that exist about the systematic position of many

well-known birds.

The systematic treatment used in this guide

It is clear that the systematic treatment of birds

must be very different from that of the other vertebrate

classes, where morphological differences alone afford a

basis for classification. For this reason the arrangement

of the bird orders in this book is utilitarian rather than

strictly phylogenetic and is based partly on ecological

and behavioural characters.

This arrangement, which is summarised in the diagram

opposite, uses two basic distinctions: first between

flighted and flightless forms (shown by the horizontal

division on the diagram) and, secondly, between the two

types of young hatched, that is precocial and altricial

(shown by the vertical division). The term precocial

refers to downy young, like those of chickens and ducks,

that leave the nest soon after hatching, usually to forage

for their own food. Altricial refers to helpless young,

naked when hatched, like those of birds of prey and song

birds, that remain in the nest to be fed by their parents

until fully feathered and able to fly. Very few birds

are intermediate in this respect, most are either clearly

precocial or altricial, but two orders (shown crossing the

vertical dividing line on the diagram) include both types

of breeding behaviour. Almost all Ciconiiformes, like

herons and storks, are altricial, but flamingos are

essentially precocial. Conversely the great majority of

the Charadriiformes, like the waders, are precocial, while

most gulls and terns are somewhat intermediate, their young

wandering quickly from the nest, but being fed by their

parents. The kittiwake, on the other hand, typically

nesting on steep cliffs, is of necessity fully altricial.

6


P R £ C 0 C I A L A L T R I C I A L

Gavi~formes

an ecological arrangement of the birds

7

I N 1 R 0 D U C T I 0 N

The further division of the groups is ecological

(represented by diagonal lines on the diagram), the various

orders being assigned to ·the categories ground-living,

aquatic and perching birds. However, the separation of

orders into these categories is not complete. Because

of the extensive adaptive radiation of birds, various

families, subfamilies and genera have evolved that do not

con£orm to the general ecological pattern of their order.

For example, although most of the Gruiformes (cranes,

bustards and their allies) are clearly ground birds, the

order also includes such aquatic birds as finfoots and coots.

Similarly some aquatic birds, like many kingfishers, are

found in the orders grouped as perching birds.

The first part of this book, that is the ground

birds, which includes the ratites, tinamous, cranes and

game birds, is not subdivided. The second part, on

the aquatic orders, however, is subdivided into shore,

freshwater and marine birds, though few orders belong

strictly to any one of these categories. For example,

although the great majority of the Charadriiformes are well

regarded as shore birds, one family, the Alcidae or auks,

is fully marine coming to land only to breed. They occupy

much the same ecological niche in cold northern seas as

penguins do in the southern oceans. Nevertheless the

orders of aquatic birds do fall reasonably well into these

three sub-divisions.

The third part contains the perching birds.

Within the perching birds there are two groups, each with

two orders that are separable on the ecological grounds of

specialised modes of feeding. These are the predators and

the aerial feeders. With the exception of the Passeriformes,

the remaining perching birds have been grouped as arboreal.

Most of them construct nests in trees and depend on them

to some extent for food and shelter. The Passeriformes,

with 60 percent of all living birds, is so vast that it

forms a unit on its own and occupies a major part of the

book. The Passeriformes, especially the suborder Oscines

8


or song-birds, are certainly the most advanced members of

the class, and appear at the top of the diagram, in contrast

to the non-flying, precocial ratites regarded as among the

more primitive birds, which are at the bottom.

The diagram on page 7 shows the various groups of

orders linked by arrows. These arrows show the sequence

of treatment in the book and do not necessarily indicate

evolutionary trends but, at least in some cases, they may

well do so. Reference to the Contents of the book sets

out the arrangement of the orders more fully and shows how

the sequence used here departs somewhat from the orthodox

arrangement given on page 5.

Geographical Distribution

The geographical distribution of all terrestrial

vertebrates is of very great interest, particularly where

it has been influenced by continental drift. The parallel

volume in this series on the Reptiles deals with continental

drift in some detail. It need only be said here that it

is now generally accepted that the southern continents of

Australia, Antarctica, South America and Africa, together

with India were formerly joined as a continuous land mass

which split in the Mesozoic.

Because of their powers of flight, birds can and do

cross the existing oceans. For example, the cattle egret

has quite recently crossed the southern Atlantic from Africa

into South America and the species is at present spreading

northward through eastern North America. But for non-

flying or poorly flying species the oceans are an effective

barrier so that the discontinuous distribution of the non

flying ratites in the southern continents may be a result

of continental drift. Similarly the poorly flying trogons

and barbets have a pan-tropical distribution, also perhaps

pointing to a separation of the continents since these

groups were first evolved.

The accompanying world map shows the zoogeographical

regions, each of which has particular groups of land

9

H z ..., ::0

0

~~

L. , } ·:.

~(ff

l!td

: I

c I

....

..........

... "\.

. . {

I X

: ..A

. a

....

' \

\ \

0 ..

<:

:

n t-l

H

0 z

Th

e zo

og

eo

gra

ph

ic r

eg

io

ns

of

the

Wo

rld

I N I R 0 D U C T I 0 N

vertebrates endemic to them. As might be expected, birds

show less endemism than mammals, but nevertheless all

zoogeographical regions have some endemic families. However,

the more isolated southern continents have a larger number

of endemic higher taxa (orders and families) than do the

northern land masses. Thus whereas the Oriental Region

has only one endemic family, the leaf birds (Irenidae),

South America has 10 families of primitive passerines and

17 families of non-passerines essentially endemic, though

about half extend north into Central America and perhaps

to subtropical North America. Australasia and Africa

show rather less endemism than South America. When one

considers that a high proportion of all bird species,

drawn from the majority of the orders, undertake long

distance seasonal migration, the endemism of so many groups

becomes all the more remarkable.

It is because of the interest and importance of the

geographical distribution of birds that maps showing the

breeding areas have been given here for the majority of

families. But it must be remembered that the position

is not static and that while some are extending their

breeding range, like the cattle egret in South America

mentioned above and the collared dove that only arrived

in Britain from the Middle East in the mid fifties

other species such as most cranes and bustards are in

retreat. This range reduction is almost always due to

human interference of one kind or another, the most

significant being habitat destruction, such as the removal

of much of the tropical rain forest to grow cash crops,

and the introduction of mammals into islands.

Finally it must be mentioned that the uncertainty

about bird taxonomy may greatly affect our representation

of geographical distribution. For example the essentially

Australasian family of honeyeaters occurs also in the

southern tip of Africa, where it is represented by two

species of the genus Promerops (sugarbirds). But already

some authorities (the splitters) place these sugarbirds in

a separate family, the Promeropidae. An acceptance of

11


this view would, of course, add an endemic family not only

to Africa, but also to Australasia.

Scientific names

The universally used Linnaean binomial syst;em of

scientific names for all living organisms is described at

some length in the Introduction to the companion volume in

this Series on the Invertebrates, and the reader is referred

to this work for more information. Briefly every species

of plant and animal has an internationally recognised name

comprising two latin or latinized words, the first, a noun,

the name of the genus in which it is placed and the second,

an adjective, or trivial name. Thus the scientific name

for the nearly world-wide barn owl is Tyto alba, the first,

Tyto, being the genus for all barn owls and the second,

alba, that for this particular world-wide species. There

are in fact seven other species of barn owl, most with

rather restricted distributions, and two rather different

ones, called bay owls, placed in the genus Phodilus.

These 10 owl species, recognisable by their longish legs

and heart-shaped facial masks, comprise the family Tytonidae.

In addition there are 126 other owls with shorter legs and

rounded facial masks, well exemplified by the tawny owl,

~ aluco, and sufficiently different from the barn owls

to be placed in a separate family, the Strigidae. These

two families of owls (there are no others) make up the

order Strigiformes. It will be seen that the family

names, Tytonidae and Strigidae, are derived from the

generic names Tyto and ~ respectively. In fact all

family names end in 1 idae 1 and are derived from a type

generic name. Similarly the rather cumbersome names for

the orders are also derived from the type genus by the

addition of the suffix 1 iformes•, which simply means

1 shaped 1 , so that Strigiformes means tawny-owl-shaped,

Passeriformes means sparrow-shaped, Columbiformes, pigeon

shaped and so on. Once the rationale is understood

scientific names are no more difficult than the popular

English names and have the merit of international status

and understanding.

12


Use of the Guide

As in the other guides in this series, a system of

matching characters has been used throughout. The list

of characters diagnostic of the birds given on pages 1~ & 19

deals with the same structures in the same order as those

for the other vertebrate classes (see, for example, page 6

of the Guide to Living Mammals). Within the birds,

matching characters for each superorder, Ratitae, Tinamae

and Carinatae, are arranged so that the differences and

resemblances between the superorders are immediately

apparent, and similarly for the orders in a superorder,

sub-orders in an order and so forth. It is clear that,

in these sets of matching characters, some will be of

greater importance for diagnosis than others. These have

been marked with a black spot. Some characters recur,

such as the palate structure in the skull, and are illustrated

only once. Here reference to the term in the glossary

gives not only a definition but the page on which the

illustration occurs. Cross-reference is also given in the

lists of examples quoted by scientific and common names.

The relationships between the groups are shown schematically

and there are sketches of typical members and distribution

maps of most of the families. In this way a great deal of

basic information has been condensed into a small book.

This guide will be found to be helpful in a number of ways

a few of which are listed below.

• It provides a conspectus of the recent birds from

which the range of diversity can be appreciated.

• Schematic diagrams show the basic classification in

terms of the relationships thought to exist between

the groups.

• The reasons for the classification are evident from

the lists of matching characters. Here negative

as well as positive characters are given and

irrelevant features omitted.

13

2 The Birds

Most avian characteristics are directly related to

flight. The body is stream-lined to minimise air resistance.

The fore-limbs (and usually the tail also) carry large

special flight feathers to produce light mobile aerofoils.

The skeleton has a remarkable combination of rigidity with

lightness and the heavy organs like flight muscles, heart,

liver and gizzard lie ventrally to bring the centre of

gravity below the centre of the lift forces generated by

the wings. This is necessary for stability in flight.

But most important of all are the physiological adaptations

to produce the rapid energy release necessary for powered

flight. Birds have the heaviest heart relative to body

weight, the highest blood temperature and the most efficient

lung system of any land vertebrate. They also have a

specialised digestive system utilising mainly high-energy

foods.

Flight also requires a rapid and accurate interpretation

of information from the environment. Birds have particularly

acute eyesight, hearing and air-pressure reception. These

receptors provide the sensory input to the brain necessary

for the motor responses that achieve the remarkable control

of flight seen in the soaring eagle, the hovering humming

bird or the dashing, twisting flight of a swallow. Wing

profiles differ greatly according to the type of flight.

Albatrosses have long narrow wings (sometimes said to have

a high 'aspect ratio') associated with their ability to

exploit varying wind speeds in effortless flight, while

more rounded wings (with a low aspect ratio) are found in

birds with a laboured, flapping flight.

14

T H E B I R D S

Birds owe much of their success to their dual mobility

in the air and on land. In birds the legs and feet are

variously adapted for walking, swimming, perching and so

forth and thus enable birds to exploit a wide range of

habitats. They also serve as a sprung under-carriage

when landing and, in some birds, provide a vertical

take-off mechanism.

Birds use every type of animal food and such energy

rich plant food as fruits and seeds. But, in contrast to

mammals, only a few, like some geese, graze on low-energy

plant leaves. The bill has thus become widely adapted to

suit the preferred food of each species. For example,

bill length in waders is directly related to the depth

at which each species finds its invertebrate food in

littoral muds.

The coloration of the feathers may be due to

pigmentation or to interference colours arising from their

microscopic surface structure or to a combination of the

two. Some bird families, such as the sunbirds of the

Old World and the humming birds of the New, are noted for

the prevalence of 'metallic' plumage. These two groups

occupy similar ecological niches, but are quite unrelated

and their brilliant metallic coloration is due to

convergence. The coloration of birds is of less taxonomic

value than one might suppose, since convergence is so

widespread that appearance can be deceptive.

Voice, like plumage, is one of the more obvious

characters of birds, but is not easy to use in taxonomy,

although many groups, like pigeons and parrots, have voices

with a distinctive family quality. The organ of voice in

birds is not the larynx as in other terrestrial vertebrates,

but the syrinx situated at the base of the trachea. The

taxonomically important syringeal muscles reach their

maximal development in the song birds or Oscines and enable

them to produce sequences of pure musical notes. Most

other birds produce rather simple sounds, usually harsh

and unmusical, though there are notable exceptions.

15

T H E B I R D S

eider duck (collecting small invertebrates)

whip-poor-Wi!l (collecting nocturnal insects)

pied flycatcher {taking airborne insects)

black skimmer (skimming plankton)

eagle (tearing flesh)

green h eron (spearing fish and crabs)

liP ?0 .

" , .. kingfisher

(spearing fish)

hawt'inch (extracting seeds and kernels)

adaptations of the bill

16

swift (clinging)

parrot (tree climbing a nd

food g rasping)

mallard (swimming)

T H E B I R D S

osprey (taking fish)

oystercatcher (wading a nd grasping)

coot (swimming-and walking)

heron (wading and perchi ng)

adaptations of the foot

17

pelican (swimming)

T H E B I R D S

Class Aves

Tetrapoda in which:-

e 1. Most parts of the body are covered with feathers,

though reptile-like scales are present on the lower leg.

e 2. The head is carried on a flexible neck of between 13

and 25 vertebrae and the skull articulates through a

single occipital condyle.

3. The brain is relatively large with massive corpora

striata (associated with instinctive behaviour), the

neopallium being small. The two optic lobes

(corpora bigemmina) are large.

4. The lower jaw comprises a complex of bones, articulation

being between the articular and the quadrate. There

is a single auditory ossicle, the columella auris.

The external ear is usually concealed by feathers and

has no pinna.

• 5. Sound production is achieved through the syrinx at the

base of the trachea. The larynx is rudimentary and lacks vocal cords.

• 6. There are no teeth, apart from a temporary 'egg tooth'

facilitating hatching. A horny bill covers both upper

and lower jaws.

7. The nostrils lead directly into the buccal cavity.

Cheeks and a secondary palate are absent.

• 8. The fore limb is modified into a wing, typically able

to support the bird in flight. It is the 'hand' region

that is modified, with a greatly elongated central

finger supporting the main flight feathers. A separate

anterior finger supports the alula (bastard wing), a

small tuft of aerodynamically important feathers.

A reduced posterior finger gives support to the central

finger. The hind limb is variously modified for

bipedal locomotion on land or swimming or both.

Typically it has a backwardly directed first toe (hallux)

and three forward-pointing toes. Both pectoral and

pelvic girdles are highly specialised, for weight

bearing in the ~ir and on land respectively.

18

T H E B I R D S

9. The long bones and vertebrae lack epiphyses. The

e cervical vertebrae have saddle-shaped (heterocoelous)

centra to give great mobility to the neck: the rest

of the backbone is relatively rigid.

10. The heart is four-chambered giving rise to distinct

e systemic and pulmonary circulations. The left aortic

arch is absent. The erythrocytes are round nucleated

discs.

e 11. There is no diaphragm. An elaborate system of nine

air-sacs extends from the lungs to all parts of the

body.

e 12. The eggs are large and yolky with a chalky shell.

Fertilisation is internal. An amnion and allantois

are formed during development. Incubation of the egg

is typically effected by one or both parents, usually

within a constructed nest. Subsequently most forms

exhibit complex parental care.

13. A constant internal temperature is typical. It is

usually higher than that of mammals, just above 40°C.

SUPERORDER

[

RATITAE

AVES ------------------------;--TINAMAE

CARINATAE

19

T H E B I R D S

aftershaft

flight feather

ridged proximal----~~~:\ barbule

·nterlocking barbs

free barb s

contour feather

20

d istal barbul es

proximal barbules

hooked distal barbule

down feather

T H E B I R D S

dorsal view ventral view

rectr ices

diagram to show the pattern of feather tracts (pterylosis)

21 B

N

N

ho

rny

b

ill

ex

tern

al

cere

bra

l h

em

isp

here

I

olf

acto

ry l

ob

e

po

sit

ion

o

f ey

e

op

tic lo

be

cere

bell

um

inte

rna

l n

ari

s

vesti

gia

l la

ryn

x

od

on

toid

verte

bra

cerv

ica

l v

ert

eb

rae

dia

gra

mm

ati

c sag

itta

l secti

on

o

f th

e

head

a

nd

an

teri

or

neck

o

f a

bir

d

co

rd

""" = 1:'

1 0:1

tot

;.:1 I:'

(/l

T H E B I R D S

cerebral hemispheres

cerebellum

olfactory lobe

medulla oblongata optic nerve optic lobe

lateral view of the brain of a bird

small neopallium

·:)··· . . . . . .... . .

optic chiasma

lateral ventricle

transverse section through the cerebral hemispheres

23

1atera1 view

dorsa1 view

T H E B I R D S

postorbita1

1achryma1 vomer

pa1atine pterygoid

fronta1

interparieta1

parieta1

squamosa1

articu1ar

surangu1ar

quadratojuga1

juga1

fronta1

1achryma1

the sku11 of a bird

24

quadratojuga1

squamosa1

parieta1

interparieta1

T H E B I R D S

foramen to admi t '-"lr--+- the inter c l avicular airsac

humcrals or tertiary remiges

remige~

radiale -----,n ulnare

digit I (alula)

d igit II

primary remiges

wing of a bird

25

THE BIRDS

synsacrum

s ciatic foramen

free caudal vertebrae

f ibula

tarsometatarsus

digit II __ ,.::::::Jc::::;;~~~ "C=::r:::~

digit III

digit IV digit I thind toe or haLlux)

hind limb, pelvis and tail of a bird

26

N

"--

fuse

d th

ora

cic

v

ert

eb

rae

~

1 s~v ·

~~ ~

~ ~~~

sca

pu

la ~; \~~~

'• '"

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ram

en

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M

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ate

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an

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) /

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r (c

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el

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sh

ow

th

e an

tag

on

isti

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on

o

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ecto

ral

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scle

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f

lap

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1-3 ::c

1:>1

t:D

H

)<)

0 [/l

I

II

III

IV

,·ena e c a va e

T H E B I R D S

---- .....

,..--- .....

e xte rna l interna l carotid c a rotid

----.....

,_- - - .....

1--------+ c ommon ca r otid

base of l eft a r ch

a r ter y

ventr i cle

aur i c l e '-,_~----~- pulmonary vein

-----dor sal aor ta

diagram of the heart and aortic arches of a bird

29

humerus

cervical

anterior thoracic airsac

posterior thoracic airsac

T H E B I R D S

diagram of t he syrinx

bronchus

diagram of the lungs and airsacs of a bird

30

airsac

dorsa l view

lateral vie••

chorion

porous shell membrane

THE BIRDS

blastodisc

• albumen

d iagram of the dVian egg

amnion embryo

diagram of the developing egg to show the relationships of the extraembryonic membranes

31

shell membrane

air space

shell membrane 2

air space

Part I

Ground Birds

The ecological grouping of ground-living birds

comprises the ratites, their poorly flying relatives, the

tinamous, and two carinate orders, the Galliformes or game

birds and the Gruiformes. The Gruiformes are a more

diverse order with cranes, rails and bustards among the

more familiar and numerous families. The ground birds

thus include two entire superorders and a segment of a

third of the three superorders we have distinguished as

discussed earlier on page 4.

Apart from a few exceptional aquatic forms, such as

the coots and the finfoots, ground birds are basically

omnivores taking food from the ground and often using

their strong legs and feet to expose buried food by

scratching like the domestic fowl. Although tinamous

and the vast majority of the Galliformes and Gruiformes

can fly, most resort to flight reluctantly and for short

distances, usually escaping from predators by running.

Only a few like quails and some cranes are migratory.

Almost all these birds nest on the ground though the

nest is seldom more than a surface scrape with a minimal

use of ground materials. Sexual dimorphism is not uncommon,

the camouflaged female incubating the eggs. The more

conspicuous male takes little part in parental care of eggs

or young. This condition may lead to the males being

polygamous, with social courtship at 1 leks 1 • The young

are always precocial, quickly drying their down feathers

after hatching and leaving the nest to forage for their

own food, so that parental care is minimal.

32

P A R T I G R 0 U N D B I R D S

Ground birds thus spend most of their lives on or

close to the ground. They show enough primitive features

to warrant their being used as a starting point for the

treatment of the birds, but it must not be supposed that

avian evolution necessarily began from an ancestor of

this type.

SUPERORDER ORDER

STRUTHIONIFORMES

RHEIFORMES

CASUARIIFORMES

APTERYGIFORMES

TINAMAE ------TINAMIFORMES

-{

GALLIFORMES

CARINATAE (part)

GRUIFORMES

33

3 Ratites & Tinamous

There are five families of living ratites, four with

a single genus. The ostrich of Africa, t.he rheas of South

America and the kiwis of New Zealand are placed in separate

orders, while the emu and cassowaries of Australia and New

Guinea belong to separate families in a fourth order.

Two other ratite groups have become extinct so recently

as to need mention, the moas of New Zealand and the

elephant birds of Madagascar. Both almost certainly owe

their final extinction to human interference. Some 25

species of moas, belonging to two families, are known, and

are usually placed in the Order Dinornithiformes, though

some authorities merge them with the kiwis in the

Apterygiformes. The 9 known species of elephant birds

comprise the Order Aepyornithiformes. All ratites,

except for the ostrich which extends just north of the

equator and until recently occurred also from Arabia to

Syria, are restricted to the southern hemisphere.

Apart from the chicken-sized kiwis, ratites are

~eavily built ground birds with massive hind limbs for

fast sustained running. The wings are so reduced that

flight is impossible, but the degree of reduction differs

greatly in the different families.

Nevertheless ratites have most of the structural and

physiological adaptations associated with flight, so that

their flightlessness is probably secondary, and possibly

convergent, since the various orders may not even be

closely related. Some of the ratite characters are

essentially juvenile, so that they may be regarded as

34

R A T I T E S A N D T I N A M 0 U S

neotenous rather than primitive. But even if the ratites

are polyphyletic they share enough characters to warrant

a separate treatment from all other birds and are

therefore treated here as a separate superorder.

The second superorder of birds considered in this

chapter are the tinamous of South America, a group about

which comparatively little is known even in their area of

occurrence. Most species have a partridge-like appearance

with mottled brown plumage and range in size from that of

a bantam to a large cockerel. It is not surprising

therefore that they were originally placed with the game

birds in the Galliformes. But they are in fact quite

primitive birds combining both ratite and carinate

characters. They resemble the ratites in having the

suture jointed type of palate known as palaeognathous (p.38).

On the other hand, as flying birds, they share with the

carinates the keeled sternum supporting well developed

flight muscles. They also have a 1wish-bone 1 of fused

clavicles and true flight feathers with interlocking barbs

to furnish a stiff vane. Nevertheless many authorities

consider that their closest relatives are the rheas,

ratites also from South America. Because of their

essential intermediacy the tinamous have been treated as

a separate superorder.

SUPERORDER

RATITAE

STRUTHIONIFORMES ----Struthionidae

RHEIFORMES -------Rheidae

-{

Casuariidae

CASUARIIFORMES

Dromaiidae

APTERYGIFORMES ---------Apterygidae

35

ostrich

rheas

cassowarie•

emu

kiwis


Superorder Ratitae - Running Birds

Aves in which:-

• 1. The wings are reduced, even vestigial, a nd incapable

of sustaining flight.

e 2. The legs are massive and muscular, being the only

organs of locomotion.

e 3. The body feathers are randomly arranged. The

wing and tail feathers have no interlocking barbules

so that no firm vane is present.

• 4. The sternum is small and flat, lacking a median

keel or carina (i.e. it is non-carinate). The

pectoral muscles are much reduced. (p. 37)

• 5. The palate bones are sutured together so that little

movement is possible, a condition known as

palaeognathous. There is a prominent basipterygoid

process from the cranial wall and the vomers are

large. (p.38)

e 6. The pectoral girdle has vestigial clavicles or none.

The coracoid and scapula are fused and very nearly

in a straight line. (p.37)

• 7. The pelvic girdle is typically massive. The ilium

and ischium do not fuse posteriorly to enclose a

sciatic foramen. (p.40)

• 8. Typically there is no fusion of caudal vertebrae

to form a pygostyle. In the ostri9h, however, there is a vestigial pygostyle.

)

r Rheiformes

Struthioniformes I

Apterygiformes

distribution of the Ratitae

36


scapula

sternum

anterior vie'" lateral vie••

carinate

a nterior view lateral view

the pectoral girdle and sternum in ratite a nd carinate birds

37

w

00

pre

vo

mers

lo

ck

ro

stru

m to

m

ax

illo

-pala

tin

e

pro

cess

(s

utu

red

p

ala

te)

rost

rum

max

illo

-pala

tin

e

pre

vom

er;

max

illo

-pala

tin

e

att

ach

men

t ab

sen

t (h

ing

ed

p

ala

te)

pre

vo

mer ----1

---+

p

ala

tin

e o

verl

ap

s

J 1

max

illo

-p

ala

tin

e

pala

tin

e -----

++

--"

"'

pte

ryg

oid

!

! )

basip

tery

go

id

I I

,,.,.(

R:"

pro

cess

qu

ad

rate

__

...

pala

eo

gn

ath

ou

s p

ala

te

neo

gn

ath

ou

s (s

ch

izo

gn

ath

ou

s)

pala

te

pala

tal

vie

ws

of

bir

d sk

ull

s

;:a > .., H

.., t'l

Ul >

z 0 ..., H z >

X

0 c::

Ul

w

'-0

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tery

go

id

pro

cess ab

sen

t

max

illo

-pala

tin

e p

rocesses

fuse

d to

fo

rm

a p

late

b

eneath

p

rev

om

crs

des

mo

gn

ath

ou

s p

alate

pre

vom

er

s en

larg

ed

to fill

sp

ace

betw

een

ro

str

al

tip

a

nd

un

fus

ed

max

illo

-pala

tines

maxillo-palatine------~~

pre

vo

me

r I

.\\

r J

ros

tru

m

J'i<"

<\:1

pala

tin

e / k

pte

ry

goid

---

----

++

----

+

qu

ad

rate

~

basi p

tery

go

id

pro

cess

a

bsen

t

aeg

ith

og

nath

ou

s pala

te

pala

tal

vie

ws

of

bir

d s

ku

lls

~ > .... H .... i:'l

rll >

z 0 .... H z >

:0::

0 0 rll


ilium

acetabulum

pubis

tinamou

carinate

sciatic foramen

ischium ·touches

ilium

ilium and fused

the pelvic girdles of ratite, tinamou and carinate birds

40


Order Struthioniformes, Family Struthionidae - Ostrich

Ratitae in which:-

• 1. The wing is well developed for a ratite, and bears

16 primaries. Though incapable of supporting

flight it is flapped vigorously to assist running.

e 2. The very massive hind limb has only two toes, the

third and fourth. The third toe is very large

and clawed; the fourth is much smaller and lacks

a claw.

e 3. The tail contains up to 60 feathers, but they are

arranged in layers and only 14 are true rectrices.

e 4. The pubes are curved inwardly to meet each other

in a pubic symphysis.

and do not meet.

The ischia are straight

5. The ostrich is now confined to the more arid

savannas of Africa, though until recently it

occurre d in Arabia and Syria. Standing 2.5 m high,

it is the world's largest living bird.

only 1 species.

Example: - Struth io .

ostrich -

41

There is


Order Rheiformes, Family Rheidae - Rheas

Ratitae in which:-

• 1. The wing is fairly well developed for a ratite

and bears 12 primaries.

2. The strong hind limb has three sub-equal front

toes, all bearing claws.

• 3· The tail is lacking. There are no rectrices.

• 4· There is no pubic symphysis, but the ischia are

curved inwardly to meet in an ischiatic symphysis.

5. The members are confined to the grasslands of South

America. There are 2 species in separate genera;

one stands over 1.5 m and the other just over 1 m.

Examples:- Rhea, Pteroicnemia

distribution of the Rheidae

42

greater rhea - Rhea


Order Casuariiformes

Ratitae in which:-

• 1. The wing is greatly reduced and carries a maximum

of 7 primaries.

2. The strong hind limb has three sub-equal front toes,

all bearing claws.

3. The tail is lacking. There are no rectrices.

4. There is no pubic symphysis and no ischiatic

symphysis.

foot of cassowary

foot of e mu

43


Family Casuariidae - Cassowaries

Casuariiformes in which:-

• 1. The reduced wing bears 3 spine-like primaries.

• 2. There is a heavy protective casque on the

forehead and crown. The neck is devoid of

feathers and brilliantly coloured.

3. The adult plumage is black.

• 4. The inner toe is armed with a very long

sharp claw.

5. The members occur in the rain forests of

tropical Queensland, New Guinea and some

adjacent islands.

a single genus.

There are 3 species in

Example:- Casuarius.

Australian cassowary Casuarius

44


Family Dromaiidae - Emu

Casuariiformes in which:-

• 1. The reduced wing has no quill feathers, but

there are up to 7 primaries undifferentiated

from the body feathers, all of which have

aftershafts as long as the main feather.

• 2. The top of the head does not bear a protective

casque and the neck has scanty small feathers

revealing the pale blue skin.

3. The adult plumage is brown.

4. The claw on the inner toe is not enlarged.

5. The emu is confined to mainland Australia.

There is a single species.

Example : - Dromaius .

emu - Dromaius

45


Order Apterygiformes, Family Apterygidae - Kiwis

Ratitae in which:-

e 1. The wing is vestigial and completely concealed

beneath the body feathers, the hand region being

virtually absent All feathers are rather hair-like.

e 2. The leg is short but stout and has four toes. The

three front toes are long, the hind toe small and

raised. All the toes bear claws.

3. The tail is lacking. There are no rectrices.

4. There is no pubic symphysis and no ischiatic

symphysis.

5. The members are confined to the two main islands

of New Zealand. There are 3 species in a single

genus.

nearly

They range in height from 0.5 m to

m.

e 6. The long flexible pointed bill is unique amongst

b i rds in having t erminal nostr i l s associated with

feeding on earthworms at night.

Examp1e : - Apteryx .

k iwi - Apter yx

46


Superorder Tinamae, Order Tinamiformes, Family Tinamidae

Aves in which:- - Tinamous

1. The wings are small and rounded, but able to support

flight over short distances.

2. The legs are strong and often moderately long.

Most members evade predators by running rather than

by flight.

e 3. The body feathers are arranged in definite tracts

(pterylae). The wing feathers possess interlocking

barbules to produce a stiff vane, but the tail

feathers are reduced and play no part in flight.

e 4· The sternum has a median keel or carina (i.e. it

is carinate), but is light and deeply emarginate.

e 5. The palate bones are sutured together (palaeognathous).

There is a prominent basipterygoid process from the

cranial wall and the vomers are large.

6. The pectoral girdle has clavicles fused to form a

U-shaped furcula (wish-bone). The coracoid and

scapula are jointed together at about a right angle.

e 7. The pelvic girdle is quite light. The ilium and

ischium are not fused posteriorly to enclose a

sciatic foramen, but may come into contact.

e 8. The terminal caudal vertebrae are fused to form a

pygostyle.

9. The members are found in Central and South America,

from southern Mexico to southern Argentine. There

are 46 species in 9 genera.

Examples:- Tinamus, Crypturellus, Rhynchotus, Eudromia.

47


d istribution of the Tinamidae

.. -- t?-

crested - tinamou - Eudromia

48

4 Game Birds,

Cranes & allies

The two orders, Galliformes and Gruiformes, considered

in this chapter belong to the superorder Carinatae and

comprise a wide range of different types of bird, mostly

feeding from and nesting on the ground. Most are not

only capable of flight, but include in both orders some

notable long range migrants.

In the game birds, Galliformes, there are two

suborders, the Galli and the Opisthocomi, though the latter

contains but a single remarkable South American bird, the

hoatzin. This species, alone among living birds, develops

claws as a nestling on the first two wing digits, so that

its fore-limb resembles that of Archaeopteryx (see page 1).

The Galli contains two groups of families. In the first

are the megapodes of some islands of S.E. Asia and

Australasia, and the curassows of the American tropics.

The megapodes are unique amongst birds in that they rely

on sources of heat other than that of the parental body for

incubation. Different species utilise sun heat, volcanic

steam or the heat generated by rotting vegetation. In one

of the best studied species, the Australian mallee fowl,

the male builds a large mound of rotting vegetation

covered by sun-heated sand and, despite wide ambient

temperature changes during the prolonged breeding season,

actively maintains a remarkably constant temperature at

the depth at which the female deposits the eggs.

Thermoreceptors in the buccal cavity of the male make

this control possible, the bill being frequently thrust

into the nest mound and adjustment in the mound made.

In addition, most young megapodes are remarkable in a

49

G A M E B I R D S , C R A N E S & A L L I E S

second respect. They are said to be 'super-precocial'

in that they can fly within 24 hours of hatching, the

downy young stage typical of precocial species being

passed within the egg. In some species the young never

even see their parents so that this elaborate mound

building affords an excellent example of instinctive

behaviour.

The second group of four families in the Galli are

the true game birds and include a number of birds made

familiar through long domestication for the table, for

their eggs or for the beauty of their plumage. The four

families are the Holarctic grouse; the worldwide pheasants,

francolins, partridges, chickens and peacocks; the African

guinea fowl and the North American turkeys.

The Gruiformes are a group of 12 families diverse

enough to comprise eight suborders. Not all are strictly

ground birds. One small suborder, the Heliornithes,

comprises the three species of finfoot from Africa,

S.E. Asia and America, which are grebe-like even to the

extent of having broadly lobed toes for swimming and diving.

A second central family, the Rallidae, includes some fully

terrestrial species, perhaps a majority of marshland rails_,

but also the aquatic coots and mOorhens. These aquatics

have lobed toes, derive much of their food from aquatic

organisms and build reed nests at water level, their

precocial chicks swimming as soon as the down feathers dry.

The rails include a number of endangered species, isolated

on tropical islands, many of them secondarily flightless.

Several such species have already become extinct, usually

through introduced predators rather than through Man's

direct action.

The most noteworthy of the remaining families are

the cranes, with representatives in all the continents

except South America, and the bustards found mostly in

open plains of the Old World. On the other hand there

are some remarkably restricted families, such as the

mesites of Madagascar and the kagu found only in New

Caledonia.

so

G A M E B I R D S 1 C R A N E S & A L L I E S

Superorder Carinatae - Typical Flying Birds

Aves in which:-

e 1. The wings are typically well developed for flight

and fold to the body when not in use.

2. The legs are very variably developed, but are of

light construction. Most forms escape by flight

rather than by running

e 3. The body feathers are arranged in a p~ttern of

definite tracts (pterylae) significantly differing

in the different orders. The wing feathers, and

typically the tail feathers also, possess

interlocking barbules to produce a stiff vane.(pp.20,21)

e 4· The sternum bears a median keel or carina (i.e.

it is carinate) to which the pectoral flight

muscles are attached. (pp.28,37)

• 5. The palate is hinge jointed (neognathous), there

are no basipterygoid processes to the cranial wall

and the vomers are typically small. (p. 38)

• 6. The pectoral girdle has clavicles fused to form a

U- or Y-shaped furcula. The coracoid and scapula

are jointed at right angles. (p.37)

e 7• The pelvic girdle is lightly built and the ilium

and ischium are fused posteriorly to enclose a

sciatic foramen. (p.40)

e 8. The terminal caudal vertebrae are fused to form a

pygostyle to which the tail feathers (rectrices)

are attached. (p.26)

SUPERORDER

- ---------------------------;[GALLIFORMES CARINATAE -

(part) GRUIFORMES

51


Order Galliformes - Game birds

Carinatae in which:-

1. The members are ground birds ranging in size from

the very small quails (13 em) to large turkeys and

the peacock (over 1 m) while some very long-tailed

pheasants can measure over-all almost 2 m.

2. The plumage is very variable but contour feathers

• typically have a prominent aftershaft. Some forms

(pheasants, peacock) show pronounced sexual

dimorphism.

• 3. The bill is weak and slightly decurved.

• •!-· The legs are strong. The 3 front toes with claws

are well developed, while the hind"toe is smaller

and raised. Extra spurs are frequently present,

particularly in males.

• 5. The wings are relatively short and flight is rapid

but of short duration, most forms escape by running

rather than by flight.

6. The palate is schizognathous. (p.38)

7. The nest is characteristically a lined hollow on

the ground but the megapodes are unique amongst

birds in burying their eggs in the ground and

depending on ground heat (rotting vegetation or

volcanic activity) for incubation. Eggs vary in

number from 2 - 24, but are typically plain coloured

or very lightly freckled.

• 8. The downy young are precocial, finding their own

food after hatching in most cases. The hoatzin

is, however, almost altricial, the megapodes

'super-precocial'.

SUBORDER

- ------------------------4[GALLI GALLIFORMES

OPISTHOCOMI

52

c


Suborder Galli

Galliformes in which:-

1. The wing conforms with that of all other living

birds in lacking claws on the digits of the

juveniles.

2. The flight feathers develop quite rapidly.

3. The upper mandible is not movably jointed to the

rest of the skull.

4. The digestive tract is characterised by a thin

walled crop and a powerful muscular gizzard.

5. There is no sternal callosity.

SUBORDER

Megapodidae megapod.es

Cracidae curassows

Tetraonidae grouse

Phasianidae pheasants

Numididae guinea fowl

Meleagrididae turkeys

53


Family Megapodidae - Megapodes or Mound Builders

Galli in which:-

• 1. Elaborate ground nests are constructed to

utilise an external heat source for incubation.

The females do not incubate the buffy white

eggs.

2. The plumage is typically cryptic and there is

little sexual dimorphism.

• J. The young are super-precocial, flying within

24 hours of hatching.

4· The members occur in some islands of S.E. Asia;

in New Guinea and much of Australia.


There

Examples:- Talegalla, Megapodius, Leipoa, Alectura.

distribution of the Hegapodidae

--- ----=---·-...__ brush turkey - Alectura

54


Family Cracidae - Curassows and Guans

Galli in which:-

1. Nests are constructed on or close to the

ground and the pure white eggs are incubated

by the female.

2. The plumage is typically glossy with little

pattern. Many species are crested. The

sexes are typically alike.

e J. The precocial young are hatched with advanced

wing feathers and usually fly after 3 or 4 days.

4. The members are confined to warmer parts of

the New World. There are 44 species in

8 genera.

Examples:- Crax, Penelope, Ortalis.

razor - billed curassow - ~

distribution of the Cracidae

55


Family Tetraonidae - Grouse

Galli in which:-

1. The nest is a ground hollow with little lining.

The unspotted dull coloured eggs are incubated

by the female.

2. The plumage is mainly cryptic, but some species

have conspicuous areas of display feathers.

The sexes are often unlike. Many species are

e polygamous, the males displaying in competition

at special places, the leks.

3. The downy young are tended by the female and

are slow to fly.

4. The members have a northerly circumpolar

distribution and some species are adapted to

snow in high latitudes. There are 16

species in 8 genera.

·::

Examples:- Tetrao, Lagopus, Bonasa, Lyrurus, Tympanuchus.

--. -- :- ~. - ---

56

distribution of the Tetraonidae

black grouse - Lyrurus


Family Phasianidae - Pheasants, Francolins, Jungle Fowl

Galli in which:-

1. The nest is a ground hollow with little lining.

The dull coloured eggs are incubated by the

female or both parents.

2. The plumage may be cryptic or brilliantly

coloured in the males; many species with

strong sexual dimorphism are also polygamous.

3. The downy young are tended by one or both

parents and are slow to fly .

4. The members are worldwide ; a few are migratory.

There are 183 species in 48 genera.

Examples:- Gallus, Francolinus, Phasianus, Pavo, ~·

ring-necked pheasant - Phasianu s

57


Family Numididae - Guinea Fowl

Galli in which:-

1. The nest is a ground hollow wit h little lining.

The pale coloured eggs are incubated by the

female.

e 2. The plumage is blackish with small white spots;

the sexes are alike.

3. The downy young are tended by both parents

and are slow to fly.

4. The me mbe rs are confined to Africa sout h of

the Sahara and Madagascar.


Examples:- Numida, Guttera.

distribution of the Numididae

There are 8

guineafowl - Numida

58


Family Meleagrididae - Turkeys

Galli in which:-

1. The nest is a hollow in the ground with

little lining. The speckled buff eggs are

incubated by the female.

2. The plumage is mainly dark brown or green

• but with strongly barred wings and tail.

The female is smaller and more dull coloured

than the male.

J. The downy young are cared for by the female

and are slow to fly.

4. The members are confined to southern North

t urke y ~!el eagris

America. There are two species in separate

genera.

Example s : - Me l eagris , Agriochar i s .

distribution of the Nel e agridae

59


Suborder Opisthocomi, Family Opisthocomidae - Hoatzin

Galliformes in which:-

• 1. The wing of the juvenile bird recalls that of

Archaeopteryx, in possessing special movable claws

on the first and second digits.

• ~. The development of the flight feathers is retarded,

the young bird scrambles about, using its wing claws,

for some time after leaving the nest.

• 3. The upper mandible is movably jointed to the rest

o f the skull (as it is also in parrots).

• 4· The digestive tract is unique amongst birds in that

it has a massive, compartmentalised crop, where

digestion mainly occurs, and a reduced gizzard.

• 5· The loaded crop makes the bird top heavy, so that

it rests on its sternum which therefore develops

a sternal callosity.

6 . The remarkable and distinctive hoatzin, the only

species, is confined to swamp forests and mangroves

of tropical South America.

Example:- Opisthocomus.

hoatzin - Opisthocomus

60


Order Gruiformes


1. The members are typically ground birds that range

in size from the very small (e.g. button quails -

11 em) to very large ( e.g. cranes- 1.5 m).

2. The plumage is very variable, but it is typically

e cryptic and loose-webbed in some areas.

3. The bill is variable, but is typically slender

and pointed.

e 4· The legs are always strong. They are very long

in cranes, the limpkins and cariamas, but very

short in button quails. The toes are typically

strong and free (lobed or webbed in the few aquatic

forms) and the hind toe is typically reduced or

absent.

5. The wings are typically rather weak and some

island forms are secondarily flightless, though

cranes are long distance migrants, employing

soaring techniques.

6.

7.

8 .

The palate is schizognathous. (p-38)

The nests are on the ground or very close to it

and typically there are 2 - 4 spotted eggs, though

the numbe r may b e high (up to 16) in some rails.

The downy young are typically precocial, but

altricial in bustards and intermediates occur

(e.g. the kagu).

crane - Grus

61


SUBORDER FAMILY

MESOENATIDEA ----Mesoenatidae

--{

Turnicidae

TURNICES

Pedionomidae

Gruidae

Aramidae

Psophiidae

GRUIFORMES

Rallidae

HELIORNITHES Heliornithidae

RHYNOCHETI Rhynochetidae

EURYPYGAE Eurypygidae

CARIAMAE Cariamidae

OTIDES Otididae

62

mesites

button quails

plains wanderer

cranes

limpkin

trumpeters

rails

finfoots

kagu

sunbittern

cariamas

bustards


Suborder Mesoenatides, Family Mesoenatidae - Mesites

Gruiformes in which:-

1. The members are quite small (thrush-sized) birds,

(25-27 em).

2. The neck is short and the head rounded.

• 3. The bill is long, slender and slightly decurved.

4-. The legs are short and carry four sub-equal strong

toes (rather like a passerine).

• 5. The plumage is brown above and white below (spotted

in one species ).

6. The downy young are precocial.

7. The members are confined to the island of Madagascar

and there are 3 species in 2 genera.

Examples:- Mesoenas, Monias.

distribution of the Mesoenatidae

me ite - ~~s_o_e_n_a_s

63


Suborder Turnices


1. The members are very small plump (sparrow-sized)

birds, .( 11-19 em).

2. The neck is very short, the round head merging

with the body.

3. The bill is typically short, slender and straight.

4· The legs are short but strong and either lack a

hind toe (Turnicidae) or it is very reduced and

raised (Pedionomidae).

5. The plumage is strongly patterned in browns and

is cryptic.

6. The downy young are precocial.

Family Turnicidae - Button-Quails

Turnices in which:-

1. The members are very small birds (11-19 em)

with virtually no neck distinguishable.

e 2. There is no hind toe.

3. The members range through the warmer areas of

the Old World. There are 15 species in

2 genera.

Examples:- Turnix, Ortyxelos,

Family Pedionomidae - Plains Wanderer

Turnices in which:-

1. The members are very small birds (16 em) with

a short neck recognisable.

• 2. A small raised hind toe is present.

3. The single species is confined to an area

of South East Australia.

Example:- Pedionomus.

64


button-quail - Turnix

plains wanderer - Pedionomus

65


Suborder Grues


1. The members range in size from very small to very

large (14 em - some rails, to 1.5 m - some cranes).

2. The neck is typically long and slender, merging

with the slender head, but may be short in some rails.

J. The bill is typically long and straight, but differs

somewhat in the different families.

e 4· The legs are strong (very long in cranes but very

short in crakes) and carry four toes, though the

hind toe varies in the different families.

5. The plumage is extremely variable.

6. The downy young are precocial, even in the aquatic

forms such as the coots.

Family Gruidae - Cranes

Grues in which:-

e 1. The members are tall graceful birds that

stand upright, ranging from 80-150 em in height.

• 2. The bill is straight and elongated.

3. The plumage is brown, grey or white.

4· The tail is short.

5. The members occur in all continents except

South America.

3 genera.


Examples:- Grus, Anthropoides, Balaerica.

(see page 61)

66


distribution of the Gruidae

crowned crane - Balearica

67


Family Aramidae - Limpkin

Grues in which:-

1. The Limpkin is a medium sized bird {60-70 em)

that stands nearly upright.

• 2. The bill is long, l a terally compressed and

de curved.

• 3. The plumage is dark olive brown with white

streaks.

4· The tail is broad and moderately long.

5. The Limpkin occurs in Florida, the West Indies

and Central and South America.

single species.

Example:- Aramus.

limpkin - Aramus

68

There is a


Family Psophiidae - Trumpeters

Grues in which:-

• 1. The members are medium sized birds that stand

hunche d, with a bent neck (43-53 em).

2. The bill is short, stout and slightly decucved.

• 3. The plumage is mostly iridescent black, but

the wing secondaries are contrasting white

or pale in colour.

4. The tail is short but with long and full coverts.

5. The membe rs are confined to tropical South

America. There are 3 species in a single genus.

Example:- Psophia.

trumpeter - Psophia

69


Family Rallidae - Rails, Gallinules and Coots

Grues in which:-

1. The members are very small to medium (14-51 em)

e laterally compressed birds that stand

horizontally with the hea d forward.

2. The bill is variable in length and shape, but

• is often surmounted by a bright coloured

(or white) forehead shield.

3. The plumage is very variable in this big family.

4· The tail is short, usually of soft feathers.

5. The distribution is worldwide. There are

124 species in 41 genera.

Examples:- Rallus, Crex, Porzana, Gallinula, Fulicat Tribonyx.

Ta manian waterhen - Tribonyx

70


Suborder Heliornithes, Family Heliornithidae - Finfoots


1. The members are of medium size (30-62 em).

• 2. The neck is long and sle nder me rging with the

slender head.

• 3. The bill is strong, elongate and tapering.

e 4. The legs are short and brightly coloured, the three

front toes lobed and the hind toe smaller.

5. The plumage is brown or green above and white below.

6 . The downy young are thought t o be precocial, but

little is known of the breeding behaviour.

7. The members are confined to the tropics of America,

Africa and S.E. Asia. There are 3 species in 3

genera.

Senegal finfoot ~

71


Suborder Rhynocheti, Family Rhynochetidae - Kagu


1. The only member is about the size of a chicken (56 em)

2. The neck is of moderate length, merging with the head.

• Both carry a remarkable ruff or crest of erectile

feathers.

• 3. The bill is long, red and slightly decurved.

4. The legs and feet are also red.

reduced and raised.

5. The plumage is light grey.

The hind toe is

6. In captivity the downy young remain in the nest for

3 or 4 days, i.e. they are semi-altricial.

7. The Kagu is confined to the island of New Caledonia

where it is an endangered species.

Example:- Rhynochetos.

kagu - Rhynochetos

72


Suborder Eurypygae, Family Eurypygidae - Sunbittern

Gruiformes in which:~

1. The Sunbitter.n is a curlew-sized bird ( 46 em).

• 2 • The neck is long and slender, the head enlarged.

• 3 • The bill is long, sharp and straight.

4· The legs are stout but relatively short, all four

toes are quite long.

5. The plumage is basically brownish, but with complex

e markings on head, wings and tail which are shown

in display.

6. The downy young are fully altricial.

7. The Sunbittern is confined to forested swamps of

Central and South America.

Example:- Eurypyga.

Eurypyga

73


Suborder Cariamae, Family Cariamidae - Seriemas


1. The members are large birds (75-90 em). 2 . The neck is moderately l ong, the head rounded and

• with an erect tuft of hair-like feathers at the base of the bill.

• 3· The bill is short, broad and sharply decurved at the tip.

• 4 . The legs are very long, black or red. The hind toe is a reduced, raised spur .

5. The plumage is patterned brown above, white below. 6. The downy young are fully altricial .

7. The members are confined to South America. There are 2 species in separate genera .

Examples:- Cariama, Chunga.

r ed-legged seriema - Ca r iama

74

d istribution of t h e Ca r iamidae


Suborder Otides, Family Otididae - Bustards


1. The members a r e medium to large birds (37-132 em).

• 2. The neck is long and held very erect~ the head

typically rounded and enlarged, often crested.

3. The bill is short, stout and flattened.

• 4· The legs are long and strong, the 3 front toes

rather flattened, the hind toe absent.

e 5. The plumage is strongly patterned in brown and

black above, typically white below. Many species

bear long plumes on the neck and shoulders which

are important in display.

6. The downy young are fully altricial.

7. The members are found throughout the warmer parts

of the Old World. There are 21 species in 6 genera.

75

distribution of the Otididae

Chlamydotis

Part II

Aquatic Birds

Many birds use their feet for swimming, or have

elongated legs for wading and are thus able to collect

food from aquatic environments. Such aquatic birds tend

to fall into one of three broad categories, though the

lines of demarcation are not sharp. First there are the

marine birds that derive their food from the high seas but

return to land to breed on coastal cliffs or islands.

Secondly, a rather less specialised group depend mainly

on fresh or brackish water environments for food supplies

and tend to nest close to their food source. The third

category covers the shore birds. These are encompassed

within the single large order Charadriiformes, which not

only includes the waders and their allies (well described

as shore birds), but also the gulls and auks which are as

much marine birds as any in the first category. It is

not surprising, therefore, that there is no clear taxonomic

separation of marine, freshwater and shore birds and so,

in dividing them on ecological grounds, each of the various

orders of aquatic birds has been placed in the category

that best fits the majority of its members. The three

categories will be dealt with in the order shore -

freshwater - marine since the shore birds come closest

to the ground birds while the marine forms, especially

the penguins, are the most specialised.

No general statement can be made about the form of

the bill in aquatic birds in view of their wide range of

food. But the legs and feet tend to be either paddles

or stilts. All marine birds have webbed feet acting as

paddles, as do most of the freshwater and many of the

76

PART II A Q U A T I C B I R D S

shore birds. The alternative pattern is an elongated

leg in birds adapted for feeding in shallow water, as seen

in herons and many waders, typically with little if any

web between the toes.

Shore pirds ------- CHARADRIIFORMES

GAVIIFORMES

PODICIPEDIFORMES

Aquatic birds

CICON!IFORMES

ANSERIFORMES

-fPROCELLARIIFORMES

Marine birds PELECANIFORMES

SPHENISCIFORMES

77

5 Shore Birds

The Charadriiformes are a sufficiently distinctive

order of aquatic birds to be treated as shore birds. The

order is large and diverse and comprises three rather

different suborders, the waders, the gulls and the auks.

The waders and their allies, belonging to the suborder

Charadrii, are the largest group and the most worthy of

the name shore birds. Many live on the shores of rivers

and lakes, at least seasonally, though marine shores are

frequented by many in winter and some breed on them.

Some of the families, however, are less typical and may

include a majority of land birds.

The second suborder, Lari, the gulls, terns, skuas

and skimmers, are also basically shore birds though all

but the skimmers are mainly dependent on the sea for food.

Some of them are even marine pelagics that only come ashore

to breed. On the other hand, a few gulls are becoming

increasingly inland birds, but at least roost on open

water, such as inshore seas or man-made reservoirs.

The Lari have a wide range of feeding habits.

The last suborder Alcae, the auks, are very much a

marine group taking fish for food. They come to land only

to breed and then more to rocky sea cliffs than to the

true shore line.

Almost all the orders of birds have some migrant

species, but the Charadriiformes are particularly striking

in this respect. The largest family, the Scolopacidae,

the true waders, has the great majority of its mernbers

breeding in the high latitudes of the Holarctic, but

78

S H 0 R E B I R D S

wintering in the subtropics and tropics and some go as

far south as New Zealand. The terns, a subfamily of the

Laridae, are again almost entirely long distance migrants.

The arctic tern breeds mainly in the tundra of the northern

hemisphere and then moves to Antarctica for the southern

summer, so that it must spend a smaller proportion of its

time in darkness than any other bird species.

The Charadriiformes are also interesting in that

they bridge the gap between the precocial and altricial

types of young. Apart from the crab plover, which nests

in a hole in the ground, the Charadrii are precocial, the

downy young quickly leaving the nest. Most of the Lari

and Alcae present an intermediate type of behaviour in

which the young do not stray far from the nest and are

fully dependent on parental feeding for some time. But

one gull, the kittiwake, is fully altricial; it nests on

steep cliffs and, were the young to move out of the nest

before being able to fly, they would fall to their death.

In all Charadriiformes the downy young are completely

dependent on their parents for food and are therefore not

so fully precocial as are the young of ground birds,

which typically forage for their own food directly after

hatching and have parental care limited to some protection

from predators and from lowered temperatures at night.

True shore birds show many adaptations of bill for

probing mud and sand for invertebrates living at

different depths in the shore soil.

79

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Order Charadriiformes


l· The members range in size from very small to large

e (13-76 em). Most are shore or marine birds,

though some prefer inland waters, but very few

occur away from water.

2. The plumage is typically cryptic, or black, or

grey with white.

then seasonal.

Bright colours are rare and

3. The bill is variable according to the different

modes of feeding, but tends to be elongate and

pointed.

4. The legs are well developed and often coloured.

The toes may or may not be webbed.

5· Most forms have long pointed wings and strong

flight. The auks (Alcidae) use their wings for

under water swimming, but (apart from the recently

extinct great acl<) can also fly.


e 7. The nest is on the ground (or a sea-cliff ledge),

often in colonies and typically of scant structure.

There are typically 1 to 4 rather conical eggs

with buff to green ground colour, heavily spotted

or blotched with darker markings.

8, The downy young are typically precocial, though

in some gulls and skuas the young remain in the

nest for several days.

SUBORDER

tCHARADRII

CHARADRIIFORMES ------------+-- LARI

ALCAE

so

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Sub2rder Charadrii

Charadriiformes in which:-

1. The members range in size from very small to medium

large birds (13-52 em).

2. The bill form varies greatly since most species

are specialist feeders, probing for buried

invertebrates.

• 3. The legs are typically strong and elongate,

sometimes very long. The three front toes are

typically free, the hind toe reduced or absent.

• 4. The wings are typically long and pointed, the flight

swift.

5. The plumage is variable but cryptic patterns of

brown above, with whitish or paler underparts,

predominate.

SUBORDER

Jacanidae jacanas

Rostratulidae painted snipe

Haematopodidae oystercatchers

Charadriidae plovers

Scolopacidae sandpipers

Recurvirostridae avocets, stilts

CHARADRII

Phalaropidae phalaropes

Dromadidae crab plover

Burhinidae chick-knees

Glareolidae pratincoles, coursers

Thinocoridae seedsnipe

Chionididae sheathbills

81

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Family Jacanidae - Lily-trotters, Jacanas

Charadrii in which:-

1. The members are small to medium sized birds

(17-53 em) with boldly coloured plumage and

a long straight bill. Their main feature is

e the very long legs with great elongation of

the toes for walking on floating plants.

2. They are pan-tropical in distribution.


There

Examples:- Jacana, Actophilornis, Irediparra.

American jacana

~

82

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Fami~y Rostratu~idae - Painted snipe


1. The members are fair~y sma~~ birds (19-24 em}

in whic h the p~umage of the fema~e is brighter

than that of the ma~e and is corre~ated with

e a reversa~ of the ro~e of the sexes in

courtship and care of the young. The bill

• is ~ong, s~ight~y decurved with a swo~~en tip;

the ~egs and toes are ~ong.

2. They have a souther~y distribution in the O~d

Wor~d and in centra~ Sout h America. There are

2 species in 2 genera one in the O~d Wor~d and

one in the New Wor~d.

Examp~es:- Rostratu~a, Nycticryphes.

painted snipe (Old Wor~d) Rostratula

83

=

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Family Haematopodidae - Oystercatchers


1. The members are medium sized birds (38-51 em)

• with black and white (or all black) plumage,

• bright red long bills, stout ~eddish legs

with heavy, slightly webbed toes. They

specialise on a diet of bivalve molluscs such

as mussels and cockles (but not oysters).

2. They are found, at least seasonally, on nearly

all tropical and temperate sea coasts. There

are 6 species in a single genus.

Example:- Haematopus.

oystercatcher - Haematopus

D

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Family Charadriidae - Plovers


1. The members range in size from small to medium

sized birds (15-40 em). Typically the plumage is a bold pattern of brown, black, grey and

e white; the bill is straight and short for a

wader, and the legs often brightly coloured.

2. They have a worldwide distribution.


There

Examples:- Vanellus, Charadrius, Pluvialis.

semipalmated plover - Charadrius

(a 'ringed' plover)

85

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Family Scolopacidae - Sandpipers


1. The members range in size from very small to

quite large birds ( 13-61 em). The plumage

is typically cryptic in winter, but may be

partly bright rufous in summer. The bill is

slender, of variable length, straight or

decurved, and the legs short to long and may

be brightly coloured.

• 2. The majority breed in high latitudes of the

Holarctic and winter throughout the world.

Very few breed in these other areas.


Examples:- Numenius, Calidris, Tringa, Limosa, Gallinago.

-- ··

great knot - Calidris

86

There

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Family Recurvirostridae - Avocets and Stilts


1. The me mbers are particularly graceful medium

sized birds (29-48 em), typically with a pied

e plumage. They have very long slender legs

and slender bills, straight in stilts or

curved upward in avocets.

2. They avoid high latitudes but otherwise occur

throughout the world, except for the islands

from Indonesia to New Guinea. There are 7 species in 4 genera.

-- - - ·· .:... - - - - -

distribution of t he Recurvirostridae

avocet - Recurvirostra

87

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Family Phalaropidae - Phalaropes


1. The members are small birds (19-25 em) with

pied winter plumage, but with some rufous

areas in summer, at which time the female is

• the brighter being associated with a reversal

of the roles of the sexes in courtship and

e incubation. They are the only waders that

e regularly swim. They feed on plankton while

swimming, spinning round in the water. The

bill is long and slender and the long legs

bear slightly webbed toes.

2. They breed in the northern Holarctic, but winter

either pelagically on warm seas or (one species)

in South America.

single genus.

88

There are 3 species in a

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Family Dromadidae - Crab plover


e 1. The single species is a medium sized wauer

(38 em) with a mainly white plumage (black

back and primaries), a strong laterally

compressed bill, and pale blue legs and feet

with some web between the toes.

2. The crab plover is confined to the coasts of

East Africa, Madagascar and Ara bia, east to

the Persian Gulf, India, Ceylon and the

Anda man Isla nds.

Example:- Dromas.

Q

crab plover - Dromas

89

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Family Burhinidae - Thick-knees or Stone Curlews


1. The members are medium siz ed birds (36-52 em)

with cryptic brownish plumage, but conspicuous

wing patterns in some species. The bill is

e stout and the legs have swollen ankle joints

('thick-knees'). They are birds of

crepuscular and nocturnal habit and have

e very large eyes and large heads.

2. They occur mainly in the warmer parts of the

Old World though two species have limited

ranges in the Americas.

in 2 genera.

There are 9 species

Examples:- Burhinus (formerly Oedicnemus), Esacus.

d istribu t ion of the Burh inidae

90

t hick- knee - Burhinus

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Family Glareolidae - Pratincoles and Coursers


1. The members are fairly small birds (15-25 em)

with typically brown or grey upperparts and

e white underparts and usually with bold facial

markings. The wings are long and pointed in

pratincoles, more rounded in coursers. The

bill is short (pratincoles) or long (coursers);

• the legs bear feet with a long pectinate

middle toe and typically a basal web between

the outer and middle toe.

2. They are found in the warmer parts of the

Old World. There are 17 species in 4 genera.

Examples:- Glareola, Cursorius, Pluvianus.

91

Indian courser Cursor ius

SHOKE. B.IKDS

Family Thinocoridae - Seedsnipe

• •


1. The members are fairly small birds (17-28 em)

with cryptic upperparts and buff underpar ts

and long pointe d wings . The bill is short

and sparrow-like. The legs are very short •

2. They are confined to western South America

from the equator to Cape Horn.


Example : - Thinocorus.

There are

Family Ch ionididae - Sheathbills

Charadrii in which :-

1. The members are medium sized (35-43 em) white

• birds •<lith a short stout b i ll the base of

wh ich is sheathed by fleshy caruncles . The

• legs are s hort and stout, the feet large and

sli ghtly webbed and the hind toe is raised .

2 . They breed exclusively in sub-Antarctic

islands, but one species migrates to the

eastern coasts of South America, north to

t he River Plate . There are 2 species in

a single genus .

Exampie: - Chionis.

•

distribution of the Chionididae

92

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Suborder Lari


1. The members are typically medium sized birds though

the species range in size from 20 to 76 em.

2. The bill differs in the three families, but is

powerful, straight and usually coloured.

• 3. The legs are rather short, often brightly coloured,

the three front toes fully webbed, the hind toe

vestigial and raised.

• 4· The wings are quite long, but the flight is

typically a buoyant slow flapping and many species

soar in strong winds.

5. The plumage is typically some shade of grey above

and white below (or seasonally black), but the

skuas have dark brown in their plumage.

6. Most species breed in high latitudes, though some

are notable trans-equatorial migrants.

SUBORDER SUBFAMILY

Stercorariidae - Skuas

-------------~[Larinae LARI ----+--Laridae

Stern1nae

Rhynchopidae - Skimmers

93

- Gulls

- Terns

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Family Stercorariidae - Skuas

Lari in which:-

1. The members are medium to large sized birds

• (43-61 em) with dark brown upperparts and

white or brown underparts. The bill is

strong, medium long, hooked and has a horny

• cere. Skuas are 1kleptoparasites 1 , harrying

other seabirds till they disgorge their food

which the skua catches before it hits the sea.

2. They breed in high latitudes of the Holarctic

(one species also in New Zealand, Antarctica

and South America), but migrate to subtropical

and tropical seas.

a single genus.


Example:- Stercorarius.

Family Laridae - Gulls and Terns

Lari in which:-

1. The members are smallish slender birds (terns)

or medium to large stout birds (gulls), with

e a typically grey and white plumage. The

• bill is often coloured and is slender and

sharp in terns; stout, slightly hooked in

gulls.

2. They are almost worldwide in distribution,

though mainly marine and coastal. Most gulls

are at best short-range migrants, but many

terns migrate very long distances. There


Examples:- Larus, Sterna, Chlidonias, ~·

(see p. 96)

94

S H 0 R E B I R D S

• - - - -· ---- --- ~ ------ -- - - -:..-"--:;:___:-=-----.....::...:-

Arctic skua - Stercorarius

95

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Arctic tern -~

herring gull -~

96

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Family Rhynchopidae - Skimmers

Lari in which:-

•


with nearly black upperparts and white

underparts • The bill is long, laterally

compressed and has the lower mandible longer

than the upper, to scoop plankton from the

water surface.

2. They are found in the tropics and subtropics

of the Americas, Africa and southern Asia.

There are 3 species in a single genus.

Example:- Rhynchops.

----·-.. - ~~ ..

African skimmer - Rhynchops

97

S H 0 R E B I R D S

di t ribution of the Rhynchopidae

distribution of the Alcidae

98

S H 0 R E B I R D S

Suborder Alcae, Family Alcidae - Auks


1. The members range in size from small to medium large

birds (16-76 em), that stand relatively upright.

e 2. The bill is spear-like or laterally compressed to

a marked degree in those forms known as puffins,

in which it also becomes seasonally brightly

coloured.

3. The legs are short, set far back and heavy. The

three front toes are fully webbed, the rear

e vestigial. The feet jut out sideways before

alighting on water.

e 4. The wings are rather short and can be used for

under-water swimming as well as in rapid whirring

flight.

5. The plumage is typically black above and white below.

6 . The members are confined to the c older waters of t he

Holarctic, where they form the ecological equivalent

of the penguins of Antarctica.

in 12 genera.

There are 21 species

Examples:- ~~ Cepphus, ~' Fratercula.

puffin - Frate r cula

99

6 Freshwater Birds

There are four orders of birds which may be regarded

as freshwater forms. Two of these, the Gaviiformes, the

divers or loons and the Podicipediformes, the grebes,

contain relatively primitive birds. The divers are,

perhaps, not far removed from the Cretaceous Hesperornis,

an early flightless toothed bird. In both groups nests

are built at water level and the precocial young leave the

nest to swim within hours of hatching. These two small

orders are both highly uniform, each with a single family.

The third order, Ciconiiformes, is larger and more

diverse, with the herons, storks, ibises and flamingos

forming the larger families. These birds are less strictly

aquatic. Many are birds of the water edge and marshes

while a few herons, notably the cattle egret, are terrestrial

feeders. With the exception of the flamingos, all

typically nest in trees, usually away from water, and must

therefore be altricial with the slowly developing young

needing to be able to fly before leaving the elevated nest.

Flamingos, on the other hand, are ground nesters with

precocial young and so form a link with the last of the

freshwater orders, the Anseriformes, the ducks and geese.

Some taxonomists place flamingos in the Anseriformes.

The Anseriformes have two families, so different as

to be placed in separate suborders, and very different also

in their degree of speciation. The first family, the

Anhimidae, comprise the marsh-living screamers, of which

there are only three species confined to South America.

The second family, the Anatidae, is worldwide and embraces

the various types of wildfowl known as swans, geese and

100

F R E S H W A T E R B I R D S

ducks. There is wide adaptive radiation in this well-

known family with regard to diet, method of feeding and

habitat preference. Thus some geese - the term is rather

loosely applied - are virtually the only grazing birds,

while the mergansers, with narrow serrated bills, are fish

eaters. But most ducks are more or less omnivorous,

browsing on a mixture of under-water plants and invertebrates

which they either reach by up-ending on the surface - the

'dabbling ducks' or by swimming downward in deeper water -

the 'diving ducks'. Most Anatidae inhabit still or slow

moving freshwater, but some like eiders, scoters and

mergansers spend much of their time at sea. A small group

confined to South America are adapted to the cataracts of

mountain streams and are appropriately called torrent ducks,

their precocial young miraculously surviving the inevitable

buffeting as though made of cork! Two other groups, the

wood ducks and the tree ducks spend much of their time

perching in trees and nesting in tree holes. These are

good fliers and may feed on land or in water according to

species.

Not only are the Anatidae noteworthy for their adaptive

radiation, but many of them are spectacular long distance

migrants, breeding in high latitudes and moving to the

tropics in winter. Again, most ducks, as opposed to swans

and geese, show marked sexual dimorphism, with cryptically

plumaged females (ducks) and colourful males (drakes).

Some species of Anatidae are remarkable for a wide,

discontinuous distribution without any subspecific

differentiation, like the fulvous tree-duck of India,

Africa and South America. Other species have very distinct

plumage or size differences in different parts of their

range like the Canada goose with no less than 13 distinctive

subspecies, all from within North America. When such

forms come from isolated oceanic islands taxonomists

differ as to whether they should be ranked as full

species or only subspecies. Hybridisation, even in wild

ducks, is such a well-established phenomenon that even this

standard test for speciation cannot be applied.

101


ORDER

GA VIIFORMES

PODICIPEDIFORMES

CICONIIFORMES

ANSERIFORMES

divers or loons

grebes

herons, storks, ibises & flamingos

screamers, ducks, geese & swans

Order Gaviiformes, Family Gaviidae - Divers or Loons


• 1. The members are quite large aquatic birds (66 - 95 em)

that dive to feed mainly on fish.

• 2. The plumage is dense and compact, with upper-parts

mainly black and under-parts white.

• 3. The bill is long, robust and sharply pointed.

• 4· The legs are short and very posteriorly placed so

that walking is ungainly. The tarsi are laterally

compressed, the three front toes fully webbed, the

fourth backwardly dir·ected and vestigial.

5. The wings are small and pointed. Flight is strong

but take-off requires pattering over the surface of

the water.


7. The nest is poorly constructed, a slight ground

depression at the water's edge, mainly freshwater

lakes. There are usually two eggs.

8. The downy young are precocial, swimming shortly

after hatching, and tended by both parents.

9. The members have a Holarctic distribution in high

latitudes when breeding but migrate to temperate

zone seas in winter. There are four species in

a single genus.

Example:- Gavia.

102


distribution of the Gaviidae

black-throa ted dive r - Gavia

103


Order Podicipediformes, Family Podicipedidae - Grebes


• 1. The members are small to medium sized aquatic birds (22 - 60 em) diving to feed on a mixed diet of plants and invertebrates.

• 2. The plumage is satin-like, with black, white and rufous patterns.

head tufts.

Some species have conspicuous

• 3. The bill is sharply pointed, of medium length. e 4. The legs are short, very posteriorly placed. The

tarsi are laterally compressed. The three forward toes are lobed with flat claws; the rear toe vestigial.

•

5. The wings are short and rounded, the flight weak and rarely indulged. Paradoxically some species are migratory; others quick to colonise man-made lakes.

6. The palate is schizognathous. (p. 381 7. The nest is usually a floating mass of decaying

vegetable matter. There are 3 - 9 white unspotted eggs.

8. The downy young are precocial, swimming shortly after hatching, and tended by both parents.

9. The members have a worldwide distribution. are 19 species in 4 genera.

There

Examples:- Podiceps, Podilymbus.

- -. ~-

104

great-crested gre be Podic e ps

----- "'=


Order Ciconiiformes


1. The members are typically large marsh or waterside

birds though some members are only medium sized

(28-140cm).

• 2. The plumage is variable but typically loose-textured.

3. The bill is always large but varies in shape in the

different families.

• 4· The legs are long and typically carry 3 long toes,

the fourth reduced. Apart from flamingos there

is little web between the toes.

5. The wings are large and the flight deliberate.

6. The palate is desmognathous. (p. 39)

7. The nest is typically a massive construction of sticks

in trees (except flamingos). There are 2 - 6

white to bluish eggs.

8. The young are typically altricial tended by both

parents, though flamingos are precocial.

SUBORDER

ARDEAE ------- Ardeidae

BALAENICIPITES --- Balaenicipitidae

CICONIIFORMES -t Cicohiidae

CICONIAE Scopidae

Threskiornithidae

PHOENICOPTERI ---Phoenicopteridae

105

herons

whale-headed stork

storks

hammerhead

spoonbills & ibises

flamingos


Suborder Ardeae, Family Ardeidae - Herons

Ciconiiformes in which:-

• 1. The middle toe is over half the length of the tarsus

and is pectinate (serrated to form a preening comb).

2. A partial web extends between two or all three of

the front toes.

3. The rear toe is on the same level as the front toes.

e 4. The bill is long, straight and spear-like.

e 5. Powder-down patches are prominent.

6. The members build stick nests, usually colonially,

in trees: the young are altricial.

7. The members have a worldwide distribution, apart

from tundra and desert.

18 genera.


Examples:- ~' Egretta, Nycticorax, Botauru~, But ,orides, Ardeola.

106

great white egret Egretta


Suborder Balaenicipites, Family Balaenicipitidae - Whale-headed stork


e 1. The middle toe is less than half the length of the

tarsus and is laterally serrated to form a preening

comb (pectinate).

2. There is no web between the toes.

3. The rear toe is on the same level as the front toes.

e 4. The bill is huge, shovel- or shoe-shaped and hooked.

e 5. Powder-down patches occur.

6. The nest is placed on the ground and is solitary,

but young are altricial.

7. The single species is confined to wetlands of a

limited area of eastern Africa.

Example:- Balaeniceps.

whale-headed stork Balaeniceps

107


Suborder Ciconiae

Ciconiiformes in which : -

1. The middle toe is less than half the length of the tarsus and lacks lateral serration.

2. There is no web between the toes. 3. The rear toe is raised above the level of the

front toes.

4. The bill is always large, straight or curved, differing in the different families.

5. Powder-down patches are absent. 6. The members build stick nests, typically in trees

and usually colonially. The young are altricial.

SUBORDER FAMILY

storks

CICONIAE Scopidae hammerhead -[

Ciconiidae

Threskiornithidae ibises & spoonbills

saddle-bill stork Ephippiorhynchus

108


Family Ciconiidae - Storks

Ciconiae in which:-

1. The head is often incompletely feathered,

never crested.

• 2. The bill is massive and straight, though the

mandibles are slightly parted in Anastomus

e 3. The plumage is a variable pattern of black

and white, or all black.

4. The members occur in all continents, but in

limited areas.

9 genera.

Exampl es : -

d i stribution ot' t;he Ciconiidae

l<h ite st.oPk Ciconia


109


Family Scopidae - Hammerhead

Ciconiae in which:-

• 1. The head is fully feathered and

backward pointing crest, making

essentially hammer-shaped.

has

the

a long

head

2. The bill is moderately long, straight and pointed.

• 3· The plumage is a sombre brown.

4· The single species occurs through most of

Africa south of the Sahara, Madagascar and

the southern tip of Arabia.

Example:- Scopus.

hammer head - Sc o pus

110


Family Threskiornithidae - Ibises and Spoonbills

Ciconiae in which:-

1. Apart from bare skin at the base of the bill,

the head is fully feathered. Typically

there is no crest but if present it is not

pointed backward.

• 2. The bill is either long, slender and decurved

(ibises) or very flat with spatulate tip

(spoonbills) .

3. The plumage is typically one colour (white,

scarlet, g r eenish black), apa rt from the

primaries which contrast in some species.

4· The members occur in all continents, but only

in the warmer areas of the northern ones.

There are 25 species of ibises in 13 genera

and 6 species of spoonbill in a single genus.

Examples:- Thr eskiornis, Bostr ychia, Eudocimus, Ple gadis , Platal ea .

d istribution of t he Thresk iorn ithidae

111


spoonbill - Platalea

sacred ibis - Threskiornis

112


Suborder Phoenicopteri, Family Phoenicopteridae - Flamingos

• • •


1. The middle toe is very much shorter than half the

length of the tarsus and lacks serration.

2. There is a full web between the front toes.

3. The rear toe is vestigial and raised.

4· The bill is stout, lamellate and bent sharply

down in the middle.

s . Powder-down patches are absent.

6. The members build mud nests colonially on the

ground; the young are precocia l and gather in creches.

7. The members breed in isolated colonies in the warmer

areas of all continents except Australasia. There

are 4 species in one genus ( 1 lumpers 1 ) or 3 genera

( 1 splitters 1 ),

Example: Phoenicopterus.

113

distribution of the Phoe nicopteridae

g r a t.c.- fl<uu Ln;:·o Phocnicoptct•us


Order Anseriformes


1. The members comprise two very different types of

bird, the screamers (Anhimidae) which are large

marsh birds (70 - 90 em) and the more aquatic ducks

(Anatidae) and their allies, which range in size

from 29 to 152 em.

2. The plumage is dense and waterproof but very variable.

3. The bill is chicken-like in screamers but typically

broad and lamellate in Anatidae.

4 .• The legs are short and heavy, the front toes

slightly webbed (Anhimidae) or fully webbed

(Anatidae except Anseranus).

5. The wings are typically large; flight fast and direct.

6. The palate is desmognathous. (p.39)

7. The nest is typically on the ground and feather

lined; the eggs number from 2 to 16 but are light

coloured, and unspotted.

8. The downy young are precocial 9nd in Anatidae take

to water within hours of hatching.

SUBORDER FAMILY

--[ ANHIMAE ------Anhimidae

j\NSERIFORMES

ANSERES ----~-Anatidae

114


Suborder Anhimae, Family Anhimidae - Screamers

Anseriformes in which:-

1. There is only a slight web between the three front

toes and the hind toe is long and level with the

front toes.

2. The legs are fairly short and heavy, but give the

bird an erect stance.

3. The bill is slender, slightly decurved and

chicken-like.

• 4. There are t wo long sharp spurs o n the manus region

of the wing .

• 5. The ribs lack uncinate processes. (p.27)

6. The members are confined to the warmer parts of

South America. There are 3 species in 2 genera.

Examples:- Anhima, Chauna.

horned screamer Anhima

115

distribution of the Anhimidae


Suborder Anseres, Family Anatidae - Ducks, Geese and Swans

Anseriformes in which:-

1. There is a full web between the thre e front toes;

the hind toe is much reduced a nd raised above the

front toes.

e 2. The leg s are typically very short giving the bird

a squat stance.

e 3. The bill, though variable in the different groups,

is basically broad, flattened and has lamellate

edges.

4. Typically there is no spur on the wing; the few

forms that are spurred have a single spur at the

wrist.

5. The ribs bear uncinate processes. (p. 27 )

6. The members have a world wide distribution.


There

Example s : - Cygnus , Anse r, Ta dorna, Anas, Aythya,

ma nda r i n duck - Aix

Aix, Mergus, Oxyura, Somateria, ~' Anseranus • Dendrocygna, Mel anita, Merganetta.

eider - Somateria

116

7 Marine Birds

Some carinate birds have become fully adapted to marine

life, seldom ccming near land except to breed. Typically

marine birds, including the penguins, breed colonially on

remote coasts and small offshore islands where they can nest

in comparative freedom from predation. The orders placed

in this grouping are the exclusively marine Procellariiformes

(or Tubinares), the Pelecaniformes in which there is a

progressive tendency to become freshwater birds and the

highly divergent penguins or Sphenisciformes.

The Procellariiformes comprise the albatrosses,

shearwaters, storm-petrels and diving-petrels and are al~

strictly marine. Their unique tubular nostrils, which are

either separate or united into a single tube, lie along the

upper mandible and have given rise to the order's alternative

name of Tubinares, literally tube-noses.

The Pelecaniformes are less strictly marine. Two of

the three suborders each have only a single fully marine

family, the tropicbirds and the frigatebirds. The third

suborder includes a strictly marine family, the gannets,

two others, the cormorants and the pelicans both of which

have marine and freshwater representatives, and a fourth

small family, the darters, found only on inland waters.

The Pelecaniformes also have a unique character by which

its members can be recognised. They are the only birds

with a fully webbed foot in which the hind toe as well as

the three forward toes are all incorporated.

The most highly specialised of all marine birds, however,

are the penguins, Sphenisciformes, regarded as so distinctive

that they are sometimes regarded as a separate superorder,

E 117

M A R I N E B I R D S

Spheniscae, or Impennes, meaning without having flight

feathers. The penguins have the fore limb modified to

form a flat, non-foldable paddle. They swim rapidly under

water feeding on fish and krill. On land they have an

ungainly walk and some travel over frozen ground by

tobogganing on the belly.

Marine birds cannot avoid absorbing a great deal of

salt taken in with sea-water and are thus confronted with

the physiological problem of maintaining their osmotic

balance. Most marine birds have found the solution in the

modification of their lachrymal glan<ls to excrete excess

salt into the nasal passages.

ORDER

Albat,rosses

Shearwaters

PROCELLARIIFORMES

Storm-petrels

Diving-petrels

Tropic birds

Pelicans

Gannets

Marine Birds

Cormorants

Darters

Frigate birds

SPHENISCIFORMES ---- Penguins

us


Order Procellariiformes (Tubinares)

•


1. Members range in size from small (storm-petrels)

to very large (albatrosses). All are strictly

marine birds coming to land only to breed.

2. The plumage is predominantly black, white and grey

or sooty brown.

J. The bill is typically strong and hooked ai'd composed

of se~arate horny plates • It is surmounted by

tubular nostrils, which may be separate or fused.

4· The legs are short but centrally placed. The feet

have three webbed toes.

or absent.

The hallux is vestigial

5. The wings are typically long and narrow and sustain

long effortless flight, but storm-petrels have short

rounded wings and a fluttering flight close over the

sea.

6. The palate is schizognathous. (p.JS)

7. Albatrosses make a ground scrape nest; other members

nest in burrows. All are colonial breeders and lay

a single egg, large relative to the bird's size.

8. The downy young are altricial. They remain very

long in the nest, especially in the larger forms.

Diomedeidae albatrosses

Procellariidae shearwaters

PROCELLARIIFORMES

Hydrobatidae storm-petrels

Pelecanoididae diving-petrels

119


Family Diomedeidae - Albatrosses

Procellariiformes in which:-

• 1. The members are very large birds ( 71 ·· 135 em)

with a wing span up to 4 m.

e 2. The wings are long and narrow.

e 3. The nostrils are lat-eral and ur fused.

4· The members are mainly confined to oceans of

the southern hemisphere.

in a single genus.


wandering albat ross - Diomedea

120


Family Prccellariidae - Shearwaters


1. The members are medium sized birds (28- 91 em).

e 2. The wings are long and narrow.

• 3. The nostrils are dorsal, but separate.

4. The members are found mainly in cold seas but

some species perform trans-equatorial migration.


Examples: Fulmarus, Puffinus, Pterodroma,

Macr onectes.

fulmar - Fulmaru -

giant f ulmar - Macr onecte s

121


--- -- -- -- y2 -- --~- -~--~-~--~~~

breed ing coasts of t he Proce llariidae

bree ding coasts of the Hydrobatidae

122


Family Hydrobatidae - Storm-petrels


1. The members are small birds (14- 25 em).

2. The wings are short and rounded.

e 3. The nostrils are dcrsal and fused mesially.

4· The members breed in high latitudes, but some

are trans-equatorial migrants.


There are

Examples: Oceanites, Hydrobates, Oceanodroma.

storm petrel - Hydrobates

123


Family Pelecanoididae - Diving-petrels


1 . The members are small, stocky birds (16 - ~5 em).

e 2. The wings are short, pointed and strong, being

used for under- water swimming.

• 3· The nostrils are dorsal, fused and point upward.

4· There are four species in a single genus; three

are confined to antarctic waters, the fourth

r anges north to the coasts of Peru.

Example: Pelecanoides

d iving - petre l - Pelecanoides

124


Order Pelecaniformes


1. The members are large to very large birds that are

fully aquatic and feed on fish.

2. The plumage is variable, but black predominates in

three families: the others are uniform in colour

but with black in the wings.

3. The bill is large to very large, but each family

has a distinct bill form.

4· The legs are short and central to backward in

e position. The four toes are united by a single web.

The inclusion of the hallux in the web occurs in no

other aqua tic birds. ( p. 12 7)

5. The wings are long and typically pointed. Most

forms are strong fliers.

6. The palate is desmognathous. ( p. 39)

7. Typically the nest is a bulky structure of sticks

placed in a tree, though a few have ground nests.

1 - 4 white or pale blue eggs.

8. The young are altricial, naked or downy when hatched,

and tended by both parents.

SUBORDER

PHAETHONTES -- Phaethontidae tropic birds

Pelecanidae pelicans

Sulidae gannets

PELECANIFORMES PELECANI

Phalacrocoracidae cormorants

Anhingidae darters

FREGATAE ---- Fregatidae frigatebirds

125


Suborder Phaethontes, Family Phaethontidae - Tropicbirds

Peleca niformes in which:-

• 1. The central tail f eathers are greatly elonga t ed and

nea rly e qua l in length t o t h e b ody.

2. The 8th and 9th cervical vertebrae are unmodified

and the neck normal.

3. The web between the toe s is not incised .

4· The bill is short, stout and slightly decurved.

s. The members are strictly marine, coming ashore only

to breed . They a r e c onfined to tropical sea s and

compri se 3 species in a s ingle genus .

Example: Phaethon

r e d-bille d t ropicbird - Phaethon

distribution of the Phaethontidae

126


Suborder Pelecani

Pelecaniformes in which:-

1. The tail is short or fairly long and typically

graduated, but never with very elongate central

feathers, nor forked.

• 2. The 8th and 9th cervical vertebrae are modified to

articulate at right angles with those in front and

behind so that the neck has a slight crook, quite

pronounced in darters.

3. The web between the toes is not incised.

4. The bill differs in the different families, but is

always elongate and straight.

Family Pelecar>idae - Pelicans

Pelecani in which:-

blue-footed booby Sula

• 1. The bill is very long, hooked at the tip and

carrying below a huge, typically brightly

coloured, gular pouch.

2. The plumage is white, grey or brown with black

wing primaries.

3. The tail is very short but graduated.

4. The members comprise 7 species in a single

genus. Distribution is in the warmer parts

of all continents. They occur in both coastal

and inland waters.

Example: Pelecanus.

127


white peli can - Pe l e c anu s

12 8


Fami.ly Sulidae - Gannets and Boobies

Pelecani in which:-

e 1. The bill is stout, conical, pointed, slightly

curved at the tip and lacks a gular pouc h .

2. The plumage is typically white with black wings

or primaries artd sometimes a black tail.

3· The tail is of medium length and graduated.

4· The members are strictly marine, mainly in

temperate seas , but basically worldwide.

They comprise 7 species in a single genus.

Example: Sula. (see p.127)

blue - foot e d b ooby - ~

129


Family Phalacrocoracidae - Cormorants

Pelecani in which:-

e 1. The bill is cylindrical, slender, hooked at

the tip and lacks a gular pouch.

2. The plumage is mostly black, though some have

white underparts.

3· The tail is quite long, stiff and graduated.

4. The members comprise 30 species in 2 genera.

Dist.r ibution is worldwide in both coastal

and inland waters.

Examples: Phalacrocorax, Nannopterum.

distribution of the Phala crocoracidae

cormorant - Phalacrocorax

130


Family Anhingidae - Darters

Pelecani in which:-

• 1. The bill is long, slender, sharply pointed

and lacks a gular pouch.

2. The plumage is mostly dark trown to black.

J. The tail is long, stiff and ungraduated.

4. The members comprise 4 species in a single

genus. They have a pantropical distribution

in inlard waters.

Example: Anhinga.

distribution of the Anhing·dae

darter - Anhinga

131


Suborder Fregatae, Family Fregatidae - Frigatebirds

Pelecaniformes in which:-

• 1. The tail is long and very strongly forked.

2. The 8th and 9th cervical vertebrae are unmodified and the neck normal.

3. The web between the toes is deeply incised.

4· The bill is long with a hooked tip. The males

e have a remarkable brightly coloured inflatable

gular pouch.

5. The members are marine, but they remain close to land throughout the y e ar, roosting ashore near

their breeding colonies. They comprise 5 species in a single genus and are confined to tropical oceans.

Example: Fregata.

greater frigatebird -

132


Order Sphenisciformes, Family Spheniscidae - Penguins

Aves in which:-

• 1. The members are n:e d.ium small to very large marine

birds that mainly come to land only to breed, though

some come ashore to roost. The y cannot. fly.

z. The plumage is black above and white below, relieved

in some species by some colour in the neck or head.

• The feathers are small, glossy and very close set.

J. The bill is short and stout to fairly long, curved

and pointed.

• 4. The legs are short, strong and so posteriorly

placed that the bird stands upright. The three

forward toes are webbed and the hallux reduced.

• 5. The wings are modified into flat paddles that

cannot be folded.

6. The palate is desmognathous. ( P· 39)

7. The nest, if any, is on the ground or in a burrow.

Usually 2 white to pale clive-green eggs. In

Aptenodytes, t-here is no nest and the single egg

is carried on the feet.

8. The downy young are altricial but later gather in

creches though still fed by their own parents.

9. the members are confined to the southern hemisphere,

mainly in the colder parts, though one species occurs

in the Galapagos. There are 16 species in 6 genera.

Examples: Pygoscelis, Eudyptes, Aptenodytes, Spheniscus. ·

distribution of the Sphenisciformes

133


penguin - Apte nodvtes

rock hoppe r - ·udyptcs

134

Part III

Perching Birds

The remaining orders can be conveniently grouped nS

perching birds and include firstly the raptors, or birds of

prey, then a whole series of essentially arboreal birds,

ranging from the relatively unspecialised pigeons to the

highly modified woodpeckers, and particularly the passerines

which comprise well over half the birds living today.

Also included are the aerial feeders, the swifts, nightjars

und their allies, which, paradoxically are largely unable to

perch, but are clearly related to the perchers. The swifts

have such small legs and feet that they cannot perch, while

the nightjars and their allies would invalidate their cryptic

plumage if they did so.

On the other hand, perching is not confined to members

of these orders, for some ground birds perch and many of the

aquatic birds, especially in the tree-nesting families of

the Ciconiiformes, are adept at perching. Nevertheless

the great majority of the birds considered in this part

regularly perch, roost and breed in trees or shrubs, and

thus gain protection from predators unable to climb.

Birds of Prey

Arboreal Birds

Aerial Feeders

Passerines

135

8 Birds of Prey

The combination of flight, bipedal gait and an adaptable

beak has enabled birds to exploit almost every environment

and a wide range of diets. Flight involves a high energy

output. Most birds use only high energy foods and few

provide more energy than the flesh of other vertebrates.

Two orders of birds are essentially top carnivores, and

rely largely on other vertebrates, including birds, as their

source of food. These raptors or predators are the day

flying Falconiformes, the hawks, eagles and falcons and

their nocturnal counterparts, the Strigiformes, the owls.

These two orders are not closely related but are here

considered together because their ecological similarity has

led to a high degree of convergence. Both groups have

powerful legs and feet armed with strong claws that are the

main killer weapons and strong hooked bills adapted for

tearing flesh. But they differ in the way they locate their

prey. The diurnal Falconiformes have extremely acute vision

while the nocturnal Strigiformes rely mainly on hearing with

large asymmetric ears to detect prey. This necessitates

soundless movement on their own part, achieved by specialised

flight feathers. Owls also have large dark-adapted eyes

and binocular vision to supplement silent flight and

binaural hearing.

The diurnal predators have a wider range of adaptive

radiation than the owls and include such distinctive forms

as the secretary bird, the osprey and the scavenging vultures.

The secretary bird is uni~ue in being a very long-legged

predator taking poisonous snakes by holding them at 'leg's

length'. It is sufficiently distinct to warrant subordinal

136

B I R D S 0 F P R E Y

status. The fish-eating osprey, on the other hand, although

it differs from other members of its family, the Accipitridae,

in having the soles of its feet covered with spiny sca]es for

gripping its slippery prey, is not dissimilar enough to

warrant even family rank, though most authorities place it

in a separate subfamily.

The term vulture is used rather loosely for those

predators with reduced head and neck feathering because

scavenging requires them to thrust their heads into the

entrails of a putrescent carcase. Such birds occur in the

warmer parts of both Old and New Worlds; those from the New

World, the family Cathartidae, comprise a separate suborder.

Old World vultures belong to the Accipitridae and grade through

such linking forms as the lamergeyer and palm-nut vulture with

the typical accipiters. They are no longer regarded as a

separate family. The falcons and their allies, with a very

different wing shape and flight habits, however, do make up

a distinct family, the Falconidae.

The Strigiformes are a much more uniform order though the

barn owls, Tytonidae, comprise a small family separated from

all other owls, Strigidae, on grounds of head and leg structure.

The latter family includes the rather distinct fishing owls.

Both these raptor orders show a wide range of size from

quite small, mainly insectivorous, forms to the very large

predators of vertebrates. Even so, the so-called eagle owls,

the largest of the Strigiformes, are much smaller than the

diurnal eagles, some of which may take animals as large as

monkeys as a major source of food.

Most owls are non-migratory, but many falcons and

accipiters are long range migrants, some species even regularly

crossing between the northern and southern hemispheres. But

the flight of the diurnal raptors is remarkable in other ways.

Several unrelated species have developed the ability to hover

which, coupled with keen eyesight, facilitates prey detection.

Many of the larger birds, notably eagles, buzzards and vultures,

use thermals to soar on nearly motionless wings, and can remain

137


airborne for hours with a minimum ener~/ expenditure. Thermal

soaring is also employed by migrants, which thus avoid a long

sea crossing. This results in spectacular concentrations of

mig r ating raptors over the Bosphorus, the Straits of Gibraltar,

the southern tip of Sweden and elsewhere where major land

masses are almost in contact.

kestre l - Falco

------------1[ FALCO !FORNES Birds of Prey

STRIGIFORNES

138


Order Falconiformes


e 1. The members are diurnal predators ranging in size

from the small (falconets) to the very large

(eagles and vultures).

2. The plumage is variable but typically blended greys

and browns predominate above with near white

underparts, usually streaked or barred.

• J. The bill is short, strong and with a hooked tip. (p.16)

• 4. The legs are strong, medium to long, and carry four

toes culminating in po>verful curved claws used in

striking and grasping prey.

5. The wings are variable in shape, but flight is

always strong and usually fast.

hover and many soar.

A few species

6. The palate is desmognathous. (p.J9)

]. The nest, constructed of sticks, is located in trees

or on cliffs, rarely on the ground. The eggs

number 1 to 6 (usually 2 or 3) and are typically

off-white, heavily marked with brown in many species.

8. The young are altricial, downy but slow developing,

tended by both parents.

FALCONIFORMES

SUBORDER

CATHARTAE ------ Cathartidae

-{

Accipitridae

FALCONES

Falconidae

SAGITTARII----- Sagittariidae

139


$uborder Cathartae, Family Cathartidae - American vultures

Falconiformes in which:-

1. The legs are short to medium length and the hind

toe is very small and weak in comparison with the

3 front toes.

e 2. The bill is weak for the size of the bird and

typically has a large fleshy cere at its base.

3. The tail is typically short and very broad.

• 4. The head and neck are largely devoid of feathers.

e 5. The members are all very large birds with mainly

brownish-black upper plumage with a light area on

the under surface of the wing.

a black and cream plumage).

(Sarcorhamphus has

6. The members comprise 7 species in 4 genera and are

confined to the New World.

distribution of t he Cathartidae

king vulture Sarcorhamphus

140


Suborder Falcones


1. The legs are of short to medium length and the hind

toe is as well developed as the 3 front toes.

2. The bill is relatively well developed, proportionate

to the size of the bird. There may or may not be

a small cere at the base of the bill.

3· The tail is very variable, occasionally forked, but

the central feathers are never greatly elongated.

4· The head and neck are typically well feathered

except in the Old World vultures.

5. The members range in size from the small to the

very large.

Family Accipitridae - Old World Vultures, Lamergeyer, Kites and Hawks

~alcones in which:-

e 1. The flight silhouette, involving wing and tail

shape, is variable, but relatively distinctive

for the various groups.

2. The members range in size from medium to very

large birds.

3. The wings are typically flapped rather slowly

and many species soar. The sparrow hawks

(Accipiter spp.) employ swift, twisting

low flight.

4. Prey capture involves a range of flight

techniques.

5. The members have a worldwide distribution and

comprise 212 species in 64 genera.

Examples:- Milvus, Buteo, Accipiter, ~' Aguila, Pandion, Terathopius, ~' Gypohierax, Gypaetus.

141


harriers buzzards

s parrow-ha wks

b a t e l eur eagl e - Ter a thopiu s

142


Family Falconidae - Falcons


• 1. The flight silhouette is characterised by

long pointed wings and a medi um to long

narrow tail.

2. The members range in size from small to

medium birds.

3. The flight is typically fast with rapid

wing beats.

4. Prey capture is effected by a very rapid

' stoop' with closed wings.

5. The members have a world,; ide distribution

and comprise 61 species in 10 genera.

Examples:- Falco, Micrastur, Phalcoboenus.

gyrfalcon - Falco

143


falcons

Suborder Sagittarii, Family Sagittariidae - Secretary bird


e 1. The legs are greatly elongated (an adaptation to

feeding on snakes). The 3 front toes are powerful

but quite short and joined by a basal web, the hind

toe is very small.

2. The bill size is proportionate to this large bird.

Bare skin is present between the bill and the eyes

but there is no cere.

e 3. The tail is of unique sha pe: the central feathers

are greatly elongated, the rest graduated to give

a narrow rounded silhouette.

• 4. The back of the head and neck carry greatly elongated

feathers, giving rise to the popular name 'Secretary

Bird' .

5. The single species is confined to the open savannas

of Africa. It is a large, long-legged bird almost

crane-like in appearance.

Example:- Sagittarius.

144

~ ..

secretary bird Sa~ittarius


145

BIRDS OF PREY

Order Strigiformes


e 1. The members are nocturnal predators ranging from

small owlets to large eagle-owls. The large eyes

are directed forward for binocular vision.

• 2. The plumage is long and soft; flight feathers have

soft tips for silent flight. The cryptic coloration

is mostly brown, though some have black or white areas.

3. The bill is short, strong and hooked with a cere.

e 4· The legs are typically feathered to the ~oes. The

outer toe is reversible (semizygodactylous).

e 5. The wings are broad and rounded; flight noiseless.

6. The palate is schizognathous, the skull rounded. (p.38)

]. The nest is typically in a natural cavity, usually

of a tree. The eggs number 1 to 11 (usually 4 to 7),

are pure white and rather rounded.

8. The downy young are altricial tended by both parents.

-------------------------------~[ Strigidae STRIGIFORMES ·

Tytonidae

Family Tytonidae - Barn Owls

Strigiformes in which:-

e 1. The facial disk is heart-shaped.

2. The eyes are relatively small and deeply sunk.

e 3. The legs are long and clearly visible in the

perching bird; the tarsus feathering does

not quite reach the toes.

e 4. The inner edge of the middle toe is pectinate.


comorise 10 species in 2 genera.

Examples:- Tyto, Phodilus.

146

U I R D S 0 F P R E Y

Family Str·igidae - Owls

Stri~iformes in which:-

• 1. The facial disk is rounded.

2. The eyes a re l a rge and not deeply sunk.

e 3· The legs are short and concealed in the

perching bird (apart from the toes) by the

body feathers. Tarsus feathering, typically,

reaches to the toes.

4-. The inner edge of the middle toe is not

pectinate.



Examples:- Bubo, Asia, Otus, Strix, GTaiici<ITUni, 'SCOt o peTI:a:"

tawny owl · Strix

147

Arboreal Birds

9 Pigeons, Parrots,

Cuckoos & Colies

Flight enables birds to roost and nest in trees

relatively safe from predators. Trees also provide

sources of food through seeds, fruits and sometimes buds.

Leaves are seldom used because of their low energy value,

though caterpillars and other insects feeding on them are

an important source of food for arboreal birds. This

chapter and the next are concerned with two groups of

orders that are reasonably classified as arboreal. The

birds in the first group, the pigeons, parrots, cuckoos and

colies are largely herbivorous and typically construct open

nests, though the true cuckoos are exceptional in both

respects. The second group, which includes rollers,

trogons and woodpeckers are carnivorous (mostly insectivorous)

and nest in holes, not necessarily in trees. Typically

arboreal birds have legs and feet adapted for perching with

the toes tendons arranged to increase grip as the ankle is

flexed by the bird 1 s weight. Some groups have an improved

grasp by the arrangement of the toes, with two pointing

forward and two backward (zygodactylous feet) while others

have the outer toe reversible (semizygodactylous feet) so

that the birds can both grasp well and run along tree

boughs.

148

P I G E 0 N S , P A R R 0 T S 1 C U C K 0 0 S & C 0 L I E S

ORDER

COLUMBIFORMES

PSITTACIFORMEE'

CUCULIFORMES

COLIIFORMES

---[

CORACIIFORMES

GROUP 2 TROGONIFORMES

PICIFORMES

The order Columbiformes is dominated by the worldwide

and well known pigeons, but includes also the sandgrouse,

ground-living birds found in arid areas of the Old

World. As some pigeons are also largely ground feeders,

linking the sandgrouse with them is less surprising.

A third family, now extinct, included the Dodo of Mauritius

and the Solitaire of Rodriguez, both large flightless birds

that fell an easy prey to hungry sailors in the seventeenth

century. Sandgrouse and pigeons alone amongst birds drink

continuously by sucking: all others sip and then raise the

head to swallow. Sandgrouse perform remarkable daily long

distance flights to drink, at dusk or dawn, and the adults

have absorbent breast feathers to carry water back to the

young.

The order Psittaciformes contains the parrots alone.

They range in size from the tiny pygmy parrots of

Australasia to the large macaws of South America. Most

species are brightly coloured. The family is characterised

149 F

P I G E 0 N S 1 P A R R 0 T S 1 C U C K 0 0 S & C 0 L T E S

by zygodactylous feet and a very specialised hooked bill

which is raised by a lever mechanism of bones when the lower

jaw is depressed. A powerful nutcracker results. Parrots

are a pantropical family, but, having reached Australasia

relatively early, are now represented there by many species,

while even remote temperate New Zealand has no less than

seven species.

The order Cuculiformes includes the worldwide cuckoos

and their relatives and also the African turacos. These

two families are sufficiently unlike to be assigned to

separate suborders which some authorities rank as full

orders. The Cuculidae comprise a number of subfamilies,

but the most widespread and best-known are the Cuculinae

or true cuckoos, feeding largely on caterpillars, and noted

for brood parasitism relying on other bird species for egg

incubation and rearing the young. Cuckoo eggs closely

mimic the eggs of the foster parents in size and colouring.

The other subfamilies, the coucals, anis and roadrunners

rear their own young and utilise a wide range of foods with a strong tendency to eat the eggs and young of other

birds, suggesting that nest predation may have led to

brood parasitism in the cuckoos. The Musophagidae, the

plantain-eaters and turacos are largely vegetarian birds

with semizygodactylous feet. They spend their time in

tree canopies and seldom visit the ground. The forest

turacos are noteworthy for green head feathers and crimson

primary wing feathers. These colours are due to unique

soluble pigments found exclusively in this family, though

not present in the mainly grey savanna plantain eaters.

The order Coliiformes is an isolated small group of

only six species of very similar birds confined to African

wooded savannas. They are noted for their small size,

long stiff tails, gregarious agile behaviour and soft

mainly brownish plumage. These characters clearly justify

their popular name of mousebirds

150

P I G E 0 N S , P A R R 0 T S , C U C K 0 0 S & C 0 L I E S

Order Columbiformes


1. The members are ground or arboreal birds ranging

in size from small to large (15- 34 em).

• 2. The plumage is dense and soft: cryptic in sandgrouse

(Pteroclididae) but often brightly coloured, even

metallic in pigeons (Columbidae).

e J. The bill is very short, weak and conical in

sandgrouse; of medium length, slender to stout and

and with a fleshy cere at its base in pigeons.

4. The legs are short and quite strong. There are

three forward toes with stout claws; the hind toe

present or absent.

e 5. The wings are typically long and pointed, the flight

fast and typically noisy.

6. The palate is schizognathous. ( p, 38)

7. The nest is a loose platform of sticks (pigeons) or

a scrape on the ground (sandgrouse). The eggs

number 1 to 3 and are typically white or pale

cqloured and unmarked.

8. The young are naked or downy at hatchirlg;

altricial or precocial.

SUBORDER

-{

PTEROCLETES ---Pteroclididae (sandgrouse)

COLUMBIFORMES

COLUMBAE Columbidae (pigeons)

151

P I G E 0 N S 1 P A R R 0 T S , C U C K 0 0 S & C 0 L I E S

Suborder Pterocletes, Family Pteroclididae - Sandgrouse

Columbiformes in which:-

1. The members are of a fairly uniform siz e, small

to medium (23- 40 em).

2. The bill is short, conical and lacks a cere at

the base.

e J. The hind toe is vestigial.

e 4. The plumage is cryptic, adapted to sandy wastes

in shades of pale brown.

5. The wings are long and pointe d; the flight low

and very f ast.

6. The nest is a scrape on the ground with little

or no lining.

7. The young are downy, precocial, tended by both

parents.

8. The members are found in arid areas of the Old

World, but absent from Australasia .


Examples : - Pterocles,

distr ibution of the Pte roclididae

The y

Pa l las l s sandgrouse - Syrrhaptes

152


Suborder Columbae, Family Columbidae - Pigeons

Columbiformes in which:-


quite large (15- So em).

• z. The bill is of medium length, slender to stout

and has a fleshy cere at its base.

3. The hind toe is sub-equal to the three front toes.

4· The plumage is extremely variable and is seldom

cryptic apart from foliage-matching green in

many fruit pigeons.

5 . The wings a r e pointe d to more rounded; the

flight fast and often of long duration.

6. The nest is typically a simple platform of sticks,

usually off the ground in a tree or bush.

7. The young are naked at hatching, altricial,

• tended by both parents. At first they are fed

on 'pigeon ' s milk•, a nut r i tious secretion o f

the crop o f both sexes.

8. The members have a worldwide distribution, apart

from high latitudes, and comprise Z80 species

in 40 genera.

Examples:- Columba, Streptopelia, ~' Goura, Ducula, Trer.on.

turt l e dove - Str e ptopc lia

153


Order Psittaciformes, Family Psittacidae - Parrots


1. The members are arboreal birds, with very few

exceptions, and range in size from pygmy parrots

(Micropsitta) to large macaws (Ara), (10-100 em).

e 2. The plumage is relatively sparse, hard and glossy.

It is often brightly coloured with green and/or red

predominant.

• 3. The bill is short, stout and strongly hooked;

often used in climbing.

• 4. The legs are short, the feet zygodactylous with

powerful claws used to manipulate food and to climb.{p.17)

5. The wings are rounded; the flight very fast with

downcurved wings.

6. The palate is desmognathous, with a unique lever

e system which raises the upper mandible when the

lower is depressed. (p.39)

7. The nest is in a tree hole and unlined; the eggs

vary greatly in number, from 1 to 12, but are always

pure white.

S. The young are naked at first, later downy.

are altricial, tended by both parents.

They

9. The members have a pan-tropical distribution, and

are particularly numerous in Australasia where they

extend into the temperate zone to New Zealand.

They comprise 328 species in 77 genera.

Examples:- Psittacus, Ara, Poicephalus, Cacactua, Melopsittacus, Micropsitta.

154

sulphur-crested cockatoo Cacactua

P I G E U N S , P A R R 0 T S , C U C K 0 0 S & C 0 L I E S

c :ll "0 .... 0 <:1 ., ., ....

"" c :3 "" 0

<:: 0

·-! ., :s .a .... !.. .,

b <I) .... "0

,. •

155


Order Cuculiformes


1. The members are typically arboreal birds, ranging

from small to medium large in size (15- 70 em),

typically with a long, often graduated tail. • 2. The plumage is typically loose-webbed, almost wiry

and in many forms glossy in some areas.

J. The bill is fairly heavy, slightly down curved and

often brightly coloured.

4· The legs are typically short; the feet strong and

zygodactylous or semizygodactylous.

5. The wings are either medium to long (Cuculidae) or

short and rounded (Musophagidae).

6. The palate is desmognathous. (p.J'))

7. The true cuckoos (Cuculinae), being brood parasites,

construct no nest. Other members of the order lay

2 to 4 white eggs in well-constructed nests.

8. The young are downy, hairy or naked at hatching;

altricial and tended by both parents; or by

foster parents in the Cuculinae.

SUBORDER

:ucULIFORMES

MUSOPHAGI ---Musophagidae

not treated here 156

~~ SUBFAMILY

Cuculinae (true cuckoos)

Phaenicophaeinae (non-parasitic cuckoos)

Crotophaginae (anis)

Neomorphinae (road runners)

Couinae (couas)

Centropodinae (coucals)


Suborder Cuculi, Family Cuculidae - Cuckoos, Road Runne rs, Anis, Couas and Coucals

Cuculiformes in which:-

1. The bill is variable; typically long and only

slightly decurved.

• 2. The nostrils are small slits at the base of

the bill.

3. The feet are zygodactylous, or semizygodactylous.

4. Few species possess red or green feathers, but

these colours are neve r due to t uracin and

turacoverdin pigments.

• 5. Both the true cuckoos (Cuculinae) and the road

runners (Neomorphinae) are brood parasites;

the rest construct bulky, often domed, nests.

6. The members have a worldwide distribution

(though each subfamily is limite d to specific

areas); they comprise 127 species in 26 genera.

Examples:- Cuculus, Chrysococcyx, Coccyzus, Crotophaga, Geococcyx, Coua, Centropus, Ceuthmochares.

yellow-billed cuckoo - Coccyzus

157


Suborder Musophagi, Family Musophagidae - Turacos & Plantain eaters

Cuculiformes in which:-

e 1. The bill is short, s t rongly decurved and often

keeled a nd b r i ghtly coloure d.

2. The nostrils are variable in shape and position,

often near the tip of the bill.

3. The outer toe is reversible in position giving

a semizygodactylous foot.

e 4. Typically there are green f eathers, owing their

colour to turacoverdin, and red feathers due to

turac in locally in the plumage. These

pigments occur in no other animals.

5. All members of the group construct their own

nests, usually a bulky platform of sticks.

6. The members are confined to Africa ( not

Madagasca r) south of the Sa hara; they comprise

22 species in 5 genera .

Ex amples:- Tauraco, Musophaga, Crinife r.

distribution of t h e Musophagidae t uraco - Taur a c o


Order Coliiformes, Family Coliidae - Colies or Mousebirds


e 1. The members are small arboreal birds with long tails,

(30 - 35 em), of which ove r half is graduated tail.

e 2. The plumage is lax and soft with sombre browns

predominating but relieved by barring or colour

patches in some species.

e 3. The bill is short, stout and decurved with a

fleshy cere.

• 4· The legs are short with strong feet, the toes and

claws long. The hallux is reversible, so that all

4 toes can point forward.

5. The wings are short and rounded; the flight rapid

and direct but of short duration.

6. The palate is schizognathous. [p.38)

7. The nest is an open shallow cup, placed in a tree;

the eggs 2 to 4, are white, sometimes spotted

with brown.

8. The young hatch with sparse down; they are altricial


9. The members are confined to Africa (not Madagascar)

south of the Sahara; they comprise 6 very similar

species in a single genus.

Example:- Col ius.

d istribution of t h e Co l iidae

blue-naped mouse bird

Coli us

159

Arboreal Birds

10 Rollers, Trogons,

Woodpeckers & allies

The arboreal birds in this second series have a number

of features in common although no less than 16 distinct

families are included. Typically they are brightly coloured

or have conspicuous pied plumage. In most families some

kind of specialised feeding has evolved and strong, often

brightly coloured and massive bills are common. The diet

in most families is largely of animal origin, chiefly

insects, but many kingfishers feed on fish and the

hornbills are omnivorous. The powerful bill is also used

to excavate nesting holes in trees, termite nests or in

the ground in which white unspotted eggs are laid.

The plumage of birds is extremely diverse in response

to two conflicting needs: concealment from predators and

conspicuousness to others of their own species. The

problem is not infrequently resolved by marked sexual

dimorphism, the females, vulnerable during incubation,

being cryptically coloured, the males brilliant to attract

a mate and to mark territorial boundaries. Since the

birds in this group nest in holes, the need for an

inconspicuous brooding bird is eliminated and sexual

dimorphism is minimal, the majority of species having

both sexes equally conspicuous.

160

R 0 L L E R S , T R 0 G 0 N S & W 0 0 D P E C K E R S

The best known of the coraciiform families are the

rollers, kingfishers, bee-eaters and hornbills. They are

all widespread in the Old World, but only the kingfishers

occur also in the New World. By contrast the less well

known motmots and todies are exclusively New World families

while the remaining three families are rather restricted;

the wood-hoopoes to Africa, the cuckoo-rollers to

Madagascar, while the hoopoes which occur throughout

Africa also migrate into southern Europe and Asia.

The trogons, the only family of Trogoniforrnes, are

particularly brilliantly coloured, ranging through the

tropics of both Old and New Worlds. Examples from each

side of the Atlantic are extraordinarily similar, despite

their very weak flight, suggesting, perhaps, that stable

gene complexes were established before Africa and South

America had drifted too far apart.

The Piciformes are an order with wide distribution

but notably absent from both Madagascar and Australasia.

Of the total of six families, the jacamars, puffbirds and

toucans are con~ined to the New World. The jacamars are

very like Old World bee-eaters, while the toucans resemble

the Old World hornbills in the greatly exaggerated bills

and their feeding habits. These pairs of families thus

afford good examples of convergence since the comparable

forms belong to different orders. The other three

families comprise the honeyguides, a family of brood

parasites found in Africa and Asia; the barbets, a nearly

pan-tropical family and finally the woodpeckers which are

well represented in the Holarctic, South America and Africa.

Since the wood-peckers have evolved a very specialised

mode of feeding, employing a strong bill and protrusible

tongue to extract beetle larvae from decaying timber, it

would seem that their absence from Australasia leaves an

unexploited ecological niche.

161

R 0 L L E R S , T R 0 G 0 ~ S & W 0 0 D P E C K E R S

Order Coraciiformes


1. The members are basically arboreal birds ranging

in size from very small to large (10- 160 em).

• 2. The plumage is typically brightly coloured, though

some black and white forms occur. A very few are

dull coloured.

3. The bill is strong and conspicuous but differs

significantly in size and shape in the suborders. 4. The legs are typically short and most have weak

feet. Some families have syndactylous toes.

S. The wings are variable in shape but most families have a striking and characteristic flight pattern.

6. The palate is schizognathous. (p.J8)

• 7. The nest is in a hole in a tree or bank, often excavated or enlarged by the bird. Typically

3 or 4 pure white eggs, but pale-coloured, unspotted

in two families.

8. The young, naked or downy at hatching, are altricial

and tended by both parents.

ORDER SUBORDER

ALCEDINES

MEROPES

CORACII

BUCEROTES

162


Suborder Alcedines

Coraciiformes in which:-


medium large (10- 50 em).

2. The bill is typically straight and pointed

(slightly decurved in motmots) and massive for

tht· size of the bird.

• 3· Typically the plumage has areas of bright blue,

sometimes green and chestnut occurs in some species.

A few are black and white, with or without chestnut.

4· The wings are short and rounded; the flight

typically fast and direct.

5. The tail is either very short or with elongated,

even racquet-ended, central feathers.

e 6. The toes are syndactylous.

• 7. The unlined nest is typically excavated in a

vertical bank.

SUBORDER

Alcedinidae kingfishers

todies

Momotidae motmots

163

R 0 L L E R S 1 T R 0 G 0 N S & W 0 0 D P E C K E R S

Family Alcedinidae - Kingfishers

Alcedines in which:-

1. The members are small to medium large

( 10 - 45 em) .

• 2. The plumage, of contrasting solid areas, is

typically partly blue, green, chestnut and

white. It is pied in some species.

e 3. The bill is massive and straight, often

coloured, or shovel-like in Clytoceyx.

4· The tail is either very short or has elongate

(rarely racquet-tipped) central feathers.

5. The members are worldwide and comprise 90


Examples:- Ceryle, Alcedo, Dacelo, Halcyon, Tanysiptera, Clytoceyx.

grey-headed kingfisher - Halcyon


Fami~y Todidae - Todies


1. The me mbers are very small birds (10- 12 em).

• 2. The plumage i s unifo rm bright g reen above and

light coloure d below.

e J. The bill is long, straight and pointed.

4. The tail is rather short and rounded.

5. The members are confined to the Gre ater

Antilles and comprise 5 species in a single

genus.

Example : - Todus.

distribution of the Todidae

Jama ica n tody - Todus

165


Family Momotidae - Motmots



(20 - so em).

• z . The plumage is mainly blue, green and brown.

• 3 . The bill is large, broad and slightly decurved.

• 4· The tail is long, typically with the central

feathers racquet-tipped.

5. The members are confined to tropical America

and compris e 8 species in 6 g e nera.

Examples:- Momotus, Electron, Eumomota .

turquoise-brewed motmo Eumomota

166

distribution of t h e Momotidaf!


Subordee Meropes, Family Meropidae - Bee-eaters


1. The members are relatively small birds ( 15 - 35 em).

• 2. The bill is long, slender, laterally compressed

and decurvcd.

• 3. The plumage is always colourful with green the most

usual colour, but crimson, blue, yellow and chestnut

also occur. Many species have a broad black band

from bill through the eye.

• 4. The wings are long and pointed; the fHght wheeling

and graceful on extended wings .

• 5. The tail is long with the central feathers elongated

in many species, square cut in others.

e 6. The toes are syndactylous.

• 7. Nesting is colonial; the unlined nest is excavated

in a river bank in most species.

8. The members are distributed throughout the tropics

and subtropics of the Old World . Many are migratory.


Example : - ~1erops, Nyctyornis .

the European bee-eater Herops

R 0 L L E R S , T R 0 G 0 N S & W 0 0 D P E C K F R S

Suborder Coracii


1. The members are small to medium sized (25-45cm).

2. The bill is either stout and nearly straight (rollers)

or slender and decurved (hoopoes and wood-hoopoes).

J. The plumage is always colourful but differs in the

families.

4· The wings are fairly long and rounded; the flight

differs in the families.

5. The tail is long: some have elongated, even racquet

shaped, central feathers.

6. The toes differ in the different families.

7. The nest, with little lining, is typically in a

tree hole.

SUBORDER FAMILY

Coraciidae rollers

Leptosomatidae cuckoo-roller

Upupidae hoopoe

PhocniculidU~c \;oodhoopoes

168

R 0 L ( E R S , T R 0 G 0 N S & W 0 0 D P E C K E R S

Family Coraciida e - Rollers

Coracii in which:-

e 1. The bill is wide, strong, nearly stra ight and slightly hooked.

• 2. There is typically blue in the plumage, most often in the wings but also on the body in many species.

J. The 2nd and Jrd toes are united basally. 4. The tail is long a nd may have elongated, even

r acquet shaped, central feathers. 5· The members occur in the warmer areas of the

Old World and s ome are migratory.

c omprise 16 species in 5 genera.

They

Brachypterac ias.

distribution of the Coraciidae

the Oriental roller Eurystomus

169


Family Leptosomatidae - Cuckoo-roller

Coracii in which:-

1. The bill is strong, nearly straight, and hooked e 2. The plumage is metallic lead-grey above,

pale grey below.

e J . The 4th toe is reversible making the foot semizygodactylous.

4. The tail is long and square cut. 5. There is only a single specie s, confined to

Madagascar and the Comoro Islands.

Example:- Leptosomus.

cuckoo-PollcP Lc plo-, omus

cllstP.i.but.i.on of the Le ptosomat.i.dae

170


Family Upupidae - Hoopoe

Coracii in which:-

e 1. The bill is long, very slender and markedly

decurved.

•

2. The plumage is mainly rufous chestnut but the

wings and tail are a very conspicuous pattern

of black and white . The head bears a striking

crest of erectile feathers.

3· The 3rd and 4th toes are fused at the base.

4· The tail is moderately long and square cut.

5. The single species is found throughout Africa

and South East Asia, but some populations

migrate to sout hern Europe and central Asia

to breed.

~·

hoopoe -~

I 71

distribution of the Upupidac


Family Phoeniculidae - Woodhoopoes

Coracii in which:-

e 1. The bill is long, slender, laterally compressed

and decurved , slightly or very markedly,

according to species.

e z. The plumage is blackish with pronounced

metallic sheen.

3. The 3rd and 4th toes are fused at the base.

e 4. The tail is long and typically steeply graduated.

5. The members are confined to Africa south of the

Sa hara, but not Madagascar, and comprise 6


Example:- Phoeniculus.

woodhoopoe - Phoeniculus

distribution of the Phoeniculidae

172


Subo1·der Bucerotes, Family Bucerotidae - Hornbills


1. The members are typically large birds (up to 160 em)

but some are only medium sized (40 em).

• 2. The bill is typically very large, curved and

sculptured; usually yellow or red in colour;

typically surmounted by a casque, which may differ

in shape in the two sexes .

• •

•

3. The plumage is typically a pattern of black and

4· 5. 6.

7.

white, a very few species are black or grey.

The wings are strong; often noisy in flight.

The tail is long and often graduated.

The toes are broad-soled and syndactylous.

The nest is placed in a natural tree hole. The

incubating female is walled in by the male, leaving

a small hole through which the female, and later

the young, are fed by the male.

8. The members are found in the tropics of Africa and

South East Asia, with one species reaching New

Guinea and the Solomon Islands. They comprise 44


Examples : - Tockus, Aceros , Bycanistes , Buceros, ~vus-.------

rhinoceros hornbill Buceros

173


Order Trogoniformes, Family Trogonidae - Trogons


1· The members are medium to small birds (25 - 35 em)

with long tails.

e 2. The plumage is soft and dense; typically brilliantl)

coloured with metallic green in some parts of the bo<

e 3. The bill is short, broad and often serrate.

Typically it is brightly coloured.

e 4. The legs and fe e t are small and weak. Both the 1st

and 2nd toe s are directed backward to give a

pseudozygodactylous foot.

5· The wings are short and rounded: the flight

undulating and of short duration.

6. The palate is schizognathous. (p.J8) I

7. The nest is in a tree ho:J:e: 2 to 4 white, or buff

to greenish unspotted e ggs.

8. The young, naked at hatching, are altricial and


9. The members have a pan-tropical distribution though

absent from Australasia.

in 8 genera.

They comprise 36 species

Examples:- Trogon, Apaloderma, Pharomachrus.

174

a n Na rina trogon Apalodc r ma

R 0 L L E R S , l R 0 G 0 N S & W 0 0 D P E C K E R S

. :

1 1'.

:.: I:.' .. :: .I.

1. ~ ~ ~· ·

·· : · ..

175


Order Piciformes



(10- 60 em).

2. The plumage is diverse but typically has some area

of bright colour, usually on or near the head.

3. The bill differs significantly in the different

families but is always strong and may be massive

(toucans).

• 4· The legs are typically short but carry strong

zygodactylous feet.

5.

6.

7.

8.

The wings are typically short and rounded; the

flight is often notably undulating.

The palate is schizognathous. (p.38)

The nest is in a hole, usually in a tree, typically

excavated by the birds, but may be natural.

Typically 3 to 6 pure white eggs are laid.

The young are typically naked at hatching. They

are altricial and tended by both parents (or by

foster parents in the honeyguides which are brood

parasites).

ORDER SUBORDER

[

GALBULAE

PICIFORMES ----------------------~·

PICI

176

R 0 L L E R S , T R 0 G 0 N S & W 0 0 D P l C K E R S

Suborder Galbulae

Piciformes in which:-

1. The members are mostly small birds (9 - 30 em)

though some toucans are medium large (up to 60 em).

2. The bill form differs in the families, but is always

strong, often coloured; it is massive in toucans.

3. The hyoids are not specially modified: the tongue

is not specialised.

4· The tail feathers are not stiffened.

SUBORDER FAMILY

Galbulidae jacomars

Bucconidae puffbirds

Capitonidae barbets

Indicatoridae honey guides

toucans

177


Family Galbulidae - Jacamars

Galbulae in which:-


• 2. The bill is long, slender and nearly straight.

• 3. The plumage is typically metallic green (or black

4. The young are tended by their own parents.


and are convergent with the Old World bee-eaters.


Examples:- Galbula, Jacamerops.

Family Bucconidae - Puffbirds and Nunbirds

Galbulae in which:-


• 2. The bill is lnrge, strong and rounded; almost straight and often brightly coloured.

e 3. The plumage is typically black or tawny above,

streaked or barred in most species; mainly

white or pale below.


5. The members are confined to tropical America.


Examples:- Bucca, Notharchus, Monasa.

178


great jacamrlr ~.!!. ~~~ ~·_o p_s_

ollm·cd JHo rr1.>ir·d BIICCO

179


Family Ciq>i tonidae - Bar bets

•

•

Galbulae in which:-

1.

2 •

3 .

The members are small birds (9 - 32 em).

The bill is large and heavy, slightly curved

and pointed .

The plumage typically has some area~ of bright

colouration, but is uniformly dull in a few.

Many species have prominent patches of bristles

above or below the bill.

4· The young are tended by their own parents.

5 . The members are pan-tropical but absent from

Aust.ralasia.

11 genera.

They comprise 78 species in

Examples:- Capito, Gymnobucco, Pogoniulus,, Lybius, Megalaima, Semnornis.

toucan barbet - Semnornis

180

G

R 0 L L E R 5 , T R 0 G 0 N 5 & W 0 0 D P E C K E R 5

-:

1 8 1

I 1".

:.: I:.' .. ::.I.

1 .. • .. ... , ..

I

'-' J: +' ... c

5 ·-l ..)

:l ..0 ·-' <. ..)

rn .... "0


Family Indicatoridae - Honeyguides

•

Galbulae in which:-


2. Th e bill is short, stout and blunt in most but more slender and pointed in Prodotiscus.

3. The plumage is dull brown or olive above,

paler below. All species have conspicuous

white lateral tail feathers.

e 4. The members are brood parasites depositing

their eggs in the nest of other hol e -nesting

birds (bee-eaters, kingfisher s , barbets, etc.),

more rarely in open cup nests.

5. The members are mainly found in Africa and in

parts of southern Asia.


They comprise 14

Examples:- Indicator, Prodotiscus.

distribution ot· the Indicatoridae

1R2

bl ack - throated honeyguide Indicator

"

Q


Family Ramphastidae - Toucans

Galbulae in which:-

1. The members are typically medium sized birds

(30- 60 em).

• 2. The bill is immense, serrate and usually

brightly coloured in some areas; these colours

reinforced by bare skin also in bright colour.

e 3. The plumage is usually brightly coloured with

bold contrast between blocks of black and white

or yellow, with red, orange, green and blue.



and comprise 38 species in 5 genera.

Examples:- Aulacorhynchus, Pteroglossus, Ramphastos.

di tribution of the Ramphastidae

183

toucan - Ramphastos


§uborder Pici, Family Picidae - Woodpeckers

Piciformes in which:-

1. The members are mostly small birds (from 9 em) but

a few species are of medium size (up to 55 em).

• 2. The bill is typically strong, straight and

chisel-like.

e 3. The hyoids curve round the back of the skull to give

support to the extremely protrusible tongue, the tip

of which is modified to form a sticky tool for

collecting insects and is often barbe d. Most

speci es use this tongue for collecting the larvae

of beetles boring in wood.

• 4. Typically the tail feathers are stiff to give a prop

support to the bird against a tree bough.

5· The members are notably absent from Australasia and

Madagascar but otherwise have a worldwide distribution.

They comprise 206 s pecies in 34 genera.

Examples:- Jynx, Picumnus, Colaptes, Picus, Picoides,

Campep~ilus.

ivory- hi l e d ••ooclpcckcr Campeph ilu;;

\

\

}{ 0 L L E }{ S , l }{ 0 (; 0 \ S & IV 0 0 0 P E C K E R S

I llS

I ·1'.

:.: I; : . . :."1-

1 ·.-·r

4

~ "0 · -f 0

·-f 0..

v :5 "-' 0

c: 0

·-f ..., :l

.0 ·-f

" ..., Cl)

·.-l "0

11 Aerial Feeders

Flight is the outstanding characteristic of birds, but

few normally feed while flying, although they may catch prey

on the wing. Many, like the bee-eaters and flycatchers

capture food in a special sally flight. But in this section

the main families in the two orders, Apodiformes and

Caprimulgiformes, contain birds which actually feed while

in continuous flight; in the first order by day and in the

second by night.

In the Apodiformes, the worldwide swifts catch the

aerial plankton of insects and gossamer-borne young spiders

by flying with a wide-gaped mouth bordered with stiff

bristles to improve the sweep. A second family, the

crested-swifts of South East Asia and Australasia, have a

similar flight and mode of feeding. The third family, the

humming-birds, confined to the New World, also feed in flight

but do so by hovering in front of flowers to obtain nectar,

pollen and the small arthropods normally present in open

flowers. Different species have bills of very different

length and curvature as a feeding adaptation to the flower

species they normally visit. The flight of humming-birds

is remarkable for two reasons: first the wing beat is very

rapid, over a hundred times per second, so that a

humming noise is emitted and, second, because humming

birds not only hover, but many can also fly backwards.

The second order, Caprimulgiformes, contains five

families; the worldwide nightjars, the oilbird and potoos

186

A E R I A L F E E D E R S

from tropical America and the fro~;,'111.ouths and owlet-

frogmouths from Australasia. These nocturnal birds,

except the oilbird, again have very wide mouths and feed

on the night aerial plankton, mainly moths, in much the

same manner as swifts. The frogmouths also take quite

large animals, notably frogs, from the ground or from tree

trunks. The oilbird, placed in a separate suborder, is

a vegetarian, and feeds while in flight on the oily fruits

of tropical trees, especially palms. Oilbirds live in

large colonies in caves and are among the few birds known to

employ echo-location to avoid collision with obstacles.

They are less cryptically coloured than the other members

of the order, many of which adopt remarkable postures when

at rest to aid concealment.

There is another link between the Apodiformes and

Caprimulgiformes, beside aerial feeding. Each order has

members departing from the general rule that birds maintain

a constant high blood temperature. Some swifts, breeding

in the temperate zone, have young that can survive during

local unfavourable weather with a much lowered temperature

while their parents are on prolonged feeding forays.

Similarly humming birds that migrate to breed outside the

tropical zone also have a lowered overnight body temperature

and require a 'warming-up' period of wing movement before

resuming flight. In the Caprimulgiformes, the North

American common poor-will is the only bird known to

hibernate. During hibernation there is a general

reduction of all physiological activity resulting in a

lowered body temperature, a well-known phenomenon in many

small temperate zone mammals.

Coupled with aerial feeding in these orders is a great

reduction of the legs and feet. Only humming birds ever

perch. Nightjars both roost and nest on the ground.

Swifts merely cling with weak feet and this leads to

bizarre nesting habits, such as the use of saliva to build

nests (hence 1bird 1 s nest soup') or to stick eggs to palm

fronds. Again it is only the humming birds, since they

can perch, that construct proper neat nests.

187


Order Apodiformes


1. The members are terrestrial birds of small or

very small size (6- 23 em).

2. The plumage is dull coloured or brilliant, according

to the suborder.

3. The bill is very different in the two suborders,

broad and short or long and slender.

• 4. The legs are very short, the feet may be strong

or weak. ( p. 1 7)

• 5. The wings are long and narrow; the wing beat is

rapid.

• 6. The palate is aegithognathous. (p.39)

7. The nest is always small and typically 1 or 2

white, unspotted eggs are laid.

8. The condition of the young at hatching is variable,

but all are altricial, the male may or may not

help to tend them.

SUBORDER FAMILY

-{Apodidae

{

APODI

Hemiprocnidae APODIFORMES

TROCHILI --- Trochilidae

188

swifts

crested-swifts

hummingbirds


Suborder Apodi

Apodiformes in which:-

• 1. The members are small birds (9 - 33 em) with long

rak'ing wings.

• 2. Flight is swift and direct, but with rapid changes

of direction.

e 3. The bill is short and weak, but with a wide gape.

4. The plumage is dull; brown, black, grey and white

predominate and there is little gloss.

5. In swifts the small feet are typically strong with

reversible hallux, but in the crested-swifts they

are weak with an irreversible hallux.

e 6. There are some species in which both eggs and young

can survive periods of lowered temperature.

Family Apodidae - Swifts

•

Apodi in which:-

1. The members are quite small birds (9 - 23 em)

and lack a head crest.

2. The body plumage is typically blackish or brown,

with little gloss, and with larger or smaller

areas of white.

3 .

4·

The toes are very strong and the hallux

reversible. The members cling but never perch.

The members have a worldwide distribution but

only occupy high latitudes through seasonal

migration. They comprise 76 species in 9 genera.

Examples:- Apus, Cypsiurus,*Collocalia, Chaetura, Panyptila.

" Collocalia is a cave-dweller and echo-locates

189


wallow - tailed swift Panyp'tila

Family Hemiprocnidae - Crested-swifts

• •

Apodi in which:-

1. he members are small birds ( 17 - 33 em) and have a prominent crest on the head.

2 • The body plumage is pale greyish with g ossy blue or g reen on the back and with coloured areas on the throat or brea t.

3 . The toes are .. eak .. ith the hallux irreversible

a nd backwardly directed .

no in flight .

They perch when

4. The members are confined to areas of tropical

South East Asia and ew Guinea and are no~-

migratory . They comprise 3 species i n a

si ngle genus.

E::ample :- Hemiprocne.

distribution of the Hemiprocnidae

190

Q


Suborder Trochili, Family Trochilidae - Hummingbirds

Apodiformes in which:-

e 1. The members are small to very small birds (6 - 22 em),

some species reaching the lower limit of size for

warm-blooded animals. The wings are long and narrow.

• 2. Flight is darting, typically involves hovering, and

in many forms can be backward.

• J. The bill is long and slender, straight or decurved,

with a wide range of length and curvature adapted

to the morphology of the flowers normally visit ed

for food.

• 4. Typically the plumage has areas of bright colour,

which are usually irridescent.

5. The feet are very small and weak, but have a

backward directed hallux. The members perch.

6. The eggs and young perish if the temperature is

lowered.

7. The members are mainly confined to the Neotropical

region, though a few species migrate into high

latitudes in Canada and even Alaska. They comprise


Examples:-

Eutoxeres

Lo phornis

Glaucis, Campylopterus, Lophornis, Chlorosti1bon, Eutoxeres, Ensifera, Archilochus, Topaza.

Glaucis

Arc hil ochus Ensifera

191


distribution of the Troch ilidae

-if-

crimson topaz hummingbird - Topaza

..


Order Caprimulgiformes


• 1. The members are nocturnal terrestrial birds, ranging

in size from small to medium large (19 - 53 em).

• 2. The plumage is soft and silky and -is typically

strikingly cryptic, though many have conspicuous

white patches in the wings or tail, revealed

only in flight.

3· The bill is typically smal~ and short, but with an

e extremely wide gape guarded by prominent rictal

bristles. (p.16)

e 4. The legs are very short and weak and often feathered

to the toes. The toes are variable in length, but

typically the middle toe is pectinated.

5. The wings are typically long and pointed.


7. Typically no proper nest is made and there are 2 - 5

white to pale coloured, usually spotted eggs.

8. The young are typically downy when hatched and are

altricial, being tended by both parents (where the

breeding biology has been studied).

SUBORDER

{

STEATORNITHES --Steatornithidae

Podargidae CAPRIMULGIFORMES

Nyctibiidae

CAPRIMULGAE

Aegothelidae

Caprimulgidae

193

oilbird

frogmouths

potoos

owletfrogmouths

nightjars


Suborder Steatornithes, Family Steatornithidae - Oilbird

Caprimulgiformes in which:-

1. The oilbird is a medium large bird (53 em) with a

• wing span of 1 m . It is the only nocturnal

vegetarian (fruit-eating) bird.

• 2. The bill is strongly hooked and hawk-like and does

not possess a wide gape.

• 3. The plumage is chestnut coloured, with white spots.

• 4. The bird is extremely noisy, screaming and clicking,

t he latter in association with e cho-location. It

roos t s i n ca ves by day and is k nown to employ

echo-location to avoid collisions.

5. The oilbird is confined to tropical South America.

There is a single spec i e s.

Example:- Steatornis.

oilbird - Stcatorn is

1~4


Suborder Caprimulgae

Caprimulgiformes in which:-

1. The members range in size from small to medium

large birds (19 - 53 em). All are carnivorous

and mainly insectivorous.

• 2 • The bill is weak but has an extremely wide gape.

e 3· The plumage is strongly cryptic with a pattern of

browns, buffs, greys and blacks. Conspicuous

white patches in the wings and tail are complet€ly

hidden in the resting bird.

4. The members often have loud characteristic calls,

but do not scream or click and do not employ

echo-location.

Family Podargidae - Frogmouths

Caprimulgae in which:-

1. The members are typically medium sized birds,

but some are rather smaller (23- 53 em).

e 2. The bill is broad, flat and triangular, very

strongly hooked and with a very wide gape.

e 3. The members perch lengthwise along boughs

by day.

4· The nest is a shallow pad, placed in a

horizontal fork of a tree. There are 1 to

4 eggs. 5. The members are confined to South East Asia

and Australasia. They comprise 12 species

in 2 genera.

Examples:- Podargus, Batrachostomus.

distribution of the Podargidae

195 •

•. "


Family Nyctibiidae - Potoos


1. The members are medium sized birds (41 -51 em).

• 2. The bill is small and narrow, but downturned at

the tip. The gape is enormous.

• 3· The members perch upright, to resemble a broken

stump of a tree, when at rest by day.

e 4. There is no nest; the single white egg is

laid on a broken tree stump, the incubating

bird adopting the pose mentione d above.

5. The members are confined to tropical Central

and South America. They comprise 5 species

in a sinr,;le g-enus.

Example:- Nyctibius.

- i?-potoo - Nyctibius


Family Aegothelidae - Owlet-nightjars or frogmouths

Capri;nulgae in which:-

1. The members are small to small-medium sized

birds (23- 44 em).

• 2. The bill is small and wide-gaped, but almost

hidden by the throat and forehead feathers.

3. The members perch upright across a branch

when hunting but roost by day in hollow trees.

4. The nest of wood-dust or leaves is within a

tree hollow. There are 3 or 4 white eggs,

sometimes lightly spotted.

5. The members are confined to Australasia, from

the Moluccas to Tasmania.


Example:- Aegotheles.

mountain owlet nightjar Aegotheles

197

They comprise 7

• distribution of

the Aegothelidae


Family Caprimulgidae - Nightjars


1. The members are small birds (19- 29 em), but

e appearing larger, in many cases, by a long

tail or bizarre wings in the breeding males.

e 2. The bill is small and weak, but has a very

wide gape. ( p. 16)

3· Some members may rest lengthwise on boughs by

e day, but most merely li& conceale d on the ground.

4.. There is no ne st, the eggs being l a id on the

bare ground. They are pale coloured with

darkish blotches.

5. The members have a worldwide distribution, but

only occupy high latitudes through seasonal

migration.

16 genera.

Examples : -

They comprise 72 species in

Ca primulgus, Chordeiles, Macrodipteryx, Phalaenoptilus.

red-necked nightjar - Caprimulgus

198

12 Primitive Passerines

The order Passeriformes, popularly known as the

passerines, contains 60 percent of all bird species. Most

are small birds, though a few (like crows) are quite large.

This order shows much adaptive radiation and some of the

families contain birds specialised along lines similar to

some 'non-passerine' orders and so are convergent with them.

The shrikes, for example, are predators with strong hooked

bills resembling those of raptors; swallows are aerial

feeders with long slim wings and wide, bristle-bordered

mouths like the swifts; the larks, though small, are strong

legged ground birds and so forth. Few passerines can be

regarded as aquatic though the dippers are a uniquely

adapted freshwater family of birds able to walk under water

and forage for food on the bed of fast shallow streams.

Wagtails and pipits are mainly shore birds.

There are well over 5000 passerine species assigned to

over 50 families in four suborders, each with a very

different degree of familial differentiation and with a

distinctive geographical distribution. Over' 4000 of the

more advanced species are known as song birds and belong to

the single suborder Oscines. These will be considered in

Chapter 13. The present chapter includes three smaller

suborders, the Eurylaimi, Tyranni and Menurae, often

collectively called the primitive passerines. These

primitive suborders are notably absent from the great

northern land masses, and are but scantily represented in

the southern parts of the Old World. On the other hand the

Tyranni form a major part of the avifauna of South America

where nine families, out of a total of twelve, dominate the

avian scene, at least so far as smaller birds are concerned,

and have between them over 1000 species.

199

P R I M I T I V E P A S S E R I N E S

Order Passeriformes


e 1. The members are typically small terrestrial birds

though a few families, notably crows (Corvidae),

abtain medium large size.

2. This vast assemblage of birds presents a wide range

of plumage patterns, both cryptic and brilliantly

coloured.

3· The bill is diversely modified for a wide range of

feeding habits.

• 4. The l~gs are relatively short in all families and

the feet have three forward and one backwardly

directed toe.

5. The wings are variable in outline; flight is

remarkably strong for size in the smaller birds

and many families are strongly migratory.

• 6. The palate is aegithognathous. (p.39)

e 7. The nests are constructed of a wide range of

materials and are often very elaborate as in weavers

(Ploceidae) and Hangnests (Icteridae). A few

groups are brood parasites. The eggs are extremely

diverse in colouring and in number.

8. The young are typically naked at hatching. They

are altricial with rapid fledging, especially in

the smaller species.

SUBORDeR

EURYLAIMI

TYRANNI

MENURAE

OS CINES

200


Suborder Eurylaimi, Family Eurylaimidae - Broadbills

Passeriformes in which:-

1. The members are small birds ranging from 13 - 28 em.

e 2. The bill is broad and flattened, with a wide gape;

typically heavy and hooked at the tip.

• 3. The legs are short and strong with syndactylous feet.

• 4. The members are arboreal and typically crepuscular.

e 5· The syrinx musculature is relatively simple: the

voice is a mixture of churring sounds and clear

whistles.

6 . The members are found in the Old World tropics from

Africa to the Phillipines.


They comprise 14

Examples:- Eurylaimus, Smithornis, Calyptomena.

distribution of the Euryl aimidae

201

0

Javan broadbill Eu rylaimus

"


Suborder Tyranni


1. The members are small to medium-sized birds ranging

from 8 - 46 em.

2. The bill is variously adapted in the different

families, but is typically strong.

e 3. The legs are strong, and the toes long and typicall

separated.

4. The members are arboreal or ground birds, and are

active by day.

• 5. The syrinx musculature is relatively simple: the

voice is loud but uncomplicated.

SUBORDER SUPERFAMILY

202

FAMILY

Dendrocolaptidae

Furnariidae

Conopophagidae

Rhinocryptidae

Pittidae

Philepittidae

Xenicidae

Pipridae

Cotingidae

Phytotomidae

P R I M T T I V E P A S S E R I N E S

Superfamily Furnarioidea

Tyranni in which:-

1. The plumage is typically a pattern of browns. 2. The members are carnivorous, feeding mainly

on insects and spiders.

3. The young are slightly downy at hatching.

4· The members are confined to Central and

South America.

Family Dendrocolaptidae - Woodhewers or Woodcreepers

Furnariodea in which:-

• 1. The members resemble woodpeckers in having

strong bills and stiff tail feathers.

2. There are 50 species in 13 genera.

Examples:- Dendrocolaptes, Campylorhamphus, Xiphocolaptes.

(see page 204) Family Furnariidae - Ovenbirds


1. The members are typically walking ground

• bir·ds building robust domed nests, those of true ovenbirds being made of mud.


Examples:- Furnarius, Cinclodes, Synallaxis.

Family Formicariidae - Antbirds


1. The members are arboreal or ground birds that

• typically accompany ant armies and prey on

the arthropods flushed.


Examples:- Thamnophilus, Formicarius, Myrmotherula.

203


Family Conopophagidae - Gnateaters


• 1. The members are typically almost tail-less,

walking on long legs.

2. Ther·e are 8 species in a single genus.

Example:- Conopophaga.

Family Rhinocryptidae - Tapaculos


e 1. The members are wren-like with compact bodies

and sharply upturned tails.


Examples:- Scytalopus, Melanopareia.

strong - billed woodcree per Xiphocolaptes

204

di.sl;Pi.bution of l.hc ruPil:tf"iOidc;l


Superfamily Tyrannoidea

Tyranni in which:-

• 1. The plumage typically has areas of bright

colour.

2. The members are typically omnivorous, feeding

on fruits as well as insects and spiders.

3. The young are typically naked (or only very

patchily downy) at hatching.

4· The members are not confined to Central and

South America, but are repre s e nted in all

continents except Europe .

Family Pittidae - Pittas

Tyrannoidea in which:-

• 1. The members a re brightly coloured ground birds

with very s hort tails. They hop on quite i ong

strong legs, for a passe rine.

2. The members are found in Africa, South East

Asia and tropical Australasia. There are 26


Example:- ~·

Family Philepittidae - Asities and False Sunbirds


e 1. The members are small birds with decurved bills

and bright bare areas around the eyes .

2. The members are confined to Madagascar.

There arc 4 species in 2 genera .

Ph i lepitta , Neodrepa nis .

distributi on of t he Philepitt i dae

205


distribution of the Tyrann i dae

...

206

Indian pitta Pitta

great kiskadee Pitangus


Family Xenicidae - New Zealand Wrens


• 1. The members are very small birds with long

legs and toes but with very short tails .

2. The members are confined to Ne w Zealand.


Examples:- Xenicus, Acanthisitta.

distribution of the Xenicidae

Family Tyrannidae - Tyrant Flycat chers

Tyrannoidae in which:-

1. Some members are brightly coloured but a

e majority are dull. Typically the bill is

broad, flat, slightly hooked and with well

developed rictal bristles.

2. The members range throughout the Americas

except for the far north.


There are 362

Examples:- Muscivora, Tyrannus, Empidonax, Oxyruncus, Pitangus.

Family Pipridae - Manakins

Tyrannoi dea in which:-

1. The members are typically small black birds

e with areas of vivid colour on the head, thighs

or elsewhere; the bill is short and broad.

2. The members are confined to Central and South

America . There are 53 species i n 19 genera.

Examples: - Pipra, Neopelma.

207


Family Cotingidae - Cotingas, Becards, Bellbirds


1. The members are typically robust birds with

• garishly bright plumage and many are noted for

loud monotonous calls.

2. The members are confined to Central and South

America. There are 79 species in 28 genera.

Examples:- Rupicola, Cotinga, Cephalopterus, Pro~~' Pachyramphus.

distribution of the P.ipridae & the Coting ' dae

umbrellabird Cephalopteru ·

Family Phytotomidae - Plantcutters


1. The members are small crested birds with

short, conical bills with serrated edges .

2. T~e members are confined to western South

America. There are 3 species in a single

genus .

Example:- Phy totoma .

208


Suborder Menurae

Passeriformes in which : -

1. The members are large birds (lyrebirds), 75-100 em,

or rather small birds (scrub-birds), 17-23 em.

2 . The bill is elongated, conical and sharply pointed.

3. The legs and feet are long relative to the bird s

size.

4. The members are terrestrial and active by day.

e 5. The syrinx musculature is relatively complex; the

voice is a variet y of loud notes and calls . Some

species mi mic both o the r birds a nd mechanica l sounds.

family Menuridae - Lyrebirds

Menurae in which:-

e 1. The members are quite large birds with a unique

tail t ha t earns them the name of lyrebirds.

2. The membe rs are confined to south-e aste rn

Australia. There are 2 species in a sing le

genus.

Example:- Menura.

w-0

~lcnuridnc

lyre bird - ~lennr ;t.


Familv Atrichornithidae - Scrub-birds

Menurae in which:-

1. The members are rather small birds with long,

broad and graduated tails.

2. The members have small and discontinuous ranges

in eastern and extreme south western Australia.


Example:- Atrichornis.

w-Q

Atrichornithidae

scrub-bird - Atrichornis

210

13 The Song Birds

Almost half of the world's birds are song birds, so

called because most of them, by means of an advanced type

of syrinx, can produce pure musical notes strung together

into highly specific patterns and are thus said to sing.

Most small woodland, grassland and suburban birds, outside

South America, are song birds and only a few families,

such as the crows, include even moderately large species.

The classification of song birds is by no means

settled for a variety of reasons. Firstly many genera

show combinations of characters that make assignment to a

particular family difficult or almost impossible. Such

genera have had a chequered handling by taxonomists,

sometimes placed in one family, sometimes another and

sometimes upgraded to family status on their own, later to

be re-assigned to one of the original families. It is

thus open to dispute whether or not certain quite well

defined groups of species are properly ranked as separate

families, or whether they share sufficient characters to

warrant merging in a single larger family. Taxonomists

are clearly liable to differ in these decisions. Most

taxonomists today tend to be lumpers (see page 4) with the

result that a single oscine family, the Muscicapidae, as

now defined, contains over 1250 species. Such a

cumbersomely large assemblage presents severe practical

problems of handling so that such subgroups as Old World

warblers, flycatchers, babblers, whistlers and thrushes,

now given subfamily rank, were formerly given full family

status by most systematists, as indeed they still are by

the splitters.

211

T H E S 0 N G B I R D S

Another cause for differences in song bird

classification is that the inter-relationships of many

families are far from clear. Their similarities so out-

weigh their differences that grouping and arrangement of

the families by different workers is quite variable. The

delimitation and sequence of families (and of subfamilies

in some large families), although in wide usage, is

certainly not universally recognised.

Song birds are numerous and diverse largely because

of their comparatively recent origin so that they are now

at the height of their adaptive radiation and speciation

in response to environmental change and geographical isolation

One immediate consequence of the rapid evolution of

the oscines is that few families are very widespread.

Only larks, swallows, wagtails, crows and the very big

family Muscicapidae are essentially worldwide, but only

long distance migration takes some of these to high

latitudes. Since so many families have a restricted

distribution it is not surprising that there are some

remarkable instances of convergence. Perhaps the most

outstanding case is that between the Old World warblers

(Sylviinae - a subfamily of Muscicapidae) and the New World

warblers (Parulidae). Both groups are small insectivorous

birds noted for elaborate, specifically distinct voices

and for the prevalence of long distance migJ•ation

necessitated by the seasonal nahtre of their food supply.

Brood parasitism has arisen at least twice amongst

song birds: it occurs in the North American cowbirds

(Icteridae) and in the African whydahs etc lEstrildidae).

In the latter, the Indigo Finches parasitise other species

of the Estrildidae. Nestling Indigo Finches mimic the

patterns of mouth markings present in the nestlings of

their various hosts, each quite distinctive. Lumpers

place all Indigo Finches in a single species; splitters

recognise distinct species parasitizing each host. But

clearly speciation is at work if populations parasiti~ing

the different host species are becoming isolated.

212

H


In order to break down this large and diverse array

of song birds into more easily handled units, the families

have been grouped into five sections. One section contains

only t he particularly large and diverse family the

Huscicapidae . Another section i s the natural assemblage

of related families of seed-eating birds, with stout

conical bills, the buntings, finches, weavers and their

allies. The other sections are perhaps less taxonomically

justifiable. One contains the families of mainly larger

song birds, the crows, birds of paradise and bower birds,

togeth e r with some medium sized forms like the sta rlings

and drongos. The remaini ng two sections are less easily

defined, but one comprises those families where, for the

most part, some specialised feeding or flight techniques

are employed; the other can be broadly termed arboreal

specialists. To the first belong the aerial feeding

swallows, the pre datory shrikes and the dippe rs that feed

under water, wa lking on t he beds of streams . Al s o in this

section are the larks and wagtails, basically ground living

song birds. The best known families of the arboreal

specialist families are the tits or chickadees, nuthatches,

tree-creepers, sunbirds and honeyeaters.

Although the five sections have bee n employed

pr i marily to g ive some convenient subdivisions for

discussion it must be str e sse d that most ornitholog ists

list the song bird families in a slightly different

sequence, which is based on the very slender evidence

there is for oscine phylogeny.

21~

dippe>r Cinc lus •

Suborder Oscines


1. The members range in size from 8 to 70 em.

2. The bill is variously adapted in the different

families.

3. The legs and feet are typically quite short, but

show some adaptation to differing modes of life

in the families.

4. The members are mostly arboreal, but include ground

birds (larks), aerial feeders (swallows) and

aquatics (dippers). They are essentially diurnal.

e 5. The syrinx possesses a very complex musculature

enabling typical members to 1 sing 1 • The song is

often diagnostic for the individual species, though

in some families with striking plumage differences,

vocalisations are more uniform but show a pattern

characteristic of the family.

SECTIONS I - V

NON-ARBOREAL FAMILIES

MUSCICAPIDAE

SEED EATERS

LARGER SONG BIRDS

214

T H E S 0 N G B I R D S SECTION I

Section I - The non-arboreal songbirds

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are typically small to very small birds,

mostly less than 25 em.

2. The bill is variable in accordance with a wide

range of feeding habits in the different families.

J. The plumage is variable; cryptic or conspicuous.

4. Flight is typically strong, with migration shown

by some members of the majority of the families.

SUBORDER FAMILY

Alaudidae larks

Hirundinidae swallows

Motacillidae wagtails

Campephagidae cuckoo-shrikes

Pycnonotidae bulbuls

Irenidae leafbirds

OS CINES Laniidae shrikes

(Section I) Vangidae vanga shrikes

Bombycillidae waxwings

Dulidae palmchat

Cinclidae dippers

Troglodytidae wrens

Mimidae thrashers

Prunellidae accentors

215

T H E S 0 N G B I R D S S E C T I 0 N I

Family Alaudidae - Larks

Oscines in which:-

e 1. The members are ground dwelling birds with

cryptic brown plumage, but with an elaborate

singing display flight. They walk on the

ground and have an elongate claw to U1e hind toe.

2. Distribution is worldwide, but only one species

with limited distribution occurs in South

America. Theae are 76 species in 12 genera.

Examples:- Mirafra, Calandrella, Galerida, Alauda .

Family Hirundinidae - Swallows

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are aerial feeders wit h s trong

agile flight. They h ave short bills with a

very wide gape, and weak legs and feet. Most

species are long distance migrants.

2. Distribution is worldwide, but high latitudes

are only occupied in the summer by migratory

species. There are 74 species in 17 genera.

Examples:- Hirundo, Riparia, Delichon, Psalidoprocne.

s ky l ark - Alauda

swallow - Hirundo

216

T II E S 0 N G B I R D S S E C T I 0 N I

Family ~lotacillidae - Wagtails and Pipits

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are small, typically ground living·

birds with long legs and toes. The plumage

e is cryptic, pied or yellowish and the tail

long, often white edged, and moved up and down.

2. Distribution is '"orldwidc except for high

latitudes, but many species are long distance

migrants. There arc 54 species in 5 genera.

Examples: - Motacilla , Ant hus , Macronyx .

grey wagtail - Motaeilla

21 7

T II E S 0 N G B I R 0 S S E C T I 0 N I

Family Campephagidae - Cuckoo-shrikes and Greybirds

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are small (but some are over 30 em).

• They are often mainly grey birds, though some

are brightly coloured. They have strong, even

• hooked bills, but short legs and weak feet.

2. The members are found in the warmer parts of

the Old World, and are largely non-migratory.

There are 72 speci e s in 9 genera.

Examples:- Coracina, Campephaga , Lalage.

218

white-wi nged t r i lle r La l age


Famil.y Pycnonotidae - Bulbuls

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are typically thrush-sized birds

• with mainly greenish plumage, though many

have bright head patterns. The medium

length bill is slightly decurved.

2. Distribution is mainly in the fore sted areas

of Africa, Madagascar and southern Asia to

the Philippines. There are 118 species in

16 genera.

Examples :- Andropadus, Pycnonotus, Phyllastrephus.

d istribution of t he Pycnonotidae

219

bulbul - Pycnonotus

T H E S 0 N G B I R D S SECT I ON I

Fa~ily Irenidae - Leafbirds

Oscines in which:-

1· The members are fairly small (12-24 em), but

• brightly coloured birds, typically grass-green

or blue, and with the sexes unlike. They

e have long, slightly curved bills.

2. The members are confined to southern Asia from

India to Borneo.

3 ge nera .


Examples: - Chloropsis, Irena.

distribution of t he Ire nidae

golde n - fronte d l eafbird Chloropsis

220

Q

T I! E S 0 N G B I R D S SECTION I

Family Laniidae - Shrikes

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are typically boldly patte rne d,

e particularly on the head, with contrasting

and often bright colours. The large head

e carries a strong hooked bill indicating

predatory habits.

2. Most of the members (80%) occur in Africa,

but some speci es reach Nort h America, ot hers

Asia, while one is found i n Ne w Guinea.


Examples:~ Laniarius, Malaconotus, Lanius, Prionops.

distribution of the La ni i dae

red-backed s hri ke Lanius

221


Family Vangidae - Vanga Shrikes

Oscines in which:-

e 1. The members are black or blue above and white

below. The bill is rather variable being

shrike-like, sickle-shaped (Falculea), or

massive and arched (Euryceros).

2. The members are confined to the island of

Madagascar. There are 13 species in 9 genera.

Examples:- Vanga, Falculea, Leptopterus.

blue vanga Leptopterus

Euryceros.

distribution of the Vangidae

222


Family Bombycillidae - Waxwings and Silky-flycatchers

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members have a soft, silky plumage and

crested heads. The waxwings have red tips

to the secondary wing feathers.

2. The waxwings (Bombycilla) are found in the

taiga of Holarctica: the silky-flycatchers

(Phainopepla) are confined to North America.

The aberrant Hypocolius, now included in this

family, is found in southwest Asia, but migrates

into India and northeast Africa.


There are

Examples:- Bombycilla, Ptilogonys, Phainopepla, Hypocolius.

distribution of t he Bombycillidae

wa xwing - Bombycilla

223

T H E S 0 N G B I R D S SECTlON l

Family Dulidae - Palmchat

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The only member is like a small thrush; olive-brown above and heavily streaked belm;. The long, laterally compressed bill is heavy

and decurved.

2. The palmchat is confined to Hispaniola and adjacent ~slands of the West Indies.

Example:- Dulus.

Family Cinclidae - Dippers

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are small, short tailed birds with dense, waterproof plumage, typically dark brmm with a white breast. The bill is straight and slender: the legs and toes strong for walking under water.

2. The members show a rather discontinuous distribution in North and South America, Europe and southern Asia.


Example:- Cinclus.

There are 4

(see p.213)

distribution of the Cinclidae

224

T H E S 0 N G B I R D S SECTIO N I

Family Troglodytidae - Wrens

Oscines in which:-

• 1 . The members a r e s mall birds with a pa tterned

brO\m plumage . .The bill is slende r a nd rathe r

long and curved. The legs and feet are strong.

2. The members are almost confined to the Americas,

apart from one specie s, the common wre n, which

occurs right across the Palaearctic from

Iceland t o Japa n.

14 ge nera.

There a re 59 species in

Examples:- Troglodytes, Campylorhynchus, Thryothorus.

d istt•ibution o f t h Troglodytid ae

wre n - Trogl od ytes

2 2 5


Family Mimidae - Thrashers and Mockingbirds

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are relatively large (20-30 em),

with dark upperparts and pale, typically

spotted underparts. The bill is long and

strong. The bases of the middle and outer

toes are adherent.

2. The members are confined to the Americas

from southern Canada almost to Cape Horn.


Examples:- ~' Toxostoma, Dumetella.

d istribution of t he Mimidae

catbird - Dumeteila

226


Family Prunellidae - Accentors

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are small, basically brown birds ,

typically with a little colour on the throat.

The bill is slender and finely pointed and

the legs and feet strong.

2. The members range through the Palaearctic.


Example:- Prunella.

Alpine aeeentor - Prune lla

227

T H E S 0 N G B I R D S S E C T I 0 N II

Section II

Family Muscicapidae - Flycatchers and their allies

SUBORDER

OSCINES {Section

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are typically small birds, mostly

very small {less than 15 em), but many have

long tails.

2. The bill is typically short, straight and

pointed, but varies in the different

subfamilies.

3. ·The plumage is variable; cryptic or

conspicuous.

4· Flight is typically rather weak, but,

paradoxically, many species are long distance

migrants.

~ SUBFAMILY

Turdinae thrushes

Timaliinae babblers

Panurinae bearded Muscicapidae reedling

II) Sylviinae o.w. warblers

Muscicapinae flycatchers

Pachycephalinae whistlers

228


In lhis section of the song birds, in particular, there

is the widest divergence of systematic opinion. the huge

family, Muscicapidae, is variously subdivided by different

authorities, but all recognise Turdinae (thrushes),

Timaliinae (babblers), Sylviinae (Old World warblers) and

Pachycephalinae (whistlers). Most authorities also

separate the bearded reedling and the parrotbills into

another subfamily called either the Panurinae or the

Paradoxornithinae. But the remaining birds, very largely

Australasian, are subject to a number of different arrangements

Here, as shown below, they have all been grouped as a single

subfamily, the Muscicapinae, which we may call broadly the

flycatchers, though many authorities separate the monarch

flycatchers (Monarchinae) and Australian wren-warblers

(Malurinae) from the true flycatchers and some divide

these into as many as six subfamilies.

Subfamily Turdinae - Thrushes, Robins and Chats

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are small to relatively large

birds (up to 33 em), typically with brown to

black plumage, but with areas of white or

colour in contrast. The bill is of medium

length but slender: the legs and feet are

strong.

2. The members have a worldwide distribution

(apart from New Zealand and northern

Holarctica).

SO genera.

Examples:-


Turdus, Oenanthe, Luscinia, CQSSypha, Erithacus.

229


whcatear - Oenanthe

robin - Er ithacus

mistle t hrus h - Turdu s

230


Subfamily Timaliinae - Babblers

•

Oscines in which:-

1 . The members are typically f a irly sma ll birds

(up to 25 em), but Picathartes is over 40 em.

The plumage is typically brownish, often scaled

below. The bill is very variable and the feet

and legs strong .

birds.

They are sociable and noisy

2. Apart from Chamaea in weste rn North America,

the membe r s are confined to the warmer parts

of the Old World.

47 genera.


Examples:- Turdoides, Garrulax, Trichastoma, Pellorneum, Picathartes, Chamaea.

spott ed babble r - Pellorne um

231


distribution of Lhe Lmaliinae

distribution of the Panurinae

232


Subfamily Panurinae (Paradoxornithinae) - Bearde d Reedling and Parrotbills

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are small , gregarious birds with

long tails and copious soft, mostly brownish

plumage. The bill is small, fine and pointed

(Panurus), or short and strongly convex

( Paradoxornis) .

are robust.

The legs, toes and claws

2. The members, except Panurus, the bearded

reedling, occur mainly in the Oriental region

from Bangladesh to China, but not in I'Ialaysia.

Panurus occurs in the warmer western Palaeartic.


Examples:- Panurus, Conostoma, Paradoxornis.

bearded reedling - Panurus

233


Subfamily Sylviinae - Old World Warblers

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are typically very small birds

with little or no bright colouring. The

bill is very small and slender and the legs

short and slender. Many groups of very

similar species are readily distinguished

by voice.

2. The members are found throughout the Old World,

but a few occur in both North and South America.

There are 340 species in 45 genera (13 species

in 5 genera in America).

Examples:- Sylvia, Phylloscopus, Cisticola,

distribution ot· t he Sylviinae

Orthotomus, Acrocephalus.

r eed warbler - Acrocephalus

234


Subfamily Muscicapinae (sensu latu) - Flycatchers

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are either small, dull birds, or have

bright colouring in the plumage. The bill

e is short, broad-based and ridged above, and

the legs short and weak.

2. The members are confined to the Old World

with several groups found only in Australasia.

There are over 430 species in about 70 genera.

Examples:- Muscicapa, Rhipidura, Mo11archa, Malurus, Ficedula.

distribution of the Muscicapinae

•

spotted flycatcher - Huscicapa

235

T H E 5 0 N G B I R D 5 5 E C T I 0 N II

Subfamily Pachycephalinae - Whistlers

Oscines in which:-

e 1. The members are robust, small to medium sized

birds (up to 40 em) with predominantly yellow,

green or rufous plumage. The bill is strong

and shrike-like and the legs rather long for

passerines.

2. The members are centred on Australasia, but

extend into Burma and the Philippines.


Examples:- Pachycephala, Colluricincla, Pitohui.

d istribut-ion of the Pachycephalinae

236

gold e n '"hist l er _P_a ~...Y_£ephala

•

..

T H E S 0 N G B I R D S S E C T I 0 N III

Section III - The arboreal songbirds

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are mainly small birds less than 20 em,

but a few reach 35 - 40 em in two families.

• 2. The bill is long, slender and decurved in most

families, but is small, short and pointed in others.

• 3. The plumage is typically bright, at least in males.

4. The flight is typically weak and long distance

migration virtually unknown.

SUBORDER

OSCINES -----1 (Section III)

Paridae

Sittidae

Certhiidae

Climacteridae

Dicaeidae

Nectariniidae

Zosteropidae

Meliphagidae

Parulidae

Drepanididae

Vireonidae

Icteridae

237

tits

nuthatches

tree-creepers

Australian tree-creepers

flowerpeckers

sunbirds

white-eyes

honeyeaters

American warblers

Hawaiian honeycreepers

vireos

troupials


Family Paridae - Tits

Oscines in which:-

e 1. The members are very small birds, typically

with soft, thick, boldly coloured plumage.

They have very small conical bills and short

strong legs.

2. The members are absent from South America,

Madagascar and Australasia and are mainly

Holarctic. There are 62 species in 8 genera,

often differentiated into 3 subfamilies -

Aegithalinae, the long-tailed tits, Remizinae,

the penduline tits, and Parinae, the true tits.

Examples:- Aegithalos, Remiz, Parus.

(see page 240)

Family Sittidae - Nuthatches

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are small birds with grey to

blue-grey upperparts and typically white and

chestnut underparts. The bill is slender and

straight and the legs short with long, strongly

e clawed toes enabling them to hang downward.

2. The members occur throughout the Holarctic

through the Oriental region to Australia.


Examples:- Sitta, Neositta, Tichodroma.

(see page 240)

238


great tit - Parus

t,

spotted creepe r Salpornis

239

S E C T I 0 N III

long-tailed tit Aegithalos

nuthatch -~

T H E S 0 N G 8 I R D S S E C T I 0 N III

distributio" of t he Paridae

distribution of the Sittidae

distribution of the Certhiidae

240


Family Certhiidae - Tree-creepers

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are very small birds with streaked

brown upperparts and white to buff underparts.

e The bill is long, slender and decurved and

the legs slender with strong feet. The tail

• feathers are stiff and used to prop the

climbing bird against a tree trunk as in

woodpeckers.

2. The members are mainly confined to t he northern

hemisphere, though one specie s ranges south

through Africa. There are 8 species in 3

genera.

Examples:- Certhia, Salpornis, Rhabdornis,

(see page 239)

Family Climacteridae - Australian Tree-creepers

Oscines in which:-

1. The members a re strongly convergent with the

Certhiidae. They are similar in size,

colouring and bill form, but lack the stiff

tail feathers.

2. The members are confined to Australia apart

from one species in New Guinea.

6 species in a single genus.

Example: - Cli macteris.

241

There are

T H E S 0 N G B I R D 8 S E C T I 0 N III

Family Dicaeidae - Flowerpeckers

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are small birds with plumage that;

is dark and glossy above and pale below with

typically a red or yellow patch on the head,

breast or rump. The bill is typically thin

and curved and the legs very short.

2. The members are confined to the Oriental and

Australasian regions.

in 7 genera .


Examples:- Dicaeum, Melanocharis, Pardalotus.

scarlet-backe d flowerpccker Di.c_aeu_"!

d istribut ion of he Dicaeidae

242

•


Family Nectariniidae - Sunbirds

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are typically very small birds

with areas of vivid metallic plumage, at

least in the males. More dull species may

have tufts of yellow or orange feathers at the

sides of the breast. The bill is elongate

and slightly to markedly decurved. The legs

are short but strong.

2. The members are found mainly in Africa, with

fewer species in the Oriental region and only

3 in Australasia.

5 genera.


Examples:- Anthreptes, Nectarinia, Arachnothera.

d istribution of the Nectariniidae

regal sunbird - Nectarinia

243


Family Zosteropidae - White-eyes

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are very small birds with greenish

upperparts and yellow or white underparts.

• All have a conspicuous ring of tiny white

feathers ~ound the eye. The bill is slender,

pointed and sl.Lghtly decurved and the legs

short but strong.

2. The members are confined to the Ethiopian,

Or.Lental and Australasian regions. One

species has recently become established in

New Zealand. There are 79 species in 11

genera.

Examples:- Zosterops, Speirops.

d~~tribution o the Zos teropidae

244

orienta l white -eye zosterops


Family Meliphagidae - Honeyeaters

Oscines in which:-

1. The membe rs are small to rather large birds

(up ·to 36 em) with relativel.y uniform plumage

• of green, grey or brown, but with stripes of

yell.ow or white on the head. The bill is

e sl.ender and decurved and may be quite l.ong.

The l.egs a re strong, typical.l.y rather long.

2. Apart from the rather aberrant Promerops in

South Africa, t h e members a r e confin e d to

Austraiasia and the Pacific Islands to Hawaii.


Examples:- Myzomela, Mel i phaga , Philemon, Promerops.

bal d friarbird Philemon

distribution of the Meliphagidae

245


Family Parulidae - American Warblers

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The me mbers are small birds wit h olive or grey

plumage , but s e asonally possess areas of

bright yellow, orange, red or blue on the head.

The bill is typically slender and pointed and

the legs weak.

wing feathers.

There are only 9 primary

2. The members occur throughout the Americas,

except at extreme latitude s a nd some specie s

migrate between the two continents.


There

Examples:- Dendroica, Conirostrum, Coereba.

magnolia warbler - Dendroica

246


Family Drepanididae - Hawaiian Honeycreepers

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are small birds with dark coloured

wings and tail, the body plumage is a uniform

olive, brown or grey or bright colour in

some species. The bill has undergone wide

adaptive radiation in the different genera.

The legs are rather long with strong feet.

2. The members are confined to the Hawaiian

Islands where they have evolved to occupy

many ecological niches.

in 10 genera.


Examples:- Vestiaria, Loxops, Psittirostra.

Family Vireonidae - Vireos

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are small birds with greenish to

grey upperparts and unmarked whitish to yellow

or grey underparts. The bill is typically

rather thick and slightly hooked. The legs

are short and all the three front toes adhere

at the base.

2. The members occur throughout the Americas

except at extreme latitudes and some species

migrate between the two continents. There


Examples:- Cyclarhis, ~' Vireolanius. Hylophilus.

247


Family Icteridae - Troupials, Cowbirds and Grackles

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The membe rs are mostly rather large songbirds

(17-54 e m). The plumage is either a uniform

glossy black or shows bold combinations of

bright colour. The bill is variable, ranging

from conical to elongate and may be heavy and

casqued. The legs and feet are s t rong.

2. The members occur throughout the Americas

except t h e extreme north and many species

migrate between the two continents.


There

Examples:- Psarocolius, Icterus, Sturnella, Agelaius, Molothrus, Dolichonyx.

distribution of the Parulidae, ~ireo~ida~~d_!.c~e_ridae

248

green oropendola - Psarocol ius

T H E S 0 N G B I R D S S E C T I 0 N IV

Section IV - Song birds which are basically seed-eating

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are small birds, though a few have

very long tails.

e 2. The bill is typically conical, but varies greatly

in size. The mandibles are crossed in Loxia.

e 3. The plumage is typically brightly coloured, at

least in some areas.

4. The flight is variable and most are non-migratory.

SUBORDER SUBFAMILY

-[ Estrildinae

Estrildidae

Viduinae

-[

Bubalornithinae

Ploceidae Ploceinae

Passerinae

-[

Carduelinae

Fringillidae Fringillinae

Geospizinae

Pyrrhuloxiinae

Emberizinae

Emberizidae

Tersininae

Thraupinae

waxbills

whydahs

buffaloweavers

weavers

sparrows

finches

chaffinches

Galapagos finches

cardinalgross beaks

buntings

swallowtanagers

tanagers

(The subfamilies have been included to show their location

within families but will not be treated further,)

249


Family Estrildidae - Waxbills and Whydahs

Oscines in which:-

1. The waxbills are very small, usually brightly

e coloured birds, typically wit h coloured

conical bills. They construct untidy nests

with a lateral entrance. The whydahs ~Vidua)

have dull coloured females while the males may be

more colourful with very long tails; all

e are brood parasites utilising waxbills as

host spe cie s.

2. The whydahs are confined to Africa, but the

waxbills occur through the warmer parts of

the Old World.

28 genera.


Examples : - Lagonost icta, Lonchura, Estrilda, Chloebia , ~·

distribution of the Estrildidae

Gouldian finch - Chloebia

250


Family Ploceidae - Buffalo Weavers, Weavers and Sparrows

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are typically small birds with

plumage patterns of black with yellow, red or

brown, though buffalo weavers are wholly black

and sparrows predominantly brown. Typically

e they produce very elaborately woven nests

with a lateral entrance often extended to a

funnel.

2. Apart from the widely introduced sparrows, t he

me mbers a r e mainly African, though sparrows

range throughout the Palaearctic and a few

weavers occur in S.E. Asia to the Philippines.


Examples:-

Q

(sparrows , Passer, introduced worl dwide)

Bubalornis, Passer, Ploceus, Malimbus, Quelea, Euplectes.

d istribution of t he Ploceidae

bishop weaver - Euplectes

251

T H £ S 0 N G B I R D S S E C T I 0 N IV

Family Fringillidae - Chaffinches, Finches and Galapagos Finches

Oscines in which:-

e 1. The members are typically small brightly

coloured birds with dull coloured bills.

They construct open cup nests.

2. Most members are found in the Holarctic.

A few occur in South America and Africa and

none in Madagascar, S.E. Asia or Australasia.


examples : -

d istribution of the Fringillidae

bullfinch - Pyrrhula

252


Family Emberizidae - Buntings, Tanagers and Cardinals

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are small birds, sometimes very

brightly coloured. Many others have strongly

patterned heads. Most have dull coloured

bills. They construct open cup nests.

2. The buntings occur throughout Africa and the

Palaearctic to S.E. Asia, but the other groups

are confined to the Americas. There are 553

species in 133 genera, mostly in the Emberiz inae

and Thraupinae.

Examples:- Emberiza, Junco, Sporophila, Pipilo, Pheuticus, Cardinalis, Tangara, Euphonia, Piranga.

d istribution of the Emberizidae

scarlet tanager - Piranga meadow bunting - Emberiza

253

T H E S 0 N G B I R n S S E C T I 0 N V

Section V - The larger song birds

Oscines in which:-

e 1. The members are typically quite large birds, up

to 70 em or more in long tailed forms and seldom

less than 25 em.

e 2. The bill is typically strong and slightly decurved.

e 3. The plumage is typically glossy, black, pied, or

brightly coloured, particularly so in many birds

of paradise.

e 4· The flight is typically strong, often in large

flocks, though some groups are solitary. The

majority are non-migratory.

f;UBORDER FAMILY

Sturnidae starlings

Oriolidae orioles

Dicruridae drongos

Ca11aeidae wattled-crows

Gra11inidae magpie-larks OSCINES (Section V) Artamidae wood-swallows

Cracticidae bell-magpies

Ptilinorhynchidae bower-birds

Paradisaeidae birds-of-paradise

Corvidae crows

254

T H E S 0 N G B I R D S S E C T I 0 N V

Family Sturnidae - Starling s

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The membe rs are highly gregarious small to

medium s ize d birds (1 8-43 em), typically wit h

dark metallic plumage though some have white

or bright coloured areas. The bill is long

and straight. The voice is a mixture of

grating noises and clear whistle s and many

are mimics.

2 . The membe rs a r e widespre ad i n the Old World

and many are strongly migr a tory. The Eur opean

starling or the common myna or both have been

introduced into North Ame rica, S . E. Australia

and New Zealand.

22 genera.


Examples :- Sturnus, La mprot ornis, Acridotheres, Buphagus.

distr i bution of t he St urni dae

s t a rli ng - Sturnus

255

T H E S 0 N G B I R D S SECTION V

Family Oriolidae - Orioles

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are small to medium sized birds e (18-30 em) typically with black and yellow

plumage. The bill is slightly hooked and

often coloured.

and fluting.

The voice is melodious

2. The members are confined to the warmer parts of the Old World and are mainly migratory. There are 28 species in 2 genera.

- -.. ~ ;.\;;..-:.--- -

distribution of the Oriolidae

golden oriole - Oriolus

256


Family Dicruridae - Drongos

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are small to medium sized

pugna cious birds (18-6 4 e m) with glossy bla ck

plumage and typically a strongly forked tail.

The bill is stout and hooked. The voice is

a mixture of harsh screeches and melodious

whistles.

2. The members are confined to the Old World

tropics and few migrate.

spe cies in 2 genera .

Example:- Dicrurus.

There are 20

distribution of t he Dicruridae

drongo - Dicrurus

257


Family Callaeidae - Wattle-birds

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are (or were) medium siz ed birds

(25-53 em) wit h glossy dark plumage (the back

brown in Creadion), and with fleshy wattles

at the bill base. The bill is strong and

variably decurved, with a remarkable sexual

dimorphism in the recently extinct Huia

(Heteralocha) enabling the two sexes to

exploit differe nt foods. The voice is a

mixture of harsh and musical not es mixe d wit h

cat-like mewings.

2. The members are confined to New Zealand.

There are 3 species (including the huia,

probably extinct) in 3 genera.

Examples:- Callae as, Cread i on, Heteralocha .

Family Grallinidae - Magpie-larks

•

•

Oscines in which:-

1.

2.

The members are small to medium sized birds

(19-50 em) with either pied or dull matt

plumage. The bill is short and stout or

longer a nd decu r ve d. They build ve r y sol id

mud nests. The voice is melodious but includes

harsh notes.

The members occur throughout Australia and in

some areas of New Guinea.

in 3 ge nera.

distr ibution of the Grallinidae

25 8

There are 4 species

D

Q


Family Artamidae - Wood-Swallow

Oscines in which:-

1. The members are small birds (15-20 em) with

e grey, brown, white and black variously

combined in the plumage. The bill is short

and stout with a wide gape enabling the bir·d

to take aerial plankton, though the flight

e silhouette is starling-like rather than

swallow-like. The voice is a mixture of

soft twitte ring and harsh calls.

2. The me mbers are confined to tropical Asia

and Australasia. They are highly gregarious

and some are migratory.

in a single genus.

Example:- Artamus.


distribution of t h e Artamidae

Wood swallow - Artamus

259


Family Cracticidae - Currawongs and Butcherbirds

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are medium sized gregarious birds

(26-58 em), with black or pied plumage. The

bill is large, stout and hooked. The voice

is loud, typically quite musical and persistent.

2. The members are indigenous to Australia and

New Guinea, but have been introduced to New

Zealand. They are non-migratory. There


Examples:- Cracticus, Gymnorhirta, Strepera •

• distribution ot' the Cracticidae

butcherbird - Cracticus

260


Family Ptilinorhynchidae - Bowerbirds

Oscines in which:-


with very different plumage. The bill is

stout, straight or slightly decurved, and

hooked. Typically the males construct

e elaborate display areas - bowers - usually

decorated with bright objects. The bowers are

adjacent to, but separate from, the nests.

The voice is a series of loud ringing calls.

2. The members are confined to New Guinea and

adjacent islands and parts of Australia.


Examples:- Ailuroedus, Ptilinorhynchus, Chlamydera.

distribution of

261

Prilinorhyncnidae

satin bowerbird Ptilinorhynchus


Family Paradisaeidae - Birds of Paradise

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are small to medium sized birds

(14-100 e m) but fantastically ornate t a ils

greatly exaggerate the size of many species.

The plumage is glossy black or brilliantly

coloured with bold combinations and bizarre

display feathers on the head, breast or tail.

The brilliant colours are given further effect

by elaborate display postures . The bill is

me dium-sized to quite hea vy. The voice i s

loud, shrill and harsh with whistlings.

2. The members are confined to the Moluccas,

New Guinea and eastern Australia . There


Examples : - Ptiloris , Astrapia, Paradisaea . Cicinnurus .

distributi on of the Paradisaeidae

Q )

262

king bird of paradise Cicinnurus


Family Corvidae - Crows

Oscines in which:-

• 1. The members are typically medium to quite

large birds up to 70 em, but a few are as

small as 18 em. The plumage is black, black

and white, or coloured (in jays). The bill

is strong, even massive. The voice is

typically loud and raucous.

2. The members are worldwide apart from New

Zealand and the oceanic islands. Very few

are migratory.

26 genera.


Examples:- Garr·ulus, Cyanoci tta, Pica, Corvus.

jackdaw -~

263

14 Glossary

Acetabulum - the socket in the pelvic girdle that receives the head of the femur of the leg. (pages 27, 40).

Aegithognathous - a modified form of the carinate (neognathous) palate found in Apodiformes and Passeriformes only. (page 39).

Aftershaft - a small counterpart feather growing from the same shaft as the feather proper. It is as large as the main feather in emus, well developed in game birds, but vestigial in most birds and absent in pigeons. (pages 20, 45).

Airsacs - essentially thin-walled extensions of the bronchi acting as reservoirs so that birds have lungs with a through air flow. (page 30).

Albumen -the 'white' of the avian egg. (page 31).

Allantois - a sac arising from the posterior end of the embryonic alimentary canal, that, becoming highly vascularised, sends oxygen diffused through the egg shell to the developing chick. It also acts as a repository for nitrogenous waste during incubation. (page 31).

Altricial birds fly. (page

- describes the helpless condition of young that remain in the nest, typically till able to

Such young are sometimes said to be nidicolous. 6).

Alula, or bastard wing - the small tuft of feathers, ---independently movable, attached to the preaxial digit

of the wing. The old view that this was the homologue of the 1thumb 1 of higher mammals is now being questioned as there is evidence it is really the second digit or 'index finger•. (pages 21, 25).

Amnion - the embryonic membrane enclosing a fluid-filled ----cavity containing and protecting the developing chick.

It is found also in mammals and reptiles. (page 31).

264

G L 0 S S A R Y

Aort~c arches - the arteries that pass from the ventral aorta to supply the gills of fishes and then unite dorsally to form the dorsal aorta. Exactly comparable vessels occur in the embryonic birds, but at hatching only one, the fourth (systemic) vessel on the right remains. (page 29).

Aspect ratio - a term borrowed from aeronautics, the ratio of wing length (span) to breadth (chord). Thus long narrow wings have a 'high' aspect ratio, shorter broad ones a 'low' aspect ratio.

Barb -a lateral branch of the feather axis (rachis). ----It is thus a primary unit of the expanded feather

vane. (page 20).

Barbules - lateral branches of the feather barbs which thus become secondary units of the feather vane. In the main feathers of wing and tail the proximal and distal barbules cross each other and interlock to form a stiff vane. (page 20).

Basipterygoid process - a bony process from the cranium, sutured to the pterygoid which thus reduces the mobility of the upper jaw with respect to the skull frame. It is found only in ratites and tinamous and is thus an integral feature of the palaeognathous palate. (page 38).

Bastard wing - see alula.

Blastodisc - the protoplasmic part of the egg from which the embryonic chick is developed, as opposed to the large yolk that furnishes this embryo with its nutritional requirements. (page 31).

Bronchus - the bifurcation at the base of the trachea leading to a lung and its associated air sacs. (page 30).

Brood parasitism - describes the breeding behaviour, popularly associated with cuckoos, in which the female deposits her egg or eggs in the nests of another species that serve as foster parents. The condition also occurs in honeyguides, cowbirds and whydahs. (page 150).

Buccal cavity - the cavity of the mouth. (page 22).

Calamus - the basal part of the feather axis, below the vane, inserted into the feather follicle of the skin. (page 20).

265

G L 0 S S A R Y

Carina - the medial keel on the avian sternum which ~parates the flight muscles of the two wings and

provides an enlarged surface for their origin. It occurs only in flying birds, the Carinatae. (pages 27, 28).

Carpometacarpus - a fusion of wrist (carpus) and hand (metacarpus) bones, found only in birds. It has elements of all three wing digits and supports the pPimary remiges and also the alula. (page 25).

Cere - the fleshy covering at the base of the upper --mandible of the bill characteristic of certain orders

of birds, e.g. Columbiformes.

Cerebellum - the major lobes of the hind brain concerned largely with equilibration and coordination of muscle activity. Massive in birds through impoPtance in flight

(page 23) Cerebral hemisphere - the major lobes of the forebrain.

(page 23).

Chalazae - twisted strands of dense albumen fibres that envelop the yolk of the avian egg and are also attached to the shell membranes externally. They suspend the yolk centrally within the egg albumen and maintain the orientation of the developing embryo. (page 31).

Chorion - the outermost embryonic membrane that in birds becomes applied to the shell membranes. (page 31).

Clavicle - the anterior ventral unit of the pectoral girdle which in biPds becomes fused via an interclavicular bone with the other clavicle to form the furcula or wishbone.

Columella auris - the single small bone that in birds transmits sound vibrations from the ear-drum to the region of the internal ear. It is homologous with the stapes of the reptilian and mammalian ear.

Contour feathers - any feather that forms part of the external visible feather covering including the flight feathers of the wing and tail.

Convergence - the evolutionary development of similarities in compaPatively unrelated organisms due to similarity in habit or environment.

Coracoid - the posterior ventral unit of the pectoral girdle that in birds takes the form of a strong strut between the sternum and the shoulder joint. (pages 27, 28, 37).

Corpus striatum - the ventral part of the cereb~al hemisphere associated with instinctive behaviour. (page 23).

266

G L 0 S S A R Y

Coverts - contour feathers that cover, both above and below, the bases of the wing feathers (remiges) and the tail feathers (rectrices).

Crop - a thin-walled outgrowth from the oesophagus capable of great expansion to contain food prior to digestion. It is particularly well developed in Galliformes and Columbiformes.

Cryptic plumage - plumage that by coloration and pattern closely matches the bird's natural background to offer concealment from predators.

Decurved - the downward curving of a bill.

Desmognathous - a modified form of the carinate (neognathous) palate characterised by a median fusion of the maxillopalatine processes. The desmognathous palate is found in Anseriformes, Pelecaniformes and Psittaciformes. (page 3~

Down feathers - feathers that underlie the visible contour feathers and are important in thermal insulation. They are particularly well developed in ducks, whence 'eider down'.

Downy young - the young of those species that are said to be precocial or to have nidifugous young. They are hatched with a hair-like covering that dries quickly. Very young ducklings or waders are good examples.

Echo-location - using the difference in time lapse between the production of a sound and the receipt by each ear of the echo from a distant object to estimate the position of that object. The only birds known to employ this navigational aid are the oil bird (Steatornis) and swiftlets (Collocalia) both of which live in caves.

Egg tooth - the only tooth found in birds. A single median structure at the tip of the upper mandible, it is used by the chick to cit its way through the egg shell at hatching, and then shed.

Emarginate sternum - a condition in which the sternum is deeply cut away at the margins associated with weak flight as in tinamous and some game birds including the domestic fowl.

Femur - the bone of the thigh region of the leg. It is never -----g-reatly lengthened even in long-legged birds, the

elongation being confined to the lower leg and tarsal region. (page 26).

267

G L 0 S S A R Y

Flight feathers - the large feathers of wings and tail that produce the aerofoils for flight. Those of the wing are called remiges; those of the tail retrices.

Foramen triosseum - a pulley-like structure at the shoulder formed by the meeting of the clavicle, coracoid and scapula. Over this pulley runs the long tendon of the pectoralis minor (supracoracoideus) muscle for insertion on the upper surface of the humerus so that its contraction produces the upward stroke of the wing. (page 28).

Furcula - (wishbone or merrythought), essentially a U- or Yshaped bone formed by the median fusion of the two clav.icles and the interclavicle of the pectoral girdle. (pages 27, 37) •

Gizzard - the posterior part of the stomach region of the gut which in birds is a highly muscular grinding organ compensating for the absence of teeth. It is much more powerfully developed in seed-eating birds than in insect or fruit-eating species.

Graduated tail - where the tail feathers are the longest in the centre and are progressively reduced in length laterally, thus producing a rounded aerofoil.

Gular pouch - a distensible fleshy expansion of the upper throat. It is best developed in pelicans and in male frigatebirds. (page 132).

Hallux - the first (preaxial) digit of the hind limb; ~rected backward to oppose the other digits for

perching in most birds. (page 26).

Heterocoelous - describes the saddle-shaped ends of the centra of avian neck vertebrae, giving high mobility both laterally and in a vertical plane.

Humerals - the relatively short flight feathers (remiges) at the base of the wing attached to the humerus. (page 25).

Humerus - the bone of the basal portion of the wing. It is a light hollow bone with an extension of the interclavicular airsac entering it via the pneumatic foramen. (pages 25, 30).

268

G L 0 S S A R Y

Ilium - the dorsal bone of the pelvis. It articulates -----w-ith the sacral region which, in birds, is a fusion

of abdominal, sacral and anterior tail (caudal) bones to form an elongated synsacrum. The ilium is also elo~gate to give the rigid support needed to balance the bipedal bird on its legs. (pages 26, 40).

Interclavicle - a ventral, median bone in the pectoral girdle joining the clavicles to form the furcula.

Ischium - the posterior bone of the pelvis. (pages 26, 40).

Kleptoparasite - describes the feeding habit of skuas which steal the food from other birds by harrassment in flight causing the victim to disgorge.

Lachrymal glands - secrete the lubricant fluid for the eye in terrestrial vertebrates. In marine birds they secrete into the nasal passage excess salt which such birds inevitably take in with food.

Lamellate bill - describes the condition of the bill margin where a series of small plates (lamellae) form a filtering device to strain food organisms from a mouthful of water. It is well-developed in the filter feeding flamingos and in many ducks.

~ - a small area in which male birds congregate in competitive display for females, the species involved being polygamous.

Manus - or hand, which in birds supports the primary -----r-emiges and alula, The chief bone of the manus is

the carpometacarpus. (page 25).

Maxillo-palatine process - an inwardly directed process of the maxilla of the upper jaw contributing to the avian palate. In the desmognathous type of palate the maxillo-palatine processes of the two sides meet to form a bony shelf. (pages 38,39).

Nares - the openings of the nasal cavities in the skull. -----T-he external naris opens to the exterior and the

internal naris opens into the buccal cavity. (page 22).

269

G L 0 S S A R Y

Neogpathous palate - the type of palate found in carinate birds, which is neither anchored posteriorly to the cranium wall via basipterygoid processes nor anteriorly to the rostrum via enlarged vomers. (page 38).

Neopallium - the dorsal part of the cerebral cortex that develops in the mammalian brain and is associated with complex learned behaviour. In birds, whose behaviour is mainly instinctive, it is poorly developed. (page 23).

Neotenous - with embryonic or juvenile characters persisting into adult life.

Nidicolous - see altricial.

Nidifugous - see precocial.

Optic lobe - dorso-lateral expansion of the mid-brain associated with the sense of sight, and consequently a massive structure in the avian brain since the eye is the bird's most important sense organ. (pages 22, 23).

Palaeognathous palate - the type of palate found in ratites and tinamous in which the pterygoid is anchored to the cranium via the basipterygoid process and where the anterior end of the palate is sutured to the rostrum via enlarged vomers. (page 38).

Palate - the roof of the mouth separating the buccal and ----nisal cavities. The arrangement of bones in the

palate is important in the classification of birds. (pages 38, 39).

Patagium - a fleshy lobe extending between the body and the wing to increase the effective surface of the aerofoil. (page 21).

Pectinate toe - where a toe, usually the middle front toe, carries a series of ridges to produce a comb-like preening structure.

Pectoral girdle - the sk~letal arch that attaches the wing skeleton to the body frame. Each half comprises a clavicle, coracoid and scapula. (pages 27, 37).

Pectoral muscles - comprise the pectoralis major, responsible for the lifting downward stroke of the wing and the pectoralis ~ that effects the return upward stroke. These muscles lie on either side of the keel or carina of the sternum. (page 28).

270

GLOSSARY

Pelvic girdle - the skeletal arch that attaches the leg skeleton to the body frame. Each half comprises a pubis, ischium and ilium. (pages 27, 40).

Pesulus - the membrane, situated between the junction of the bronchi, whose controlled vibrations produce bird vocalisations. It is thus analagous to the vocal cords of mammals which are absent in birds. (page 30).

Polygamous - where an individual of one sex mates with more than one of the other. In birds it is not uncommon for a male to mate with several females (polygyny) but the converse (polyandry) is rare but occurs in pratincoles and painted snipe.

Powder down - flakes produced by the disintegration of feather tips in a few birds such as herons and parrots.

Precocial - describes the advanced condition of the hatchling young bird of most ground-nesting species. It is down covered and able to forage for its own food. Such young are sometimes said to be nidifugous. (page 6).

Preen gland - normally the only skin gland possessed by birds. It is situated dorsally just in front of the tail base, and secretes an oily feather conditioner that the bird applies to its plumage with its bill tip. (page 21).

Primaries or primary remifes - feathers of the wing attached to the handmanus) region, which thus make the longest sweep in the cycle of the beating wing. (page 25).

Pseudozygodactylous - a condition of the foot, superficially like the zygodactylous, but where the first and second digits (instead of the first and fourth) are directed backward. It occurs only in Trogoniformes.

Pterylosis - the pattern of feather tracts (pterylae) and areas devoid of feathers (apterya) characteristic within a particular avian taxon. (page 21).

Pubis - the anterior ventral bone of the pelvis which in -----b-irds is backwardly directed below the ischium. In

all other vertebrates the pubes are joined mesially in a pubic symphysis, but in birds, which lay large eggs, the pubes remain separate, except in the ostrich. (pages 26, 40).

Pygostyle - the small flag-like bone at the tip of the tail of carinate birds formed by the fusion of the posterior caudal vertebrae. (page 26).

271

G L 0 S S A R Y

Rachis - the distal part of the feather shaft bearing ~e vane. (page 20).

Radiale - a small free wrist bone between the radius and the carpometacarpus in the avian wing skeleton. (page 25).

Radius - the relatively light preaxial bone of the middle ----rforearm) segment of the wing. (page 25).

Rectrices - (singular, rectrix) the main tail feathers. (page 21).

Remiges - (singular, remex), the main flight feathers of the wing. They are classed as primary remiges attached to the manus, secondaries attached to the ulna and tertiaries (or humerals) attached to the humerus. (pages 21, 25).

Rictal bristles - stiff, hair-like feathers at the gape of the bill of insectivorous birds, notably flycatchers and the aerial feeders. (page 16).

Rostrum - literally the bill, but applied here to the median bony projection from the cranium that supports the bill. It is sometimes denoted as the parasphenoid rostrum. (pages 38, 39).

Scapula - the dorsal unit of the pectoral girdle, a relatively small bone in birds since the main wing muscles are attached to the sternum not the scapula. (pages 27, 37).

Schizo9nathous - the basic type of neognathous palate from wh1ch the desmognathous and aegithognathous types may be derived. (page 38).

Sciatic foramen - an opening in the pelvic girdle of Carinatae formed by the posterior union of the ilium and ischium. (pages 26, 40).

Secondary palate - a bony plate separating buccal and nasal cavities in mammals but absent in birds.

Secondary remiges (secondaries) - the flight feathers of the forearm region of the wing attached to the ulna. (page 25).

Semi-altricial referring to young birds that remain in the nest for some while after hatching but leave long before being able to fly.

272

GLOSSARY

Semizygodactylous - a condition of the foot in which the fourth toe can be placed either anteriorly beside the second and third toes, or posteriorly beside the first toe. The condition is sometimes described by stating that the fourth toe is reversible.

Sexual dimorphism - where the two sexes differ in size (some raptors), plumage (e.g. many ducks and pheasants) or even in the bill in the huia.

Shell - the outermost calcareous covering of the avian ----e-gg which shows adaptation in shape and colouring.

(page 31).

Shell membranes - two fibrous protein layers immediately below the shell, closely applied to each other except at the blunt end of the egg where they separate to enclose an air pocket. (page 31).

Sternal callosity - a curious skin thickening over the anterior end of the sternum found only in the hoatzin.

Sternal ribs - bones joining the true (dorsal) ribs to the sternum. In mammals these units are cartilaginous to facilitate breathing movements, but in birds are bony to complete the bony thoracic cage, (page 27).

Sternum - or breastbone, large and keeled (carinate) in flying birds and penguins, flat in ratites. (pages 27, 37).

Super-precocial - referring to the young of the megapodes which, after long incubation by an external heat source, hatch in such an advanced stage of development that they can fly within hours.

Syndactylous - a condition of the foot in which two front toes, usually the second and third, are united at their bases.

Synsacrum - the rigid part of the vertebral column to which the elongate ilia of the pelvic girdle are attached. It comprises a fusion of abdominal, true sacral and anterior caudal vertebrae.

Syrinx - the organ of voice in birds, at the base of the trachea and functionally replacing the larynx of other tetrapods. (page 30).

273

G L 0 S S A R Y

Tarsometatarsal- the bone of the •tarsus' or shank region of the avian leg, formed by the fusion of the distal ankle bones (tarsals) with the bones of the foot region (metatarsal), as seen in the basic pentadactyl limbs of tetrapods. The distal end of the tarsometatarsus carries a series of separate condyles with which the toes articulate. (page 26).

Tarsus - the shank region of the leg.

Tertiaries (tertiary remiges) - see humerals.

Thermoreceptors - sense organs for detecting temperature change. Such organs in the buccal cavity of Megapodidae are employed in the regulation of fermentation temperatures during egg incubation.

Tibiotarsus - the main bone of the middle segment of the leg formed by the fusion of the tibia with the proximal ankle bones (tarsals). A splint-like fibula runs on the outside of the tibial portion only. (page 26).

Trachea - the windpipe running from the glottis at the back of the buccal cavity to the syrinx at the bifurcation of the bronchi to the two lungs. In some birds it is very much longer than the neck, being coiled and even enters a hollow in the sternal carina in some male swans. (page 30).

Turacin and turacoverdin - unique pigments, red and green respectively, found in many members of the Musophagiformes.

Ulna - the postaxial bone of the middle segment of the ----wing to which the secondary remiges are attached.

It is heavier than the radius. (page 25).

Ulnare - a small free wrist bone between the ulna and the ----cirpometacarpus in the avian wing skeleton. (page 25).

Uncinate process - a thin bony plate, either joined to or jointed with a rib, from which it projects backward to overlap the next rib and thus strengthens the rib cage. (page 27).

Vane - the flat expanded part of a feather, bordering the ----rachis. (page 20).

Vomer - (more strictly the prevomer) - paired bones ---l-ying medianly and attached to the rostrum. They are

typically small in carinate birds and large in ratites. (see neognathous and palaeognathous palates). (pages 24, 36).

274

GLOSSARY

Wattle - an unfeathered, fleshy, brightly coluured flap ----of head skin found in several unrelated groups of

birds, such as cassowaries and turkeys.

Wish-bone - see furcula.

Yolk - the massive food reserve found in the avian egg that so dwarfs the protoplasmic blastodisc that the term is often used for the whole egg proper (ovum) as distinct from its albumen, membranes and shell. (page 31).

Yolk sac - a highly vascularised extra-embryonic membrane, developed very early during incubation and in conjunction with the embryonic heart, so that the proteins and fat stored in the yolk can be transferred to nourish the growing embryo. (page 31).

Zygodactylous - a condition of the foot in which two toes, the second and third, are directed forward and the other two toes, the first and fourth, are directed backward.

List of generic names quoted

Acanthisitta (rifleman) 207

Accipiter (sparrow-hawks) 141

Aceros (rufous-necked hornbill) 17 3

Acridotheres (mynas) 255 Acrocephalus (reed

warblers) 234-•

Actophilornis (lily trotter) 82

Aegithalos (long-tailed tits) 238,239•

Aegotheles (owlet-nightjars or owlet-frogmouths) 197•

Agelaius (American blackbirds) 248

275

Agriocharis (ocellated turkey) 59

Ailuroedus (Australian catbird) 261

Aix (mandarin duck) 116•

Alauda (skylark) 216•

Alca (razorbill) 99

Alcedo (kingfisher) 164

Alectura (brush turkey) 54•

Anas (mallard, teal etc) 116

Anastomus (open-bill stork) 109

Andropadus (greenbuls) 219

Anhima (horned-screamer) 115•

G E N E R I C

Anhinga (darter) 131• Anser ('grey' geese) 116 Anseranus (magpie goose)

114, 116 Anthreptes (sunbirds) 243 Anthropoidea (demoiselle

crane) 66 Anthus (pipits) 217 Apaloderma (Narina

trogon) 17 4-• Aptenodytes (king & emperor

penguin) 133, 134• Apteryx (kiwis) 46•

Apus (swifts) 189 Aquila (eagles) 14.1

Ara (macaws) 154 Arachnothera (spider

hunters) 243 Aramus (limpkin) 68•

Archilochus (ruby-throated hummingbird) 191•

Ardea. (herons) 106 Ardeola (cattle egret) 106 Artamus (wood-swallows) 259• Asio (short-eared owl) 14-7 Astrapia (ribbon-tailed

bird-of-paradise) 262 Atrichornis (scrub-bird) 210• Aulacorhynchus (toucanets)

183 Aythya (tufted duck etc) 116

Balaeniceps (whale-headed stork) 107•

Balaerica (crowned crane) 66, 67•

Batrachostomus (frogmouths) 195

Bombycilla (waxwing) 223•

~ (hazel grouse) 56 Bostrychia (hadada ibis) 111

Botaurus (bittern) 106

276

N A M E S

Brachypteracias (ground roller) 169

Branta (Canada goo~e) 116 Bubalornis (buffalo-

weaver) 251 Bubo (eagle-owls) 147 Bucco (puffbirds) 178, 179• Buceros (rhinoceros

hornbill) 17 3 • Bucorvus (ground

hornbill) 17 3

Buphagus (oxpecker) 255 Burhinus (thick-knees) 90• Buteo (buzzards) 141

Butorides {green heron) 106

Bycanistes (piping hornbill) 17 3

Cacactua (cockatoo) 154• Calandrella (short-toed

lark) 216 Calidris (great knot etc)

86• Callaeas (kokako, wattled

crow) 258 Calyptomena (green

broadbill) 201 Campephaga {cuckoo-shrike) 218 Campephilus (ivory-billed

woodpecker) 184• Campylopterus (sabrewing

hummingbird) 191

Campylorhamphus (scythebills) 203

Campylorhynchus (cactus wren) 225

Capito (American barbets) 180 Caprimulgus (nightjars) 198• Cardinalis (cardinal) 253

Carduelis (siskin etc) 252 Cariama (red-legged

seriema) 7 4-•

Casuarius (cassowaries) 44•

GENERIC

Cathartes (turkey vulture) 140

Centropus (coucals) 157

Cephalopterus (umbrellabird) 208•

Cepphus (black guillemot) 99

Certhia (tree-creeper) 241

Ceryle (pied kingfisher) 164

Ceuthmochares (yellow-bill) 157

Chaetura (spinetailed swifts) 189

Chamaea (American babbler or wren-tit) 231

Charadrius (semipalmated plover, etc) 85•

Chauna (northern screamer) 115

Chionis (sheathbill) 92

Chlamydera (fawn-breasted bowerbird) 261

Chlamydotis (Houbara bustard) 7 5 •

Chlidonias (marsh terns) 94

Chloebia (Gouldian finch) 250•

Chloropsis (leafbirds) 220•

Chlorostilbon (emerald hummingbirds) 191

Chordeiles (nighthawks) 198

Chrysococcyx (emerald cuckoo) 157

Chunga (black-legged seriema) 7 4

Cicinnurus (king bird-ofparadise) 262•

Ciconia (white stork etc) 109•

Cinclodes (cinclodes ovenbirds) 203

Cinclus (dippers) 213~ 224

Circus (harriers) 141

Cisticola (grass-warblers) 234

Climacteris (Australian treecreepers) 241

Clytoceyx (shovel-billed kingfisher) 164

K 277

N AM E S

Coccothraustes lhawfinch) 252

Coccyzus (yellow-billed cuckoo) 157•

Coereba (bananaquit) 246

Colaptes (flickers) 184

Colius (mousebirds) 159•

Collocalia (swiftlets) 189

Colluricincla (shrike-thrush) 236

Columba (pigeons) 153

Conirostrum (canehill) 246

Conopophaga (gnateaters) 204

Conostoma (great parrotbill) 233

Coracias (rollers) 169

Coracina (greybirds) 218

Corcorax (white-winged chough) 258

Corvus (crows, jackdaw) 263•

Cossypha (robin-chats) 229

Cotinga (cotingas) 208

~ (couas) 157

Cracticus (Australian butcherbirds) 260•

Crax (curassows) 55• Creadion (saddleback) 258

~ (corncrake) 70

Crinifer (plantain-eater) 158

Crotophaga (anis) 157

Crypturellus (brown tinamous) 47

Cuculus (cuckoos) 157

Cursorius (coursers) 91•

Cyanocitta (blue jay) 263

Cyclarhis (pepper shrike) 247

Cygnus (swans) 116

Cypsiurus (palm swift) 189

Dacelo (kookaburra) 164

Delichon (house martin) 216

Dendrocolaptes (woodcreepers) 203

G E N E R I C

Dendrocygna (tree ducks) 116 Dendroica (American

warblers) 24.6• Dicaeum (flowerpeckers) 242• Dicrurus (drongos) 257• Diomedea (albatrosses) 120• Dolichonyx (bobolink) 248 Dromaius (emu) 45• ~ (crabplover) 89• Ducula (imperial pigeons) 153 Dulus (palmchat) 224 Dumetella (American

catbird) 226•

Egretta (egrets) 106• Electron (broad-billed

motmot) 166 Emberiza (buntings) 253• Empidonax (American

flycatchers) 207 Ensifera (sword-billed

hummingbird) 191• Ephippiorhynchus (saddle

billed stork) 108, 109 Erithacus (robin) 229, 230• Esacus (beach stone-

curlew) 90 Estrilda (waxbills) 250 Eudocimus (scarlet ibis) 111 Eudromia (crested-tinamou)

47, 48•

Eudyptes (rockhopper penguin etc) 133, 134•

Eumomota (turquoise-browed motmot) 166•

Euphonia (euphonias) 253 Euplectes (bishop weavers)

251• Eupodotis (black-bellied

bustard) 75 Euryceros (helmet bird) 222 Eurylaimus (Javan broadbill)

201•

278

NAMES

Eurypyga (sunbittern) 73• Eurystomus (broad-billed

rollers, oriental roller) 169' Eutoxeres (sicklebill

hummingbird) 191•

~(falcons, kestrel) 138f 143•

Falculea (falculea) 222

Ficedula tpied flycatcher) 235

Formicarius (antthrushes) 203 Francolinus (francolins,

bushfowl) 57 Fratercula (puffin) 99• Fregata (frigatebirds) 132• Fringilla (chaffinch) 252 ~ (coot) 79 Fulmarus (fulmar) 121• Furnarius (hornero

ovenbirds) 203

Galbula {jacamars) 178 Galerida (crested lark) 216 Gallinago (snipe) 86 Gallinula (moorhen) 70 ~ (junglefowl, domestic

chicken) 57 Garrulax (laughingthrush) 231 Garrulus (jay) 263 Gavia (divers, loons) 102,103• Geococcyx (road runner) 157 Geospiza (Galapagos ground

finch) 252 Glareola (pratincoles) 91 Glaucidium (pygmy owls) 147

Glaucis (hermit hummingbirds) 191•

Goura (crowned pigeon) 153 Grallina (magpie-lark) 258 Grus (cranes) 61, 66

G E N E R I C

Guttera (crested guineafowl) 58

Gygis (fairy tern) 94 Gymnobucco (naked-faced

bar bet) 180 Gymnorhina (bell-magpie) 260

Gypaetus (lamergeyer) 141

Gypohierax (palm-nut vulture) 141 ~ (griffon vulture) 141

Haematopus (oystercatchers) 84•

Halcyon (grey-headed kingfisher etc) 164•

Heliornis (sungrebe) 71 Hemiprocne (crested

swifts) 190 Heteralocha (huia) 258 Himantopus (stilt) 87 Hirundo (swallows) 216• Hydrobates (storm-petrel) 123• Hylophilus (greenlets) 247 Hypocolius (hypocolius) 223

Icterus (American orioles) 248

Indicator (honeyguides) 182• Irediparra (comb-crested

jacana) 82 Irena (bluebird) 220

Jacamerops (great jacamar) 178, 179•

Jacana (American jacana) 82•

~ (juncos) 253 Jynx (wryneck) 184

Lagonosticta (firefinches) 250

Lagopus (ptarmigan) 56 Lalage (trillers) 218•

279

N A M E S

Lamprotorn.is (glossy starlings) 255

Laniarius (boubou shrikes) 221

Lanius (fiscal shrikes, red-backed shrike) 221•

Larus (gulls, kittiwake) 94,96• Leipoa (mallee fowl) 54 Leptopterus (blue vanga) 222•

Leptoptilos (marabou stork) 109

Leptosomus (cuckoo-roller) 170•

Limosa (godwits) 86 Lonchura (mannikins) 250 Lophornis (coquette

hummingbirds) 191• Loxia (crossbill) 252 Loxops (akepa Hawaiian

honeycreeper) 247 Luscinia (nightingale) 229 Lybius (bearded barbet) 180 Lyrurus (black grouse) 56•

Macrodipteryx (standardwinged nightjar) 198

Macronectes (giant fulmar) 121•

Macronyx (longclaw) 217 Malaconotus (bush

shrikes) 2 21

Malimbus (malimbes) 251 Malurus (wren-warblers) 235 Megalaima (gaudy barbet) 180 Megapodius (scrub hens) 54

Melanita (scoters) 116

Melanocharis (berrypeckers) 242

Melanopareia (crescent-chest tapaculos) 204

Meleagris (turkey) 59• Meliphaga (honeyeaters) 245

G E N E R I C

Melopsittacus (budgerigar) 154 ~ (lyrebird) 209•

Merganetta (torrent duck) 116

Mergus (merganser) 116 Merops (bee-eaters) 167• Mesoenas (mesite) 63• Mic~astur (forest-

falcons) 14.3 Micropsitta (pygmy

parrots) 154 Milvus (kites) 141 ~ (mockingbird) 226 Mirafra (bush-larks) 216 Molothrus (cowbird) 248 Momotus (motmots) 166 Monarcha (monarch

flycatchers) 235 ~ (nunbirds) 178 Monias (Bensch's monia) 63 Motacilla (wagtails) 217• Muscicapa (spotted

flycatcher) 235• Muscivora (fork-tailed

flycatcher) 207 Musophaga (violet turaco) 158 Myrmotherula (antwrens) 203 Myzomela (myzomela

honeyeaters) 245

Nannopterum (Galapagos flightless cormorant) 130

Nectarinia (sunbirds) 243• Neodrepanis (false

sunbird) 205 Neopelma (tyrant-manakin) 207 Neositta (sitella

nuthatch) 238 Neotis (Denham's bustard) 75 Notharchus (pied

puffbird) 178 Numenius (curlews) 86

280

N A M E S

Numida (helmet guineafowl) 58• Nyctibius (potoos) 196• Nycticorax (night herons) 106 Nycticryphes (S. American

painted snipe) 83 Nyctyornis (bearded bee

eater) 167

Oceanites (Wilson 1 s stormpetrel) 123

Oceanodroma (sooty storm-petrel) 123

Oedicnemus (see Burhinus)

Oenanthe (wheatears) 229,230• Opisthocomus (hoatzin) 60• Oriolus (Old World

orioles) 256• Ortalis (chachalaca) 55 Orthotomus (tailorbirds) 234 Ortyxelos (quail plover) 64 Qtis (great bustard) 75 ~ (scops-owls) 147 Oxyruncus (sharpbill) 207 Oxyura (ruddy duck) 116

Pachycephala (whistlers) 236• Pachyramphus (becards) 208 Pandion (osprey) 141 Panurus (bearded

reedling) 233• Panyptila (swallow-tailed

swift) 189, 190• Paradisaea (birds-of-

paradise) 262 Paradoxornis (parrotbills) 233 Pardalotus (pardalotes) 242 Parus (tits, chickadees) 238, --:239• Passer (sparrows) 251 ~ (peafowl) 57 Pedionomus (plains

wanderer) 64, 65•

GENERIC

Pelecanoides (divingpetrels) 124•

Pelecanus (pelicans) 127,128•

Pellorneum (spotted babbler) 231•

Penelope (guans) 55

Perdix (partridge) 57

Phaethon (tropicbirds) 126•

Phainopepla (phainopepla) 223

Phalacrocorax (cormorants) 130•

Phalaenoptilus (poor-will) 198

Phalaropus (phalaropes) 88•

Phalcoboenus (caracara) 143

Pharomachrus (quetzals) 174

Phasianus (pheasants) 57•

Pheuticus (grosbeaks) 253

Philemon (friar-birds) 245•

Philepitta (asity) 205

Phodilus (bay owl) 146

Phoenicopterus (flamingos) 113•

Phoeniculus (wood-hoopoes) 172•

Phyllastre}hus (olive greenbul 219

Phylloscopus (willow warbler etc) 234

Phytotoma (plantcutter) 208

Pica (magpie) 263

Picathartes (rockfowl) 231

Picoides (pied woodpecker etc) 184

Picumnus (piculets) 184

Picus (green woodpecker etc) 184 Pinguinus (great auk) 80

Pipilo (towhee) 253

Pipra (manakins) 207

Piranga (scarlet tanager) 253•

Pitangus (great kiskadee) 206~ 207

Pitohui (pitohuis) 236

281

N A M E S

~ (pittas) 205, 206•

Platalea (spoonbills) 111,112•

Plegadis (glossy ibis) 111

Ploceus (weavers) 251

Pluvialis (golden plover) 85

Pluvianus (crocodile bird) 91

Podargus (Papuan frogmouth) 195

Podica (finfoot) 71•

Podiceps (grebes) 104•

Podilymbus (pied-billed grebe) 104

Pogoniulus (tinkerbirds) 180

Poicephalus (Senegal parrot etc) 154

Porzana (spotted crake) 70

Prionops (helmet shrike) 221

Procnias (bellbird) 208

Prodotiscus (sharp-billed honeyguide) 182

Promerops (sugarbird) 11,245

Prunella (accentors, dunnock) 227•

Psalidoprocne (rough-winged swallows) 216

Psarocolius (oropendolas) 248•

Psittacus (African grey parrot) 154, 155•

Psittirostra (ou Hawaiian honeycreeper) 247

Psophia (trumpeters) 69•

Pterocles (sandgrouse) 152

Pterocnemia (lesser rhea) 42

Pterodroma (petrels) 121

Pteroglossus (aracari toucans) 183

Ptilinorhynchus (satin bowerbird) 261•

Ptilogonys (silky flycatcher) 223

Ptiloris (rifle-bird) 262

Puffinus (shearwaters) 121

Pycnonotus (bulbuls) 219•

G E N E R I C

Pygoscelis (Adelie penguin ) 1 3 3

Pyrrhula (bullfinch) 252•

Quelea (quelea) 251

Rallus (rails) 70 Ramphastos (toucans) 183• Recurvirostra (avocets) 87• Remiz (penduline tits) 238 Rhabdornis (Philippine

creepers) 241 Rhea (greater rhea) 42• Rhipidura (fantail

flycatchers) 235 Rhynchops (skimmers) 97• Rhynchotus (red-winged

tinamou) 47 Rhynochetos (kagu) 72• Riparia (sandmartins) 216 Rostratula (Old World

painted snipe) 83• Rupicola (cock-of-the

rock) 208

Sagittarius (secretary bird) 144, 145•

Salpornis (spotted creeper) 239, 241

Sarcorhamyhus (king vulture 140•

Scopus (hammerhead) 110• Scotopelia (fish-owls) 147 Scytalopus (tapaculos) 204 Semnornis (toucan

barbet) 180• Serinus (canary etc) 252 ~ (nuthatch) 238, 239• Smithornis (rufous-sided

broadbill) 201 Somateria (eider) 116• Speirops (speirops white

eye} 244

282

N A ME S

Sphecotheres (figbird) 256 Spheniscus (jackass

penguin etc) 133 Sporophila (seedcaters) 253 Steatornis (oilbird) 194• Stercorarius (skuas) 94, 95• ~ (terns) 94, 96• Streper_a. (currawong) 260 Streptopelia (collared &

turtle doves) 153•

Strix (tawny owl etc) 147• Struthidea (apostle-

bird) 258 .

Struthio (ostrich) 41• Sturnella (meadowlark) 248 Sturnus (starlings) 255• ~ (gannets & boobies) 127, 12~ Sylvia (whitethroats etc)

234 Synallaxis (spinetail) 203 Syrrhaptes (Pallas's

sandgrouse) 152•

Tadorna (shellducks) 116 Talegalla (brush turkey) 54 Tangara (tanagers) 253

Tanysiptera (paradise kingfishers) 164

Tauraco (turacos, touracos) 15 8•

Terathopius (bateleur) 141' 142• ~ (capercaillie) 56 Thamnophilus (antshrikes) 203 Thinocorus (seedsnipe) 92 Threskiornis (sacred ibis)

111, 112• Thryothorus (Caroli1a

wren) 225 Tichodroma (wall creeper) 239 Tinamus (great tinamou etc)

47

GENERIC

Tockus (grey hornbill etc) ----r73 Todus (todies) 165•

Topaza (topaz hummingbirds) 191, 192•

Toxostoma (thrashers) 226

~ (green pigeons) 153

Tribonyx (Tasmanian waterhen) 70•

Trichastoma (illadopsies) 231

Tringa (sandpipers etc) 86

Troglodytes (wrens) 225•

Trogon (American trogons) 174

Turdoides (babblers) 231

Turdus (thrushes etc) 229,230•

Turnix (button-quail) 64,65•

~ (wood-doves) 153

Tympanuchus (prairie chicken 56

Tyrannus (kingbirds) 207

Tyto (barn owls) 146,147•

N A M E S

Upupa (hoopoe) 171•

Uria (guillemots,murres) 99

Vanellus (lapwings) 85

Vanga (vanga shrike) 222

Vestiaria (iiwi Hawaiian honeycreeper) 247

Vidua (whydahs & indigo finches) 250

~ (vireos) 247

Vireolanius (shrikevireos) 247

~ (condors) 140

Xenicus (New Zealand wren) 207

Xiphocolaptes (strong-billed woodcreeper) 203, 204•

Zosterops (white-eyes) 244•

List of common names quoted

accentors (Prunella) 227•

albatrosses (Diomedea) 120•

anis (Crotophaga) 157

antshrikes (Thamnophilus) 203

antthrushes (Formicarius) 203

antwrens (Myrmotherula) 203

apostle-bird (Struthidea) 258

aracari toucans (Pteroglossus) 183

asity (Philepitta) 205

auk, great (Pinguinus) 80

avocet (Recurvirostra) 87•

283

babblers (Turdoides) 231

American {Chamaea) 231

spotted (Pellorneum) 231•

bananaquit (Coereba) 246

bar bets

American (Capito) 180

bearded (Lybius) 180

gaudy (Megalaima) 180

naked-faced (Gymnobucco) 180

toucan (Semnornis) 180•

bateleur (Terathopius) 141, 142

C 0 M M 0 N

becards (Pachyramphus) 208

bee-eaters (Merops) 167•

bearded (Nyctyornis) 167

bellbird (Procnias) 208

bell-magpie (Gymnorhina) 260

berrypecker (Melanocharis) 242

birds-of-paradise (Paradisea) 262

king (Cicinnurus) 262•

ribbon-tailed (Astrapia) 262

bishop weavers (Euplectes) 251•

bitterns (Botaurus) 106

blackbirds, American Agelaius) 248

bluebird (Irena) 220

bobolink (Dolichonyx) 248

boobies (Sula) 127T 129•

bowerbird

fawn-breasted (Chlamydera) 261

satin (Ptilinorhynchus) 261•

broadbills

green (Calyptomena) 201

Javan (Eurylaimus) 201•

rufous-sided (Smithornis) 201

brush turkey (Alectura) 54• (Talegalla) 54

budgerigar (Melopsittacus) 154

buffalo weaver (Bubalornis) 251

bulbuls (Pycnonotus) 219•

bullfinch (Pyrrhula) 252•

buntings (Ember;za) 253•

bushfowl (Francolinus) 57

bush-larks (Mirafra) 216

284

NAMES

bustards

black-bellied (Eupodotis) 75

Denham's (Neotis) 75

great (Otis) 75

Houbara (Chlamydotis) 75•

butcherbirds (Cracticus) 260•

button-quails (Turnix) 64, 65•

buzzards (~) 141, 142•

canary (Serinus) 252

capercaillie (Tetrao) 56

caracara (Phalcoboenus) 143

cardinal (Cardinalis) 253

cassowary (Casuarius) 43T 44•

catbirds

American (Dumetella) 226•

Australian (Ailuroedus) 261

chachalace (Ortalis) 55 chaffinch lFringilla) 252

chicken (Gallus) SO, 57

chiffchaff (Phylloscopus) 234

chough, white-winged (Corcorax) 258

cinclodes ovenbirds (Cinclodes) 203

cockatoo, sulphur-crested (Cacatua) 154•

cock-of-the-rock (Rupicola) 208

condors (~) 140

conebill (Consirostrum) 246

coot (~) 17T 70

cormorants (Phalacrocorax) 130•

Galapagos flightless (Nannopterum) 130

corncrake (~) 70

cotingas (Cotinga) 208

couas (Coua) 157

COMMON

coucals (Centropus) 157 courser, Indian (Cursorius) 91• cowbird (Molothrus) 248 crab plover (~) 89• crake, spotted (Porzana) 70 cranes (~) 61, 66

crowned (Balaerica} 66, 67• demoiselle (Anthropoides) 66

creepers

Philippine (Rhabdornis) 240

spotted (Salpornis) 239T 240 wall (Tichodroma) 238

crocodile bird (Pluvianus) 91 crossbill (Loxia) 252 crows (Corvus) 231 cuckoos (Cuculus) 157

emerald (Chrysococcyx) 157 yellow-billed (Coccyzus) 157•

cuckoo-shrike (Campephaga) 218

curassow (Crax) 55• curlews (Numenius) 86 currawong (Strepera) 260

darter (Anhinga) 131• dippers (Cinclus) 213, 224 divers (Gavia) 102, 103• diving-petrels (Pelecanoides)

124• doves, collared

(Streptopelia) 11 turtle (Streptopelia) 153•

drongos (Dicrurus) 257• ducks

eider (Somateria) 16, 116• fulvous tree (Dendrocygna) 101,

mandarin (Aix) 116• ruddy (Oxyura) 116

116

torrent (Merganetta) 101, 116 tufted (Aythya) 116

285

NAMES

eagle-owls (Bubo) 147 eagles (Aquilla) 16, 141 egrets (Egretta) 106•

cattle (Ardeola) 100, 106 eider (Somateria) 16, 116•

emu (Dromaius) 43, 45• euphonias (Euphonia) 253

falcons (Falco) 143, 144• falculea (Falculea) 222 false-sunbird (Neodrepanis)

205 fantails (flycatchers)

(Rhipidura) 235 figbird (Specotheres) 256 finches

Gouldian (Chloebia) 250• ground (Geospiza) 252

finfoot (Podica) 71• firefinch (Lagonosticta) 250 fish-owls (Scotopelia) 147 flamingo (Phoenicopterus) 113• flickers (Colaptes) 184 flowerpeckers (Dicaeum) 242• flycatchers

American (Empidonax) 207 fork-tailed (Muscivora) 207 pied (Ficedula) 16, 235 silky (Ptilogonys) 223 spotted (Muscicapa) 235•

forest-falcons (Micrastur) 143 francolins (Francolinus) 57 friar-birds (Philemon) 245•

frigatebirds (Fregata) 132• frogmouths (Batrachostomus)

195 Papuan (Podargus) 195

fulmars (Fulmarus) 121• giant (Macronectes) 121•

COMMON

gannets (Sula) 129

geese

Canada (Branta) 101 , 116

grey (Anser) 116

magpie (Anseranus) 116

gnateaters (Conopophaga) 204

godwit (Limosa) 86

grass-warblers (Cisticola) 234

grebes (Podiceps) 104•

pied-billed (Podilymbus) 104

greenbuls (Andropadus) 219

olive (Phyllastrephus) 219

greenlets (Hylophilus) 247

greybirds (Coracina) 218

grosbeak (Pheuticus) 253

ground-roller (Brachypteracias) 169

grouse

black (Lyrurus) 56•

hazel (~) 56

guans (Penelope) 55 guillemots (Uria) 99

black (Cepphus) 99

guinea fowl

crested (Guttera) 58

helmet (Numida) 58•

gulls (Larus) 94, 96•

gyrfalcon (Falco) 143•

hammerhead (Scopus) 110•

harriers (Circus) 141, 142•

hawfinch (Coccothraustes) 16, 252

helmet bird (Euryceros) 222

herons (Ardea) 17, 106 green {'B~to"rides) 16, 106

hoatzin (Opisthocomus) 60•

286

N A M E S

honeycreepers (Hawaiian)

akepa (Loxops) 247

iiwi (Vestiaria) 247

ou (Psittirostra) 247

honeyeaters (Meliphaga) 245

myzomela (Myzomela) 245

honeyguides (Indicator) 182•

Cassin's (Prodotiscus) 182

hoopoe (Upupa) 171•

horn bills

grey (~) 173

ground (Bucorvus) 173

piping (Bycanistes) 173

rhinoceros (Buceros) 173•

rufous-necked (Aceros) 173

horneros (ovenbirds) (Furnarius) 203

huia (Heteralocha) 258

hummingbirds

coquette (Lophornis) 191•

emerald (Chlorostilbon) 191

hermit (Glaucis) 191•

ruby-throated (Archilochus) 191•

sabrewing (Campylopterus) 191

sicklebill (Eutoxeres) 191•

sword-billed (Ensifera) 191•

topaz (Topaza) 191, 192•

hypocolius (Hypocolius) 223

ibis

glossy (Plegadis) 111

hadada (Bostrychia) 111

sacred (Threskiornis) 111,112•

scarlet (Eudocimus) 111

illadopsies (Trichastoma) 231

indigo finches (Vidua) 212, 250

COMMON NAMES

jacamars (Galbula) 178

great (Jacamerops) 178•

jacanas

American (Jacana) 82•

comb-crested (Irediparra) 82

jackdaw (Corvus) 263•

jay (Garrulus) 263

blue (Cyanocitta) 263

junco (Junco) 253

junglefowl (chicken) (Gallus) 57

kagu (Rhynochetos) 50, 72

kestrel (Falco) 138•

kingbirds (Tyrannus) 207

kingfishers (Alcedo) 16~ 164

grey-headed (Halcyon) 164•

paradise (Tanysiptera) 164

pied (Ceryle) 164

shovel-billed (Clytoceyx) 164

kiskadee, great (Pitangus) 206~ 207

kites (Milvus) 141, 142•

kittiwake (~) 6, 79

kiwis (Apteryx) 46•

knot, great (Calidris) 86•

kokako (Callaeas) 258

kookaburra (Dacelo) 164

lamergeyer (Gypaetus) 137, 141

lapwings (Vanellus) 85

larks

crested (Galerida) 216

short-toed (Calandrella) 216

laughingthrush (Garrulax) 231

leafbirds (Chloropsis) 220•

lily-trotter (Actophilornis) 82

287

limpkin (Aramus) 68•

longclaw (Macronyx) 217

loons (Gavia) 102, 103•

lyrebird (Menura) 209•

macaws (Ara) 154

magpie (Pica) 263

magpie-lark (Grallina) 258

malimbes (Malimbus) 251

mallard (Anas) 17~ 116

mallee fowl (Leipoa) 49, 54

manakins (Pipra) 207 tyrant (Neopelma) 207

mannikins (Lonchura) 250

marabou stork (Leptoptilos) 109

martins

house (Delichon) 216

sand (Riparia) 216

meadowlark (Sturnella) 248

merganser (Mergus) 116

mesite (Mesoenas) 63•

mockingbird (Mimus) 226

monarchs (flycatchers) (Monarcha) 235

mania, Bensch's (Monias) 63

moorhen (Gallinula) 70

motmots (Momotus) 166

broad-billed (Electron) 166

turquoise-browed ( Eumomota) 166•

mousebirds (Colius) 159•

murres (Uria) 99

mynas (Acridotheres) 255

myzomela honeyeaters (Myzomela) 245

nighthawks (Chordeiles) 198

night-heron (Nycticorax) 106

nightingale (Luscinia) 229

COMMON

nightjars (Caprimulgus) 198•

standard-winged (Macrodipteryx) 198

nunbirds (Monasa) 178

nuthatch (Sitta) 238, 239•

oilbird (Steatornis) 194•

orioles

American (Icterus) 248

Old World (Oriolus) 256•

oropendola (Psarocolius) 248•

osprey (Pandion) 17~ 137, 141

ostrich (Struthio) 41•

ovenbirds (Furnariidae) 203

owlet-frogmouth (Aegotheles) 197

owlet-nightjars (Aegotheles) 197•

owls

barn (Tyto) 146, 147•

bay (Phodilus) 146

pygmy (Glaucidium) 147

short-eared (Asia) 147

tawny (Strix) 147•

oxpecker (Buphagus) 255

oystercatchers (Haematopus) 17, t!4•

palmchat (Dulus) 224

pardalotes (Pardalotus) 242

parrotbills (Paradoxornis) 233

great (Conostoma) 233

parrots

African grey (Psittacus) 17, 154, 155•

pygmy lMicropsitta) 154

Senegal (Poicephalus) 154

partridge (~) SO, 57

288

N A M E S

peafowl (peacock.& hen) (Pavo) 57

pelicans (Pelecanus) 17, 127, 12~

penguins

Adelie (Pygoscelis) 133

emperor (Aptenodytes) 133

jackass (Spheniscus) 133

king (Aptenodytes) 133, 134•

rockhopper (Eudyptes) 133, 134•

petrels (Pterodroma) 121

phainopepla (Phainopepla) 223

phalaropes (Phalaropus) 88•

pheasants (Phasianus) 57•

piculet (Picumnus) 184

pigeons (Columba) 153

crowned (Goura) 153

green (Treron) 153

imperial (Ducula) 153

pipits (~) 217

pitohui (Pitohui) 236

pittas (Pitta) 205 , 206•

plains wanderer (Pedionomus) 6 4 ' 65•

plantain-eater (Crinifer) 158

plantcutter (~hytotoma)208

plovers

golden (Pluvialis) 85

ringed, semipaLmated etc. (Charadrius) 85•

poor-will (Phalaenoptilus) 187' 198

potoos (Nyctibius) 196•

prairie chicken (Tympanuchus) 56

pratincole (Glareola) 91

ptarmigan (Lagopus) 56

puffbirds (Bucca) 178, 179•

pied (Notharcus) 178

puffin (Fratercula) 99•

C 0 M M 0 N N A M E S

quail plover (Ortyxelos) 64 seriemas

quelea (Quelea) 251 red-legged (Cariama) 74•

quetzal (Pharomachrus) 174 black-legged (Chunga) 74

rails (Rallus) 70

razorbill (Alca) 99

reedling, bearded (Panurus) 233•

rheas

greater (Rhea) 42•

lesser (Pteroicnemia) 42

rifle-bird (Ptiloris) 262

rifleman (Acanthisitta) 207

roadrunner (Geococcyx) 157

robin (Erithacus) 229•

robin-chats (Cossypha) 229

rock fowl (Picathartes) 231

rollers (Coracias) 169

broad-billed & oriental (Eurystomus) 169•

cuckoo (Leptosomus) 170•

saddleback (Creadion) 258

sandgrouse (Pterocles) 152

Pallas's (Syrrhaptes) 152•

sandpipers (Tringa) 86

scops-owls (Otus) 147

seaters (Melanita) 101, 116

screamers

horned (Anhima) 115•

northern (Chauna) 115

scrub-bird (Atrichornis) 210•

scrub hen (Megapodius) 54

scythebill (Campylorhamphus) 203

secretary bird (Sagittarius) 144' 145•

seedeaters (Sporophila) 253

seedsnipe (Thinocorus) 92

289

sharpbill (Oxyruncus) 207

shearwaters (Puffinus) 121

sheathbills (Chionis) 92

shellduck (Tadorna) 116

shrikes

boubou (Laniarius) 221

bush (Malaconotus) 221

fiscal & red-backed (Lanius) 221•

helmet (Prionops) 221

pepper (Cyclarhis) 247

shrike-thrush (Colluricincla) 236

shrike-vireos (Vireolanius) 247

siskin (Carduelis) 252

sitella (Neositta) 238

skimmers (Rhynchops) 16~ 97•

skuas (Stercorarius) 94, 95•

skylark (Alauda) 216•

snipe (Gallinago) 86

painted, Old World (Rostratula) 83•

S. American (Nycticryphes) 83

sparrow-hawks (Accipiter) 141, 1

sparrows (~) 251

speirops white-eye (Speirops) 244

spider hunters (Arachnothera) 243

spinetail (Synallaxis) 203

spoonbills (Platalea) 111, 112•

starlings (Sturnus) 255•

glossy (Lamprotornis) 255

stilt (Himantopus) 87

stone-curlew, beach (Esacus) 90 ---

C 0 M M 0 N

storks

marabou (Leptoptilos) 109

open-bill (Anastomus) 109

saddle-bill (Ephippiorhynchus) 108~ 109

whale-headed (Balacniceps) 107•

white (Ciconia) 10')•

storm-petrels (~yJrobates) 123•

sooty (Oceanodroma) 123

Wilson's (Oceanites) 123

sugarbird (Promerops) 11, 245

sunbirds (Anthreptes) 243

regal etc (Ncctarinia) 243•

sunbittern (Eurypyga) 73•

sungrebe (Heliornis) 71

swallows (Hirundo) 216•

rough-winged (Psalidoprocne) 216

swans (Cygnus) 116

swiftlets (Collocalia) 189

swifts (Apus) 17, 189

crested (Hemiprocne) 190

palm (Cypsiurus) 189

spinetail (Chaetura) 189

swallow-tailed (Panyptila) 189•

tailorbirds (Orthotomus) 234

tanagers (Tangara) 253

scarlet (Piranga) 253•

tapaculos (Scytalopus) 204

crescent-chest (Melanopareia) 204

teal (Anas) 116

terns (~) 94 , 96•

fairy (Gygis) 94

marsh (Chlidonias) 94

thick-knees (Burhinus) 90•

290

N A M E S

thrashers (Toxostoma) 226

thrushes (~) 229, 230•

tinamous

brown (Crypturellus) 47

crested (Eudromia) 47, 48•

great (Tinamus) 47

red-winged (Rhynchotus) 47

tinkerbirds (Pogoniulus) 180

tits (Parus) 238•

long-tailed (Aegithalos) 238•

penduline (Remiz) 238

todies (Todus) 165•

toucanets (Aulacorhynchus) 183

toucans (Ramphastos) 183•

towhees (Pipilo) 253

tree-creepers (Certhia) 240

Australian (Climacteris) 240

trillers (Lalage) 218•

trogons

African Narina (Apaloderma) 17 4•

American (Trogon) 174

tropicbirds (Phaethon) 126•

trumpeter (Psophia) 69•

turacos (Tauraco) 158•

violet (Musophaga) 158

turkeys (Meleagris) 59•

brush (Talegalla) 54

ocellated (Agriocharis) 59

umbrellabird (Cephalopterus) 208•

vanga shrikes (Vanga) 222

blue (Leptopterus) 222•

vireos (Vireo) 2 47

C 0 M M 0 N

vultures

griffon (~) 141

king (Sarcorhamphus) 140•

palm-nut (Gypohierax) 137, 141

turkey (Cathartes) 140

waders (fam. Scolopacidae) 86

wagtails (Motacilla) 217•

warblers

American (Dendroica) 246•

reed (Acrocephalus) 234•

willow (Phylloscopus) 234

wood (Phylloscopus) 234

waterhen, Tasmanian (Tribonyx) 70•

wattled-crow (Callaeas) 258

waxbills (Estrilda) 250

waxwings (Bombycilla) 223•

weavers (Ploceus) 251

wheatears (Oenanthe) 229,230•

whip-poor-will (Caprimulgus) 16•

whistlers (Pachycephala) 236•

white-eyes (Zosterops) 244•

N A M E S

whitethroat (Sylvia) 234

whydahs (Vidua) 212, 250

woodcreepers (Dendrocolaptes) 203

strong-billed (Xiphocolaptes) 203•

wood-doves (~) 153

wood-hoopoes (Phoeniculus) 172•

woodpeckers

green (Picus) 184

ivory-billed (Campephilus) 184•

pied (Picoides) 184

wood-swallows (Artamus) 259•

wrens (Troglodytes) 225•

cactus (Campylorhynchus) 225

Carolina (Thryothorus) 225

New Zealand (Xenicus) 207

wrentit (Chamaea) 231

wren-warblers (Malurus) 235

wryneck (Jynx) 184

yellow-bill (Ceuthmochares) 157

NOTE:- In the lists of generic and common names,

the pages on which the birds are figured

are marked with a spot.

291

Previously published titles in this series Guide to Invertebrate Animals (2nd Edition) Guide to Living Mammals (2nd Edition) Guide to Living Reptiles

Forthcoming titles include Guide to Fishes Guide to Amphibians

guide to living birds

Documents