[guest editor, chandana jayawardena.] tourism and (bookfi.org)
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134 Access this journal online
135 Abstracts & keywords
138 Editorial
140 Developing indigenous tourism:challenges for the GuianasDonald Sinclair
147 Towards an alternative tourismfor BelizeIan Boxill
151 Cuba: hero of the Caribbean?A profile of its tourism educationstrategyPat Wood and Chandana Jayawardena
156 The future of hospitality educationin GrenadaMichelle L. McDonald andRoyston O. Hopkin
161 Internal marketing of attitudes inCaribbean tourismAnne P. Crick
167 The all-inclusive concept in theCaribbeanJohn J. Issa and Chandana Jayawardena
172Research in briefThe feasibility of Sabbath-keeping inthe Caribbean hospitality industryEritha Huntley and Carol Barnes-Reid
176Research in briefPerformance of tourism analysis:a Caribbean perspectiveChandana Jayawardena andDiaram Ramajeesingh
180Research in briefThe state and tourism:a Caribbean perspectiveHilton McDavid andDiaram Ramajeesingh
184ViewpointTourism, linkages, and economicdevelopment in JamaicaNikolaos Karagiannis
188ViewpointPolicy coherence and sustainabletourism in the CaribbeanAnthony Clayton
192ViewpointTerrorism and tourism:Bahamas and Jamaica fight backGodfrey Pratt
195ViewpointInternational hotel managers andkey Caribbean challengesChandana Jayawardena andK. Michael Haywood
199 Book reviews
International Journal of ContemporaryHospitality Management
Volume 15, Number 3, 2003
Tourism and hospitality management in the CaribbeanGuest Editor: Chandana Jayawardena
ISSN 0959-6119
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Developing indigenous tourism:challenges for the GuianasDonald Sinclair
Keywords Tourism, Comparative costs,Cultural synergy, Innovation, Guyana,Suriname
As emergent tourism destinations, the
Guianas are new players in a game in which
rules have been agreed, strategies defined
and competition has been intense. New
players succeed by demonstrating creativity
and innovation and by seizing comparative
advantage. The possession of unique natural
attractions, the presence of indigenous
communities or rare cultural forms are all
precious resources commanding
comparative advantage for the Guianas.
However, because of the special character of
indigenous tourism, development of that
form of tourism is not possible without the
articulation and implementation of
appropriate policy measures. In the absence
of that policy infrastructure the possibilities
for error and conflict are immense. This
paper explores the key challenges in the path
of the development of indigenous tourism
and suggests clear policy guidelines that
should inform the development of indigenous
tourism in the pursuit of comparative
advantage.
Towards an alternative tourism forBelizeIan Boxill
Keywords Development, Tourism, Culture,Location, Education, Belize
This paper argues that tourism development
in Belize should avoid going the traditional
mass tourism route of most Caribbean
destinations. Instead, it suggests that Belize
is at the appropriate stage in its development
to forge an alternative model, which draws
and builds on its geographical location,
history, culture and ecology. In making this
case, the paper identifies a number of
limiting and facilitating factors to tourism
development. These facilitating factors
recommend the alternative model.
Specifically, the alternative model includes
nature, education and community tourism;
and a type of cruise tourism that is linked to
education and culture. For this effort to
succeed, the paper recommends that
government and civil society work together
to develop the countrys human resources
and to structure a strategy to achieve
the goals.
Cuba: hero of the Caribbean? A profileof its tourism education strategyPat Wood and Chandana Jayawardena
Keywords Cuba, Hospitality industry, Tourism,Workforce, Education, Vocational training
Features a realistic perspective of the current
hospitality and tourism paradigm in Cuba.
Previews the newly released hospitality and
tourism education strategy to be rolled out in
2003. Provides an evaluation of the tourism
and hospitality industry environment,
education environment, workforce and
change in policy. The authors made three
research trips to Cuba in 1997, 2001 and 2002.
A series of elite interviews were conducted in
Cuba, Jamaica and the UK with senior Cuban
policy makers. Current data and views from
Cuban partners and practitioners are used to
inform the discussion. Cuba continues to be
one of the most mystical tourist destinations
in the world with a phenomenal growth rate
during recent years. The new tourism
education strategy is a key for Cuba to once
again become the number one destination in
the Caribbean.
The future of hospitality education inGrenadaMichelle L. McDonald and Royston O. Hopkin
Keywords Grenada, Hospitality management,Human resource development, Tourism,Stakeholders, Curriculum
The quality of hospitality education is a
topical issue. It is being increasingly realised
that the education level of tourism employees
impacts on the quality of a countrys tourism
industry. As the most tourism-oriented
region globally, the Caribbean is slowly
awakening to the realisation that, unless its
tourism employees are highly educated and
skilled, the region will continue to account
for an insignificant percentage of world
tourism arrivals. In Grenada, hospitality
education courses are limited, given the
small tourism plant and comparatively low
visitor arrivals. Research was undertaken by
one of the authors, to explore the opinions of
the accommodation sector about current
education provisions and the future direction
that courses should take. Integration of all
stakeholders in the implementation of the
broad education policy outlined by the
government is crucial to improving
hospitality education in Grenada to ensure a
competitive tourism industry.
[ 135 ]
International Journal ofContemporary HospitalityManagement15/3 [2003]Abstracts & keywords
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Abstracts&keywords
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Internal marketing of attitudes inCaribbean tourismAnne P. Crick
Keywords Tourism, Attitudes, Caribbean,Internal marketing, Market share
Tourism is the mainstay of the Caribbean
and the attitude of the people in the region
may have a significant impact on the success
of the industry. This paper analyzes the way
in which tourism authorities of three
Caribbean destinations have internally
marketed tourism to their host populations
in order to encourage the desired attitudinal
expressions. A matrix of five possible
responses to tourism was developed and each
of the three countries was found to occupy
different positions in the matrix. An analysis
of the internal marketing strategies
determined that the countries adopted
different approaches based on their
particular challenges but none of the
approaches had achieved lasting success. The
study concludes with recommendations for
future research.
The all-inclusive concept in theCaribbeanJohn J. Issa and Chandana Jayawardena
Keywords Holiday industry, Tourism, Quality,Caribbean, Hotels, Hospitality industry
Seeks to review the all-inclusive concept in
the context of the Caribbean. The origin of
all-inclusives in the world and the Caribbean
is analysed. The concept was first introduced
in holiday camps in Britain during the 1930s.
Club Med is credited for popularizing the
concept globally in the 1950s. However, the
credit of introducing a luxury version of the
all-inclusive concept goes to a Jamaican
hotelier and co-author of this article. In
defining the concept of all-inclusives, one
cannot ignore the significant role Jamaica
has played. Currently, Jamaica has 17 of the
best 100 all-inclusive resorts in the world.
Even though all-inclusives are occasionally
criticized, they are seen as a necessary evil.
Concludes by predicting that all-inclusives
are here to stay in the Caribbean and will
play a major role in tourism for the
foreseeable future.
The feasibility of Sabbath-keeping inthe Caribbean hospitality industryEritha Huntley and Carol Barnes-Reid
Keywords Tourism, Hospitality, Religion,Hospitality industry, Hotels, Holiday industry
This article addresses religious tolerance for
Sabbath-keepers in the hospitality industry.
The authors approach this issue by assessing
the perception of managers in the Jamaican
tourism industry on this topic. A major
finding was that managers are reluctant to
employ persons who have a strong desire to
observe the Sabbath. The researchers also
discovered that the law does not provide
specific provisions to protect the rights of
Sabbath-keepers. Managers are, however,
willing to make arrangements to facilitate
these individuals whenever possible. This
augurs well for students of hospitality
management who desire to observe the
Sabbath. More research on this topic is
needed since this study is by no means
exhaustive.
Performance of tourism analysis:a Caribbean perspectiveChandana Jayawardena andDiaram Ramajeesingh
Keywords Analysis, Foreign exchange, Growth,Tourism, Financial performance, Revenue
Introduces a new concept, performance of
tourism (POT) analysis as a tool for
measuring the performance of tourist
destinations. Comments on the Caribbean
regions overdependence on tourism, and
examines the scope of foreign exchange
leakage. Tourism in the Caribbean generally
grows faster than the world average. Often
the success of tourism is measured from the
gross figures rather than the net figures.
Presents data from four Caribbean countries,
Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Jamaica and
St Lucia to explain the concept. Key findings
reflect surprising results. Based on the
analysis done, a relatively new tourism
destination in the Caribbean, Aruba, has
outperformed mature tourist destination,
Jamaica, by 16 to one.
The state and tourism: a CaribbeanperspectiveHilton McDavid and Diaram Ramajeesingh
Keywords Tourism, Developing countries,Economic conditions, Regional development,Government, Economic growth
Tourism, today, has not only emerged as the
engine of growth but also become the largest
and the fastest growing sector in the
Caribbean. For this reason the industry is
now viewed as one of the leading instruments
of development in the region. Given the
importance of the industry, it is incumbent
on governments to orient tourism growth
towards meeting the socioeconomic needs
and environmental requirements of the
region. To meet these objectives, however,
regional governments are required to play a
greater role in directing and shaping the
[ 136 ]
Abstracts & keywords
International Journal ofContemporary HospitalityManagement15/3 [2003] 135-137
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future development of the industry. This
paper strongly argues in favour of a greater
role in the industry, both through direct and
indirect market intervention, by
governments of the region.
Tourism, linkages, and economicdevelopment in JamaicaNikolaos Karagiannis
Keywords Development, Strategic planning,Jamaica, Tourism, Industrial performance,Economic indicators
This article offers, briefly, a
production-oriented development framework
for Jamaica, based on growth-promoting
linkages between tourism, commodity
production sectors, and complementary and
related service industries. These linkages
can boost the Jamaican endogenous
competency and industrial competitiveness,
while improving the countrys
macroeconomic performance. Alternative
development policy considerations are also
within the scope of this article.
Policy coherence and sustainabletourism in the CaribbeanAnthony Clayton
Keywords Sustainable development, Tourism,Policy management, Growth,Economic conditions,Environmental risk assessment
The common failure to give due weight to
environmental and social factors creates a
risk that that short-term economic growth
objectives may be traded off against
long-term objectives, such as environmental
quality. This potential policy conflict may be
exacerbated in the developing countries that
are undergoing structural adjustment, as the
associated trimming of non-core public
expenditure will typically include measures
designed to manage the environment. Thus
the long-term future of the vital tourist
industry might be compromised in the
process of meeting short-term public
expenditure reduction targets. The solution
lies partly in improved policy coherence;
micro-level prescriptions are more likely to
be sustainable per se and also help to
underpin a wider process of sustainable
development if the appropriate policy
framework is analysed and evolved
integrally, as part of a coherent national
plan. The need, therefore, is for an
appropriate, flexible structure that could
capture the business, environmental and
developmental aspects of tourism.
Terrorism and tourism:Bahamas and Jamaica fight backGodfrey Pratt
Keywords Tourism, Competitive advantage,Terrorism, Economic growth, Bahamas,Jamaica
This study highlights the fragility of the
tourism industry in developing countries.
The overdependence of the Bahamas on the
tourism industry, for economic development,
is brought into focus here. The adroit efforts
of the directors of tourism for both the
Bahamas and Jamaica are highlighted. Both
governments saw the need to immediately
fund a revised marketing and advertising
campaign, in the aftermath of 9/11. An
important factor in the recovery of both
destinations is the extent to which a coalition
of public and private sector tourism
stakeholders in both countries committed
themselves to resolving the crisis quickly at
hand. The commitment of the public and
private sector in these countries, to
safeguarding and promoting this industry
probably positively correlated to the
importance of the industry to the economy of
the countries, as evidenced by tourisms
contribution to their GDP.
International hotel managers and keyCaribbean challengesChandana Jayawardena andK. Michael Haywood
Keywords Hotels, Management styles,Tourism, Managers, Ethnic groups,International trade
Broadly categorises hotel managers. Uses
lessons learnt by managing hotels in the
Caribbean. Presents two recent models in the
context of the Caribbean. States that clear
awareness of the ABC related to the host
community is a key step in public relations.
Presents the ideal attributes and
prerequisites for success in international
hotel management in a nutshell. Categorises
Caribbean countries based on the ethnic mix
and historic reasons for negative attitude
towards tourism. Expresses views on key
challenges that expatriate hotel managers
face in the Caribbean. In conclusion, makes
brief recommendations to international hotel
managers planning to work in the Caribbean.
[ 137 ]
Abstracts & keywords
International Journal ofContemporary HospitalityManagement15/3 [2003] 135-137
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Editorial
I am delighted to welcome Associate Editor
Dr Chandana Jayawardena as Guest Editor
of this unique collection of articles on
Tourism and Hospitality Management in the
Caribbean. In keeping with our goals,
Chandi has assembled an outstanding team
of practitioners and academics and together
they provide a rich array of insights on the
challenges facing tourism in the region. I
should like to thank Chandi for the many
months of planning that he devoted to this
issue and the team of contributors who have
made it possible.
Richard Teare
Editor
This issue is dedicated to the Caribbean,
arguably the most tourism dependent region
in the world. The Caribbean is a fascinating
and unique region. An archipelago of tropical
islands naturally decorated with exotic flora
and fauna, surrounded by blue sea water and
gentle breezes, and blessed with 365 days of
sunshine is the general impression of the
region in the minds of many. This image
made the Caribbean the most sought after
region for romantic holidays and
honeymoons in the world. But the Caribbean
has much more to offer to the millions of
tourists and cruise passengers it attracts
(Jayawardena, 2002). For convenience, the
term Caribbean is used in this special issue
to identify 33 destinations that are members
of the umbrella organization of the regions
tourism industry, the Caribbean Tourism
Organization (CTO). In this definition, the
Caribbean region includes a few
countries/regions on the mainland in South
America and Central America. The area
between the south of Florida in the USA,
Cancun in Mexico, Belize in Central
America, Venezuela, and Suriname in South
America, is now referred to as the Caribbean.
although in the Atlantic Ocean, the Islands of
Bahamas and Bermuda too are treated as
Caribbean countries by the CTO.
Tourist arrivals to the 33 CTO member
states increased by approximately 59 per cent
from 1990 to 2000, or at an average of 4.7 per
cent. This compares favorably to 4.3 per cent
growth rate of world tourist arrivals over the
same period. Tourism receipts in the
Caribbean during the year 2000 were just
under US$20 billion, and the latest CTO
forecast predicts that this should rise to some
US$35 billion by the year 2112. The past,
present and future of Caribbean tourism in a
nutshell looks like that shown in Table I.
To external observers, the Caribbean is
always full of surprises. As an example,
many will be surprised to note that the four
Hispanic Caribbean states: Cuba, Dominican
Republic, Cancun and Puerto Rico record the
highest growth rates in the Caribbean, and
currently control around half of total arrivals
to the region. In 2000, only six Caribbean
countries attracted over one million tourists
and the arrival figures (in millions) in these
countries for 2000 were:
1 Cancun 3.04;
2 Dominican Republic 2.97;
3 Cuba 1.77;
4 Bahamas 1.60;
5 Jamaica 1.32; and
6 Puerto Rico 1.17 (CTO, 2002).
These six countries attracted 58 per cent of
the arrivals, reflecting something of an
imbalance in the distribution of tourism
wealth across the Caribbean.
Overdependence on one major market is
another problem in Caribbean tourism. With
the exception of a few countries, such as
Cuba, tourism in the Caribbean is
overdependent on the US feeder market. The
tourist arrival figures in the year 2000
indicate the six main feeder markets to the
Caribbean as:
1 USA 50 per cent;
2 France 8 per cent;
3 The Caribbean 7 per cent;
4 Canada 6 per cent;
5 UK 6 per cent; and
6 Germany 4 per cent.
The 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the
USA and the reactions by US travellers posed
the biggest challenge to Caribbean tourism
since the Second World War. At a regional
summit of the heads of government of the
Caribbean Community (CARICOM) held in
December 2001, the future of tourism was a
major item in the agenda. A vision for
Caribbean tourism to the year 2012 was
evolved at this summit. This vision speaks to:The further development of a Caribbean
tourism industry that is fully understood and
embraced by the peoples of the region and
which, through co-operative action among
governments and with the private sector,
makes a significant and sustainable
contribution to development in both mature
and emerging destinations (CARICOM/CTO,
2002).
[ 138 ]
About the Guest EditorChandana Jayawardena isAcademic Director MSc inTourism and HospitalityManagement, Senior Lecturerin Tourism Management andResearch Fellow of theUniversity of the West Indies,Jamaica. He has also heldVisiting Professorships inCanada, the USA, Guyana, theUK, Switzerland and SriLanka. Among Chandispublications and workaccepted for publication arenine books, ten book chaptersand 30 articles. In aninternational career spanning31 years, Chandi has held avariety of seniormanagement/senioracademic positions in Asia,Europe, the Middle East,South America, the Caribbeanand North America.
International Journal ofContemporary HospitalityManagement15/3 [2003] 138-139
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The vision is predicated on the development
of a set of core strategies related to
sustainable development, investment,
marketing and access transport
arrangements which in turn will be
complemented by a set of support strategies
regarding human resource development,
organization and funding.
In the 13 articles selected for this special
issue, 16 authors address some of the current
issues that are relevant and significant to the
future development of tourism and
hospitality industry in the Caribbean.
Donald Sinclair examines the challenges
facing indigenous tourism in the emerging
destination of the Guianas. He argues that
great care is needed to preserve its cultural
heritage one of the reasons for its
attractiveness to tourists. Ian Boxill develops
a similar theme as he reviews the tourism
potential for Belize. He argues for an
alternative to the mass tourism route,
founded on nature, education and
community tourism and an approach that
will help to sustain the history, culture and
ecology of Belize.
In order to research their article on Cubas
tourism education strategy, Patricia Wood
and Chandana Jayawardena undertook three
field visits and among others, they
interviewed senior Cuban policymakers. The
outcomes reveal some surprising insights on
Cubas strategy for tourism education,
notably its determination to
professionalize its industry, given the
rapidly growing number of tourism arrivals.
In the second of two articles dealing with
educational issues, Michelle McDonald and
Royston O. Hopkin consider the challenges
facing Grenada and the need to modernize
and expand the training and educational
support for tourism development.
In a study of three Caribbean destinations,
Anne P. Crick analyzes the provisions made
for the internal marketing of tourism to host
populations. The Caribbean is generally
known for the warmth and friendliness of its
people and yet attitudes to tourists vary
between locations and more could and should
be done to promote the benefits of tourism to
local Caribbean communities. John J. Issa,
chairman of Super Clubs and pioneer of the
all-inclusive Caribbean resort concept,
writing with Chandana Jayawardena,
reviews its past, present and future
significance. They conclude that all-inclusive
resort holidays will continue to play a
significant role in tourism development.
In the first of three Research in brief
articles, Eritha Huntley and Carol
Barnes-Reid examine the growing tension
between religion and work scheduling, with
reference to Jamaicas hospitality industry.
Chandana Jayawardena and Diaram
Ramajeesingh review the performance of
Caribbean tourism from an economic
perspective and among other findings, reveal
that Aruba strongly outperforms the more
mature tourism destination of Jamaica. To
conclude this section, Hilton McDavid and
Diaram Ramajeesingh consider the balance
between government and industry leadership
of tourism policy and present the case for
stronger industry representation.
This issue contains four Viewpoints and
the first, from Nikolaos Karagiannis,
considers ways in which the linkages with
tourism might be strengthened with the aim
of assisting Jamaicas economic
development. Anthony Clayton focuses on
sustainable tourism in the Caribbean and the
improvements needed in tourism policy
planning and implementation to maintain
this focus. Godfrey A. Pratt considers the
impact of terrorism on two Caribbean
destinations and the on-going work needed to
persuade tourists to travel and, finally,
Chandana Jayawardena and K. Michael
Haywood profile the skills needed to
successfully manage international hotels in
the Caribbean.
I sincerely hope that you will enjoy this
thought-provoking collection of articles from
the Caribbean.
Chandana JayawardenaGuest Editor
ReferencesCARICOM/CTO (2002), Report on Caribbean
Tourism Strategic Plan, Caribbean Tourism
Organisation, Barbados, pp. 4, 34.
CTO (2002), Caribbean Tourism Statistical Report
2000-2001, Caribbean Tourism Organisation,
Barbados, pp. iv, v.
Jayawardena, C. (2002), Future challenges for
tourism in the Caribbean, Social and
Economic Studies, Vol. 51 No. l, pp. 1-23.
Table I
Year 1990 2000 2112
Tourist arrivals (in millions) 12.8 20.3 33Cruise passenger arrivals (in millions) 7.8 14.5 27Total arrivals (in millions) 20.6 34.8 60Room stock 152,000 252,000 342,000
[ 139 ]
Editorial
International Journal ofContemporary HospitalityManagement15/3 [2003] 138-139
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Developing indigenous tourism: challenges for theGuianas
Donald SinclairDivision of Caribbean and Tourism Studies, University of Guyana, Queenstown,Georgetown, Guyana
Introduction
The Guianas comprise three territories
Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana
on the north-eastern shoulder of the South
American continent. Although much
similarity in demographics, topography and
economic condition exists among these three
territories, the paper will focus primarily on
the development of indigenous tourism in
two of the Guianas, which are part of the
Caricom (Caribbean Community and
Common Market) grouping Guyana and
Suriname. French Guiana is still an overseas
department of France and does not, at the
moment, envision a Caribbean destiny.
In view of the political reality of the
Caricom status of Guyana and Suriname,
there are distinct merits in the discussion of
tourism development methodologies for
Guyana and Suriname within a Caricom
framework, especially with technical
assistance from the Caribbean Tourism
Organisation (CTO). The other imperative
which justifies (or certainly makes urgent) a
bi-lateral initiative on tourism development
for Guyana and Suriname is the growing
need to define fruitful and constructive areas
of cooperation to counterbalance and defuse
tensions issuing from unresolved territorial
questions between the two countries.
Cooperation in areas such as tourism
development and sustainable uses of the
environment will do much to strengthen
goodwill and enhance the sense of shared
destiny between both populations.
The appropriate tourism
Guyana and Suriname are both former
European colonies on the continent of South
America. Both countries possess vast,
sparsely inhabited interiors that are rich in
natural resources, and both are seeking
alternatives to the, now declining, extractive
industries that dominated their economies
for many decades. Both regard tourism as
bearing the potential to introduce handsome
economic rewards and both Guyana and
Suriname recognize the resources of their
interiors the diversity of flora, fauna and
ancient indigenous cultures as the base of
that development.
Although the form of tourism commonly
known as eco-tourism features as a priority
in tourism development in both Guyana and
Suriname, the main focus of this paper will
be on what may be regarded as a sub-set of
eco-tourism indigenous tourism. The flora
and fauna, rapids, waterfalls, which both
countries possess, are promoted as the
context for a unique experience of nature.
Regardless of the intense debates in tourism
circles in both countries regarding the
suitability or appropriateness of the eco
label, there is consensus on what should
comprise the essence of that unique
experience of nature that is the sought-after
prize of much modern travel.
Indigenous tourism forms part of that now
copiously referenced cluster of tourism
alternatives (Smith and Eadington, 1992).
Hinch and Butler (1996) define indigenous
tourism as:. . . tourism activity in which indigenous
people are directly involved either through
control and/or by having their culture serve
as the essence of the attraction.
Smith (1996) perceives indigenous tourism
as:. . . that segment of the visitor industry which
directly involves native peoples whose
ethnicity is a tourist attraction.
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm
[ 140 ]
International Journal ofContemporary HospitalityManagement15/3 [2003] 140-146
# MCB UP Limited[ISSN 0959-6119][DOI 10.1108/09596110310470158]
KeywordsTourism, Comparative costs,
Cultural synergy, Innovation,
Guyana, Suriname
AbstractAs emergent tourism destinations,
the Guianas are new players in a
game in which rules have been
agreed, strategies defined and
competition has been intense.
New players succeed by
demonstrating creativity and
innovation and by seizing
comparative advantage. The
possession of unique natural
attractions, the presence of
indigenous communities or rare
cultural forms are all precious
resources commanding
comparative advantage for the
Guianas. However, because of the
special character of indigenous
tourism, development of that form
of tourism is not possible without
the articulation and
implementation of appropriate
policy measures. In the absence of
that policy infrastructure the
possibilities for error and conflict
are immense. This paper explores
the key challenges in the path of
the development of indigenous
tourism and suggests clear policy
guidelines that should inform the
development of indigenous
tourism in the pursuit of
comparative advantage.
-
Smiths definition immediately introduces a
complexity, one that has to be squarely and
comprehensively addressed by those
emergent tourism destinations anxious to
maximize earnings from the development of
indigenous tourism. Essentially, that
complexity revolves around the
operationalisation of ethnicity as a tourist
attraction without inducing behaviours and
postures that are demeaning on the part of
tourists.
Forte (1993) is very sensitive to this
possibility in her assertion that Amerindian
peoples in Guyana should not be the tourism
attraction per se, but that visits should offer
tourists an understanding and appreciation
of the lifestyles of the Amerindians. The
attraction in that sense would not be
Amerindians but Amerindian-ness.
Therein lies one of the key challenges for
indigenous tourism in the Guianas to
structure the indigenous tourism experience
in such a manner as to guarantee the greatest
integrity to the indigenous people and their
lifestyles, even as the demands of the tourists
are being satisfied.
The last two decades of the twentieth
century have witnessed a very sharp focus on
the interests and rights of indigenous
peoples. 1982 saw the constitution of the
Working Group on Indigenous Peoples. In
1992, 500 years after Columbus was
discovered by indigenous peoples, a chorus of
voices gave expression to the modern plight
of indigenous peoples. In 1993, designated as
the United Nations International Year of
Indigenous Peoples, the Declaration of
Indigenous Peoples Rights was drafted.
This ferment of deliberation and even
protest, centring on indigenous peoples, now
constitutes a formidable moral and
ideological backdrop against which any
national enterprise that is based on
indigenous peoples, their lands, cultures,
traditions and lifestyles will be judged. In
this first decade of the twenty-first century
there now exist not only indigenous
populations and advocates that are more
informed and militant, but also more
protocols, checks and safeguards governing
activity that impinges on the lives of
indigenous peoples.
It is in this supra-national context that the
development of indigenous tourism in
Guyana and Suriname will be occurring.
There are almost generic complexities and
challenges that attend this development. In
that circumstance, policies and protocols
that enjoy the commitment of all
stakeholders will be vital instruments in
guaranteeing development of a form of
tourism that will enhance the welfare of
indigenous peoples in Guyana and Suriname.
Comparative advantage
For emergent tourism destinations,
especially in the Caribbean, sun, sand and
sea tourism would hardly be a major source
of comparative advantage. The more mature
destinations in the Caribbean the Bahamas,
Jamaica, Antigua and Barbados have long
since refined that form of tourism and are
even now challenged to retain market share
(Holder, 1996). The reality of this market
challenge has impelled traditional
sun-sand-sea destinations in the Caribbean to
consider and propose alternative resources
and experiences to drive product
differentiation.
The growth of the now copiously
referenced alternative tourism market has
been characterised by a desire on the part of
travellers to enjoy experiences that are more
rounded than has been the traditional reward
of mass tourism. A growing segment of the
tourism market has shown an interest in
going beyond (sometimes well beyond) the
beach; in pursuing attractions and
experiences that are available only in the
deep interior recesses of distant lands. Those
countries that possess rare and abundant
biodiversity and can point to remote or
indigenous communities practising cultural
forms that are different from the dominant,
Westernised traditions are in a position to
exploit comparative advantage in the
tourism market.
Strong economic stimulus exists in
Guyana and Suriname for the exploitation of
comparative advantage in tourism. Both
countries have been experiencing declines in
foreign exchange earnings deriving from
traditional export commodities. In Guyana,
reduced earnings from sugar, rice and
bauxite have contributed to a precarious
balance of payments situation. In Suriname,
a similar scenario exists where declines in
earnings have led to an unfavourable balance
of payment equation, which has in turn led to
the precipitous depreciation in the value of
the local currency the Suriname guilder
against most major currencies.
The fact that both Guyana and Suriname
postponed the embrace of tourism for a
number of decades can possibly be explained
in two ways. First, both countries possessed a
significant stock of natural resources that
could be exploited for economic development.
Guyana embarked on export-led development
with sugar, rice, bauxite, timber and
minerals as the leading lights. For Suriname,
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bauxite, gold and timber were the flagship
industries. Second, during more than four
decades of the dominance of traditional blue
waters Caribbean tourism both Guyana and
Suriname found themselves, for reasons
geographic, outside (or farther south of) this
blue waters sorority. The days of black
waters tourism would come later, when
tourism itself would move beyond the beach.
The product Suriname
What do Guyana and Suriname possess that
would be a key attraction to a growing
segment of the tourism market and would
serve as the basis of comparative advantage?
The focus of this paper will be on those
communities and cultural resources that are
being described as indigenous and that will
be cited as the resource for the development
of indigenous tourism.
Bush Negroes (or Maroons as referred to
by some sources) comprise 10 per cent of the
population of Suriname; Amerindians 3 per
cent. The lifestyles and cultural forms of both
peoples reflect, in varying degrees, their
strong ancestral base and corresponding
distance from and resistance to European
cultural influences. Although many
Surinamese of either Bush Negro or
Amerindian origin speak fluent Dutch the
official language as well as Sranantong the
most widely used vernacular the majority
speak their traditional ancestral language
and live in traditional communities. These
communities are usually in remote districts
and boast a complex form of social
organisation. The relative remoteness of
these communities reflects the historical
imperative to be independent of the reaches
of the plantation system.
Apart from language, the cultural
distinctness of these communities is
manifested in a number of other visible ways.
Dwelling in the communities is along
communal lines. In the Bush Negro
community of Santigron, for example,
thatched roof huts belonging to several
families are clustered together. Endogamy is
practised and is the traditional expectation.
Deviations from that norm do occur but are
frowned on, and considerable communal
pressure is visited on the deviants.
Religion is central to life in both
Amerindian and Bush Negro villages.
Visitors are often shown a public space,
regarded by the community with great
reverence because of its association with
ritual activity. Not all Bush Negro rituals are
accessible to tourists. Some are exclusive to
the practitioners themselves and often entail
communion with ancestors of the villagers.
Burial spaces, for example, are off-limits to
visitors to the Bush Negro village. The role of
the village chief, as chief officiant in these
rituals, is pivotal. The Chief (or Deputy Chief
if the latter is absent) is the resident
authority who settles disputes in the village,
advises on matters pertaining to the welfare
of the village, and sanctions or refuses visits
and tours to the community.
Indigenous tourism in Suriname therefore
involves visits and tours to the Bush Negro
and Amerindian communities. Bush Negro
communities tend to receive more visits than
Amerindian villages. That fact is by no
means a judgement upon the appeal or
authenticity of Amerindian cultural
practices; it is simply a statement of the more
advanced development and organised nature
of Bush Negro tourism in Suriname. Arinze
tours, Kumalu Island Adventure and Mena
Reizen are the foremost Bush Negro-managed
tour operations in Suriname.
The product Guyana
Guyana has no Bush Negro population, but
its indigenous or Amerindian population
comprises 7 per cent of the population and is
the third largest racial grouping. Writers
often draw attention to the difficult history of
Amerindians in Guyana. Fox and Danns
(1993) assert:Amerindians in Guyana have historically
existed under conditions of continuous
threat.
Amerindians have also been described as
being:. . . the poorest and most neglected stratum of
Guyanese society (Forte, 1995).
Rendall (1995) comments on their having:. . . suffered a long history of marginalisation,
both before and since independence.
The majority of Amerindians live a
traditional lifestyle in coastal or remote
interior districts, but (as in the case of the
Bush Negroes of Suriname) numbers of
Amerindian residents live and work in
coastal and urban areas, practising lifestyles
that are no different from those of the
urbanised Guyanese of any other race.
Traditional life for Amerindians in the
interior:. . . is a very laborious one, due to their
subsistence on the slash and burn (shifting)
cultivation of traditional crops, most
importantly, bitter cassava (manioc), corn,
yams, peanuts and sweet cassava,
supplemented by wild fruits when in season.
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Hunting and fishing are still practised to
varying degrees with bows, firearms, fish
poisons and nets (Rendall, 1995).
Today, a more complex economy has placed
at the disposal of the Amerindian a wider
variety of pursuits and means of earning a
livelihood. Timber, balata and gold
production have lured many (especially
male) Amerindians into those economic
activities, thereby creating a more complex
picture of the Amerindian condition than the
traditional perspective suggests.
In summary, there exists in both Guyana
and Suriname communities of indigenous
peoples who practise lifestyles that are
strongly traditional and in many cases
bearing strong allegiance to ancestral
traditions. The lifestyles, cultural forms and
practices of these peoples have stimulated the
curiosity of visitors and tourism now
integral to the lives and economic well-being
of these communities.
In an article appearing in Time magazine
Foroohar (2002), discussing this new vogue in
travel, writes:A new kind of travel is in vogue now. Savvier
tourists are abandoning the mock-European
high-rises for more authentic experiences,
like horseback riding through the bush
(Foroohar, 2002).
The author continues:In many ways, this off-the-beaten path
vacation represents the future of global
tourism an industry on the verge of
tremendous growth and change (Foroohar,
2002).
The operation of tourism in these
communities presents a number of very
urgent challenges that require responses at
the level of policy intervention and regulation
if tourism is to succeed in a sustainable way,
safeguarding and enhancing the interests and
welfare of the visited, indigenous
communities. These challenges need first to
be understood, then faced and addressed
squarely, with the appropriate principles and
guidelines informing policy formulation and
implementation.
Challenges
The discussion of the challenges facing
indigenous tourism in some ways revisits an
earlier proposition advanced by Smith (1996).
Consciously departing from the four S
(sun/sand/sea/sex) structure of mass
tourism that is pervasive in tourism
literature, Smith offers a four H structure.
Smith (1996) asserts:
The tourism literature has adopted the four S
acronym to describe beach resort tourism, a
lifestyle often associated with charter mass
tourism, tropical cruises, and drifter
tourism. The four Hs habitat, heritage,
history and handicrafts similarly describe
the indigenous tourism phenomenon, as a
culture-bounded visitor experience which,
quite literally, is a micro-study of man-land
relationships.
Smiths (1996) perception of the indigenous
tourism phenomenon as culture-bounded is
accurate, and her identification of heritage,
history, habitat and handicraft lends support
(albeit with some overlap) to that perception.
However, Smiths perspective on history as
referring specifically to post-contact
relations between Aboriginal peoples and
Westerners who later occupied the lands and
established the present governments
(Smith, 1996) abbreviates the sweep of
indigenous history and limits its expression
in tourism. Conceiving of, and presenting,
indigenous history as post-contact history
locates indigenous tourism within the
time-frame of post-contact acculturation.
The first challenge for indigenous tourism
is therefore conceptual defining its
temporal parameters. That definition will
determine not only the concept of indigenous
history and tourism, but also the
construction of the indigenous tourist stage
what is selected for consumption and
what remains hidden and unacknowledged.
This challenge has strong implications for
cultural, particularly museum, policy. The
Walter Roth Museum of Anthropology in
Guyana, with artefacts dating way before
contact history, is inspired by (and
presents to the visitor) a much more
inclusive view of indigenous history.
Refining the product
If Foroohar (2002) is right in asserting that
off-the-beaten-track tourism represents a new
trend in travel, then indigenous tourism in
the two Guianas is being developed at an
auspicious time. If growing numbers of
travellers are in fact seeking more authentic
experiences, then the marketing of this brand
of tourism always a key challenge will
have been favoured. The next imperative will
be to refine the product (understood simply
as the integration of accommodations,
attractions and services) and commence
effective marketing.
Visiting communities that reside in remote
or deep-interior regions requires a
commitment on the part of a tour
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establishment to compliance with the most
scrupulous and professional operational
standards. These apply across the spectrum
and include the following:. Safe, reliable, efficient and appropriate
modes of transportation the jet-boat may
roar its passengers swiftly through
narrow streams en route to the remote
community, but are there negative human
and environmental consequences created
by the huge swells of the jet-boat?. The quality of tour-guiding services at the
disposal of the visitor.. Standards in accommodation facilities
available for visitors.. Professional interpretation and
presentation of indigenous cultural forms
and traditions through the judicious
employment of knowledge-bearing
materials and artefacts.
Product integrity
Great care needs to be exercised in the
refinement and presentation of the
indigenous tourism product. Product
refinement and presentation that introduce
styles and modernisations that are
inappropriate to and incongruous with an
authentic indigenous tourism experience run
the risk of inducing suspicion in the minds of
the visitors that they may have been duped.
Worse, such presentations may be an affront
to the dignity of the community itself. A
debate has begun, for example, about the
eco-tourism casinos of the Philippines.
Also, the not uncommon practice in
Suriname where tour operators take into
indigenous communities boxed lunches
purchased in the city certainly limits
opportunity for the visitor to appreciate
indigenous cuisine.
On the other hand, product integrity is
maintained, for example, in the Bush Negro
community of Santigron in Northern
Suriname when visitors are put to sleep
communally in hammocks under one
thatched-roof hut, villager style. Satisfaction
of the quest for the authentic must be the
paramount imperative in the provision of an
experience of indigenous tourism. That
objective is sometimes more challenging
than it appears, and the process of adaptation
to tourism on the part of remote communities
is often a very complex undertaking that
sometimes results in the falsification of its
own cultural identity (Nunez, 1989) or the
dilution of local culture (Greenwood, 1989).
Alarms have also been sounded regarding
threats from a tourist monoculture around
the world (Pera and McLaren, 2002) as well
as from biopiracy that occurs under the cloak
of ecotourism where numerous:. . . scientists, students, tourists and
researchers enter into forests to collect
information about local plants and eco-
systems, stealing bio-diversity and, in some
cases attempting to patent life and the
stealing of knowledge developed over
centuries (Pera and McLaren, 2002).
Marketing
Appropriate and effective marketing is a vital
ingredient in the enterprise of indigenous
tourism in Guyana and Suriname, if it is to be
economically viable and produce rewards for
local communities. This is one area for direct
policy intervention. The tendency has been
noted in both countries for remote,
indigenous communities to be visited as the
add-on experience, while visitors are
already in the country. This practice may
derive from a number of factors, key among
those being the inadequacy of a marketing
policy that does not stress the tourism value
of that order of experience.
The marketing of indigenous tourism is a
matter of some delicacy and sensitivity. Over
a decade ago in Guyana, a prominent resort,
located in an Amerindian area, caused
considerable offence through the publication
of an advertisement inviting visitors to see
the exotic Amerindians. The furore
generated prompted the company to
withdraw the offending newspaper
advertisement. An important challenge in
marketing indigenous tourism as well as in
the definition of the product is to avoid the
suspicion that people are being commodified,
or presented as inanimate curios. The
marketing of indigenous tourism in
Guyana is sometimes made more thorny
by the hypersensitivities of some
indigenous advocates who sense and
scream exploitation at the mere sighting of
any icon or representation of anything even
remotely associated with the Amerindian
way of life.
Policy intervention is therefore
appropriate and necessary. Policy confers
legitimacy on the development and
marketing of indigenous tourism, defines the
parameters within which such activity
should occur, sanctions the use of
Amerindian icons and motifs in promotion
and pronounces on the behaviours and
practices that would be appropriate for both
the entrepreneur and the visitor. Policy
intervention must be understood as the
responsibility not only of the public sector
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directorate (ministry or other agency
responsible for tourism administration), but
also of those private sector agencies and
corporate bodies that have direct
responsibility for the management of the
tourism operation.
Community involvement
The management of indigenous tourism on
the ground must be driven by the principle of
indigenous sovereignty over natural and
cultural resources that are the basis of the
tourism experience, and that principle
should under-gird all aspects of the tourism
operation. The community should be
involved in decisions concerning the
number, duration, frequency and schedules
of visits, locations to be visited, the payment
of visitor fees, the location of visitor
accommodations. Meaningful indigenous
involvement in every stage of the tourism
enterprise ensures the greater possibility
that the tourism enterprise would be on the
communitys terms and developed at a pace
and character endorsed by the villagers.
The seminal importance of this
prescription was made painfully clear to
some tourism consultants in Guyana, in 2001,
when they played a conciliatory role in what
was shaping up to be an ugly encounter
between residents of the Amerindian village
of Whyaka and the management of a nearby
resort. A complete breakdown in the
community/resort relationship had
occurred, leading to a considerable degree of
mutual antagonism and distrust.
Tourism enterprises not based on this
model of indigenous sovereignty can lay the
foundation for visitor behaviours that are
unacceptable and inappropriate, or for
tourism enterprises that may be perceived as
exploitative, even imperialistic (Nash,
1989).
Conclusion
Indigenous tourism, once recognised as a
basis for comparative advantage in Guyana
and Suriname, will require development that
is sensitive and enlightened if unfortunate
experiences are to be avoided. Piore (2002)
reports that the rush to develop alternative
forms of indigenous tourism sometimes
results in dislocation of indigenous peoples.
Unless there are clear policy prescriptions
that recognise, respect and safeguard
indigenous sovereignty over the resource
that is the basis of indigenous tourism, an
important infrastructure will be missing.
Indigenous sovereignty must take
precedence over any other imperative that
drives indigenous tourism operations.
If indigenous tourism development is
propelled by the logic of the market to the
exclusion of other holistic considerations,
conflict scenarios will result, similar to the
one that threatened to disturb the peace in
the village of Whyaka in Guyana.
Indigenous sovereignty must take
precedence over any other imperative that
drives the development of indigenous
tourism. In the absence of policy
prescriptions that ensure at least the
greatest possibility for such sovereignty, an
important infrastructure will be missing.
Ultimately, tourism will have contributed,
unwittingly and inadvertently, to the
perpetuation of the historical theme of
indigenous exploitation. A simple road map
for Guyana and Suriname to move forward
could be the following:. Joint Declaration by Guyana and
Suriname of the importance assigned to
the development of indigenous tourism
and of their commitment to cooperation
especially in the area of marketing.. Convening of a stakeholder consultation
in order to generate consensus on
precepts, operational guidelines and
protocols.. Design of or amendment to appropriate
policy document or drafting of
appropriate regulations to govern the
management of indigenous tourism
enterprises.. Strict enforcement of protocols
(through licensing and sanction
arrangements) governing forms of
indigenous tourism.
ReferencesForoohar, R. (2002), Getting off the beaten track,
Time, 22-29 July, pp. 34-8.
Forte, J. (1993), Amerindians and Tourism in
Guyana, ARU, University of Guyana,
Georgetown.
Forte, J. (1995), Amerindians and Poverty in
Guyana, background paper, ARU, University
of Guyana, Georgetown.
Fox, D. and Danns, G. (1993), The Indigenous
Condition in Guyana: A Field Report on the
Amerindians of Mabura, ARU, University of
Guyana, Georgetown.
Greenwood, D. (1989), Culture by the pound: an
anthropological perspective on tourism as
cultural commoditisation, in Smith, V. (Ed.),
Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of
Tourism, 2nd ed., University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, PA.
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Hinch, T. and Butler, R. (1996), Indigenous
tourism: a common ground for discussion, in
Hinch, T. and Butler, R. (Eds), Tourism and
Indigenous Peoples, International Thomson
Business Press, London.
Holder, J. (1996), Maintaining competitiveness in
a new world order: regional solutions to
Caribbean tourism sustainability problems,
in Harrison, L. and Husbands, W. (Eds),
Practicing Responsible Tourism, Wiley, New
York, NY.
Nash, D. (1989), Tourism as a form of
imperialism in Smith, V. (Ed.), Hosts and
Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, 2nd ed.,
University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia,
PA.
Nunez, T. (1989), Touristic studies in
anthropological perspective, in Smith, V.
(Ed.), Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of
Tourism, 2nd ed., University of Pennsylvania,
Philadelphia, PA.
Pera, L. and McLaren, D. (2002), Globalization,
Tourism and Indigenous Peoples: What You
Should Know about the Worlds Largest
Industry, available at: www.planeta.com/
ecotravel/resources/rtp/globalization.html
Piore, A. (2002), Trouble in Paradise, Time, 22-29
July, pp. 42-4.
Rendall, C. (1995), Tourism and indigenous
participation in Guyana, unpublished MA
dissertation, Roehampton Institute, London.
Smith, V. (Ed.) (1996), Hosts and Guests: The
Anthropology of Tourism, 2nd ed., University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA.
Smith, V. and Eadington W.R. (1992), Tourism
Alternatives, Wiley, Chichester.
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Towards an alternative tourism for Belize
Ian BoxillDepartment of Sociology, The University of the West Indies, Mona,Kingston, Jamaica
Tourism in the Caribbean andBelize
There is enough evidence to indicate that
tourism is the worlds largest industry and
that it makes a significant contribution to the
GDP of Caribbean countries (Jayawardena,
2002). Tourism is growing in its importance
to the Caribbean and Central American
nation of Belize. For the Caribbean, tourisms
contribution ranges between 5 per cent and
80 per cent. Estimates for Belize are about 20
per cent of GDP (Belize Travel and Tourism
Statistics, 2001).
While stay-over arrivals to Belize are not
as high as destinations such as Cancun, the
Dominican Republic, Barbados, Puerto Rico,
The Bahamas and Jamaica, Belize compares
favourably with countries such as Antigua
and the Cayman islands. However, Belize has
one of the lowest cruise ship arrivals in the
entire region (Belize Travel and Tourism
Statistics, 2001); although this years (2002)
arrivals have increased dramatically. Belize
is still a moderate to low density destination,
even though revenues earned from the
industry are relatively high (see Table I).
Still there has been growth in the industry.
Tourism has grown in its importance to the
Belize economy over the last ten years.
Between 1987 and 1999 stay-over tourist
arrivals to Belize grew by more than 200 per
cent, from 99,300 to 326,600 (Caribbean
Tourism Statistical Report 1999-2000).
During the past five years, arrivals by
cruise ships have grown significantly. Three
years of remarkable growth ended with a 17.2
per cent decrease in 2001 (Belize Travel and
Tourism Statistics, 2001). However, it should
be noted that this year (2002) has seen a
significant recovery from previous years
over 300 per cent increase over last year.
Even though the arrival numbers are
relatively small compared with the more
established destinations, the dramatic
increase in tourist arrivals for a country that
has recently started to market itself as a low
density/nature-based tourism destination
has resulted in some important social
impacts. These impacts are visible in larger
resort areas, such as San Pedro, and to a
lesser extent, in the smaller communities
such as Hopkins and Dangriga (Boxill and
Castillo, 2002).
There is much that can be learned about
how not to develop tourism from the
examples of countries throughout the
Caribbean. From Cancun to Jamaica to
Barbados, there are studies that show the
social and environmental impacts of
unmonitored mass tourism on the ecology
and the lives of the people (Patullo, 1996;
Maerk and Boxill, 2000; Periera et al., 2002).
Therefore, Belize should be careful about
the way in which it develops its tourism
industry. It should eschew the sudden
embrace of the traditional sea, sand and mass
cruise ship model that most countries of the
Caribbean are pursuing. Belize should place
greater emphasis on the quality of the visitor
rather than the quantity. It should also bring
more stakeholders into the process,
including the communities and educational
institutions. In other words, Belize should
adopt an alternative path to that pursued by
the majority of the major Caribbean
destinations.
Alternatives for Belize
Now, obviously, there are both limiting and
facilitating factors to any type of
development. These variables are not
necessarily inherent, but are contingent on a
broad philosophical orientation of
development.
The Emerald Research Register for this journal is available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/researchregister
The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
http://www.emeraldinsight.com/0959-6119.htm
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International Journal ofContemporary HospitalityManagement15/3 [2003] 147-150
# MCB UP Limited[ISSN 0959-6119][DOI 10.1108/09596110310470167]
KeywordsDevelopment, Tourism, Culture,
Location, Education, Belize
AbstractThis paper argues that tourism
development in Belize should
avoid going the traditional mass
tourism route of most Caribbean
destinations. Instead, it suggests
that Belize is at the appropriate
stage in its development to forge
an alternative model, which draws
and builds on its geographical
location, history, culture and
ecology. In making this case, the
paper identifies a number of
limiting and facilitating factors to
tourism development. These
facilitating factors recommend the
alternative model. Specifically,
the alternative model includes
nature, education and community
tourism; and a type of cruise
tourism that is linked to education
and culture. For this effort to
succeed, the paper recommends
that government and civil society
work together to develop the
countrys human resources and to
structure a strategy to achieve the
goals.
This paper was originally akeynote address deliveredat a national symposium ontourism by the University ofBelize (UB) and the Ministryof Tourism in Belize City, 15November 2002.
-
Tourism development is simply one
dimension of a set of development policies
that may be pursued by a country. Belize
would be better off with a development
process, or a tourism development policy,
which respects peoples ways of life, engages
them in a way that is psychologically,
intellectually and economically beneficial;
and sustains ecological systems without
which we cannot hope to survive for very
long. Of course, this type of tourism should
ideally help to bring about economic
transformation and must be sustainable.
Given its stage of development and its assets,
Belize is the one country in the Caribbean
region that is best suited to undertake this
type of tourism development. What are the
reasons for this? In other words, what are the
facilitating factors? They are as follows:. Belize is a low density tourism
destination. Both the land to visitor
density and the tourism penetration ratios
are relatively low.. Belize is a country with an abundance of
natural beauty, and has an ecological
system that is the envy of most of the
Caribbean.. Belize is located strategically in Central
America but is also washed by the
Caribbean Sea and therefore enjoys the
best of both worlds. Proximity to the USA
may also be seen as an advantage.. Belize has a diverse culture which
incorporates the major cultures of the
Americas: indigenous (Maya, Garifuna),
African/Creole, European (Spanish and
English), Hispanic and Asian.
Nonetheless, one must be mindful of some
limiting factors. These include:. Competition from other destinations in
the region in the mass market; especially
now from the rise of Cuban tourism,
which is the fastest growing in the region.. Social and cultural conflicts, which are
likely to arise from significant growths in
arrivals particularly as it relates to mass
tourism.
. The relative softening of traditional
destinations of the USA and Europe, due
to rising local crime and the threat of
global terrorism.. Potential environmental problems
associated with all types of tourism,
especially mass and cruise tourism. Many
of these impacts have been detailed in the
studies of the Anglophone Caribbean and
Cancun.. The present and potential problem of
airlift due to the financial difficulties
associated with airline industry.
Belize should continue on a path of low to
moderate density tourism, with some minor
elements of sea and sand/mass variety where
possible. The country should adopt a well
planned, highly regulated tourism with a
strong focus on developing the cultural and
ecological gifts of the country. Belize should
try to differentiate itself from the pack by
focusing on high end tourism and by being
more adventurous and courageous. Thinking
out of the box is what we need at this
moment. But, what are some of the elements
of this alternative?
Elements of the alternative
Education and cultural tourismWith the imminence of the Free Trade Area
of the Americas (FTAA), there is a great deal
of potential for training in languages and
cultures across the region. As a member of
the Caribbean Community (CARICOM),
Belize should develop institutions to train
English speakers in Spanish and, Spanish
speakers in English. The University of Belize
(UB), along with the University of the West
Indies (UWI) could spearhead an initiative
aimed at the development of institutions to
train people in languages, both short-term
and long-term. These should be well run, well
marketed and well organized bodies which
will attract some of the brightest and the best
minds in the country.
Table IKey socio-cultural and socio-economic indicators for Barbados, The Bahamas and Jamaica andBelize (1999)
Indicator Barbados The Bahamas Jamaica Belize
Tourist arrivals per thousand of the population 1,936 5,205 484 1,344Rooms per thousand population 21 49 (1998) 9 16Visitor expenditure per capita (US dollars) 2,490 5,224 496 459Tourism penetration ratio 54 77 14 25a
Visitor expenditure as a percentage of GDP 32.20 32.87 (1998) 21.40 16.19
Note: aestimatedSource: Caribbean Tourism Organization Statistical Report 1999-2000 (2000)
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The Cubans have been developing an
education tourism sector, with little
competition from other Caribbean
destinations (see Jayawardena, 2003,
forthcoming). In the case of Belize it should
be possible to link the established
educational institutions to those aimed at the
study of Creole languages in the Caribbean.
The target market should be Latin
Americans, Caribbean people and US and
European colleges and education
institutions. There are millions of Caribbean
people inside and outside of the Caribbean
who look for places to go on vacation, to
study and to explore every year. There is a
critical mass of Caribbean people with a
substantial amount of disposable income.
Relatedly, there is the possibility for the
development of a festival type tourism, which
draws on the culture of the country. The
Belize annual Garifuna festival on
19 November is an example of festival
tourism, but there are many others that can
draw on the history of all peoples in the
country. These festivals should be carefully
managed or they can backfire, leading to the
commercialization of sensitive aspects of
peoples cultures. There is the possibility to
link these festivals to the educational
institutions, thereby consolidating their
presence and preserving their authenticity.
The Mundo Maya project of Central
America is in this tradition, but it needs to
incorporate more aspects of the educational
type tourism, thus bringing in a different
segment of the tourism market.
Cruise tourismIn relation to cruise tourism, there are
questions about its long-term benefits to the
Caribbean as currently constituted. Cruise
tourism often results in a considerable
amount of environmental problems for the
income that is earned (Patullo, 1996; Periera
et al., 2002). Still it remains an option, that
may be pursued, but only if properly
managed. However, there is an alternative or
complement to the status quo of cruise
tourism.
This approach to tourism, which is based
on collaboration of regional countries rather
than competition among them, is well suited
for CARICOM, especially in light of the
FTAA. This new approach is based on a
paper presented by Ian Boxill to the
Caribbean Maritime Institute and the
University of the West Indies (UWI) in March
2002. The project, entitled the Caribbean
World (CW), is an attempt to build on the rich
cultural history of the region, using the sea
as a mode of transportation, to create a new
tourism industry in the region. More
specifically, the CW is an idea that draws on
the rich history and human resources of the
Caribbean region to integrate and further
enhance the development of the region by the
promotion of alternative education
opportunities, alternative tourism and
training. This can be accomplished by using
ships to sail around the region and calling at
ports according to the objectives of the
particular journey. The basic idea is to
develop a cruise ship experience that
involves people travelling throughout the
Caribbean and learning about the history
and culture of the Caribbean. These ships
should be owned and operated by
organizations in the region, in the interest of
the region. Four important aspects of our
history are critical here:
1 Amerindian settlement and history;
2 European colonization;
3 slavery; and
4 East Indian indentureship.
The specific objectives of this type of tourism
should include:. the development of a destination for
regional and international tourists
similar to the Mundo Maya project in
Central America;. to link the islands and landmasses of the
Caribbean through travel;. to generate revenue for the good of the
countries;. to provide an alternative educational
experience for regional and international
students; and. to foster closer regional cooperation and
integration.
Here is another way of picturing this
proposal. Imagine sailing to the Caribbean in
a ship with the comforts of a medium-size
cruise liner, manned by staff and students of
the Caribbean Maritime Institute, beginning
in Belize taking in Maya ruins then on to
Jamaica, stopping at Port Royal, then to Haiti
for two days to see the Citadel and then in
St Kitts to tour one of the regions greatest
military forts. On board are staff and
students of the hospitality programme of the
UWI and the UB, managing the cuisine and
provision of services that are second to none
offered in a five-star hotel. Or imagine being
on board a ship, with a group/class
comprising students from the UWI and other
institutions across the world. Students who
filter in and out of the large library on board;
students who would not only learn about the
Maroons of Jamaica or the Caribs of
Dominica, but also get a chance to interact
with them, and help in one of the many
excavations being run by the UWIs
archaeological department. On the way, they
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will get a glimpse of the famous Bussa Statue
in Barbados and learn about his slave
rebellion.
Later they will stop at one of the famous
markets in St Vincent and take in a lecture
on the history of the steel pan in Trinidad
and Tobago, as part of an assignment in
cultural studies.
This is an option that could be spearheaded
by Belize. Belize could use its knowledge and
infrastructure from the Mundo Maya project
and lead this process. This type of tourism is
consistent with the low density, eco/heritage
tourism which the country is well known for.
Community tourismThen, of course, there is community tourism.
Here is where communities can gain greater
control and benefit from tourism by having
more cooperative ventures. The community
organizations need to play an integral role in
the development of properties and the
creation of regulations which protect the
communities from exploitation by foreign
investors. There is need for the training of
community members in management and
entrepreneurial skills. Government officials
need to provide incentives for locals to get
involved in the industry as owners of
properties rather than as suppliers of cheap
labour. Above all, there is the need for a
healthy respect for the way of life in
communities, in view of the changes that will
most certainly come with an expansion of
tourism. The only way this will happen is if
the community leaders take a proactive role
in the development of tourism in their
communities.
Conclusion
What is needed for this alternative to
succeed? To succeed, tourism planners in
Belize need vision, will and confidence.
Tourism is a serious business which requires
careful planning, evaluation and
administration. The model which I propose
means that governments would have to
invest seriously in education at all levels.
The UB and other educational institutions
should be at the centre of this type of tourism
development.
But, tourism should not be left up to
governments or investors; this is a mistake
that Caribbean societies are now realizing
(Hayle, 2000). Tourism cannot survive in an
environment of uncertainty, high crime, poor
management and local resentment. On the
other hand, people must be made to feel as
though they benefit from the industry (Hayle,
2000). Belize is at a stage of its development
where it can fashion a new tourism, and not
make the mistakes of the more mature
Caribbean destinations.
ReferencesBelize Travel and Tourism Statistics (2001), The
Belize Tourist Board, Belize City.
Boxill, I. (2000), Overcoming social problems in
the Jamaican tourism industry, in Maerk, J.
and Boxill, I. (Eds), Tourism in the Caribbean,
Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City.
Boxill, I. (2002), Caribbean world, paper
prepared for the University of the West Indies
and The Caribbean Maritime Institute.
Boxill, I. and Castillo, P. (2002), Socio-economic
impact of tourism in Dangriga and Hopkins,
Belize, in Periera, A., Boxill, I. and Maerk, J.
(Eds), Tourism, Development and Natural
Resources in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez,
Mexico City.
Caribbean Tourism Organization Statistical
Report 1999-2000 (2000), Caribbean Tourism
Organization, Barbados.
Hayle, C. (2000), Community tourism in
Jamaica, in Maerk, J. and Boxill, I. (Eds),
Tourism in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez,
Mexico City.
Jayawardena, C. (2002), Community
development and Caribbean tourism in
Periera, A., Boxill, I. and Maerk, J. (Eds),
Tourism, Development and Natural Resources
in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City.
Jayawardena, C. (2003), Cuba: crown princess of
Caribbean tourism, IDEAZ, Vol. 2 No. 1,
forthcoming.
Maerk, J. and Boxill, I. (Eds) (2000), Tourism in
the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City.
Patullo, P. (1996), Last Resorts, Cassell, London.
Periera, A., Boxill, I. and Maerk, J. (Eds) (2002),
Tourism, Development and Natural Resources
in the Caribbean, Plaza y Valdez, Mexico City.
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Cuba: hero of the Caribbean? A profile of its tourismeducation strategy
Pat WoodInternational Hospitality Management, London Metropolitan University,London, UKChandana JayawardenaDepartment of Management Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences,The University of the West Indies, Jamaica
Introduction
During the last decade, Cuba has recorded
phenomenal growth in tourism receipts. By
the mid-1990s Cuba ranked sixth in the
Caribbean tourism league. At the eve of the
last century, Cuba graduated to fourth
position, surpassing the Bahamas and
Jamaica. The new wave of success in Cuban
tourism has been the result of a well-planned,
optimistic development strategy. The current
tourism environment is summed up in the
words of Ibrahim Ferradaz Garcia (2002),
Minister of Tourism for Cuba:Cuba is an archipelago of great natural
attractions including more than 300 natural
beaches and a very pleasant climate
together with the peoples warm hospitality,
rich historic and cultural heritage.
The current situation of tourism in Cuba was
narrated at a recent conference in the USA
as:The people are warm, the sand is like silk, the
food is spicy and the drink is sweet. The sun
always shines and the music never stops. The
doors are opening and the walls are coming
down (Jayawardena et al., 2002a).
Cuba integrates a breadth and depth of
heritage, educational and cultural
experiences with its unique selling point
(USP) the element of mystique. Add to that
an extraordinary and rare eco environment,
a naturally hospitable well-educated people,
value for money, a safe destination and a
unique experience Cuba has it all. It is a
multifunctional destination with a strong
identity. The hotel stock is not always
sophisticated and the destination makes no
pretence at offering a perfect paradigm. The
strength of its offer now demands to be
underpinned by the development of the
hospitality and tourism education strategy in