VARIETIES OF CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE : A FACTOR ANALYSIS* A. B. SILVERSTEIN

PacijEc Slate Hospdal

Buck and Geers") recently reported the cor- relations among 1 1 varieties of conscious exper- ience in terms of their frequency of occurrence. This study was designed to clarify the relation- ships in their data hy means of factor analysis.

.METHOU :AND RESULTS The data were analyzed by the principal-factor

method with squared multiple correlations in the diagonal, and three factors were retained for rotation to the Varimax criterion(*) with results shown in Table 1 . Factor I is defined b day- dreams, dCji vu, atid hypn o ic and l ipno- pom ic experiences; Factor 3 \y synest eaias and gactor I11 by depersonalization and dreams. Rapaport(*) has suggested that the varieties of conscious experience form a more or less con- tinuous series betweeii waking consciousness and the consciousness of the dream. The three factors may perhaps be interpreted as segments of this series.

s r M M A nY A factor analysis of Buck and Geers' data on

the relationshi s among 1 1 varieties of conscious experience yiehed three factors. These appear to represent segments of a continuum ranging from waking consciousness to the consciousness of the dream.

*This study was supported in part by NIMH Research Grant Xo. MH-08667 and HEW General Research Support Grant No. I-SOl-FR- 05632-02. The writer is indebted to L)r. Lucien A. Buck for offering his interpretation of the results.

TABLE 1. FACTOR LOADINGS OF 1 I VARIETIES OF CONSCIOUS EXPERIENCE

\' ar ie t,y I I1 I11

I laydreams .50 \kua l Yynesthesia 14 Auditory Synesthesia .19 Visual IMjA Vu .48

1 )epersonalization 39

Auditory IXjA Vu .56 Self-Image

Body-Image

Physical-Environment

( kher-People

Depersonalization 28

1)epersonalization .20

Depersonalization . I 0 nagogic and Hypnopompic xperieiices .55

I h a m .05

*y .

____

.25

.59

.63

.18

.13

- .09

.32

.21

.23

.13

.05

.12

. l l

. I 3

.I5

.36

.46

. I6

.55

.55

.04

.41

REFERENCES 1. BUCK, L. A. mid GEERS, MARGARET B. Varieties of consciousness: I. Iiitercorrelations. J. din. Psychol., 1967, 23, 151-152.

2. HARMAN, H. H. Modern Factor Analysis. ('2nd ed.) Chicago: L'niver. Chicago Press, 1967.

3. I~APAPONT, 1). Coilsciousiiess: A pathologi- cal and ps chtdynamic view. 111 Abramson, H. A. (Ed.7. Problems of Consciuucmeas. New York: Josiah Macy, J r . Foundation, 1951.

GROUP ADMINISTRATION OF T H E BENDER GESTALT TEST TO PREDICT EARLY SCHOOL PERFORMANCE

ANDREW s. DIBNEH AND ERIC J. KORN*

B o s h University

PROBLEM This study was aimed at extending and testing group adininistration of the

Bender Gestalt Test with the Koppitz (* ) scoring system to evaluate perceptual- motor developinent and emotional disturbance in children froin kindergarten through fourth grade. The study also evaluated the predictive as well as the con- current validity of the Koppitz Developniental and Emotional scales with teacher ratings as criteria. Two conditions of group administration were tested : Projection of the designs on a screen and the use of individual decks of cards by each child.

analysis. *The authors are grateful to Guy Seymour for his competent help in computations and d a b

264 ANDREW S. DIBNER AND ERIC J. KORN

METHODS Subjects. The Ss were 492 boys and girls, kindergarten through fourth grade

in the Beebe and Franklin schools of the Melrose (Mass.) school system.’ In each school, two classes at each grade level were tested. The two schools were chosen as representative of the socio-economic range within the city. Melrose is a residential suburb of Boston and as a whole represents a standard of living and educational level slightly higher than that of Metropolitan Boston and considerably higher than that of the USA.

Procedure. Testing was carried out during the last two weeks of the school year, and ratings of the children’s performance during the year were made by their teachers (Original Teacher Ratings). A year later, the children were rated by their new teachers to establish criteria for predictive validity (New Teacher Ratings). The children were rated on the following variables using 5 point scales: (1) General adequacy of school performance, (2) arithmetic, (3) reading, (4) general intelligence, (5 ) emotional control and (6) prediction of success in the next grade if promoted.

All testing was done by the school psychologist*; teachers were present in the rooms but participated minimally. The BGT was administered both in the morn- ings and in the afternoons under two conditions of card and projector administra- tion. Number two pencils were used, except for the kindergarten children, who used black Crayola crayons since they did not use pencils in their usual school work.

In the projector condition, each child was given one sheet of paper and told “Copy what you see on the screen-do it any way you like, there is no right way or wrong way.” A design would be projected on the screen by means of an opaque projector, and when almost all children had copied it, the projectionist would ask if more time was needed. If there were only a few requesting more time, he would wait 30 seconds and then proceed.

In the card condition, each child, at his own desk, was given a packet of cards and told “I’m going to put some cards in front of you, on each card there is a picture -1 would like you to copy the picture as you see i t on the card. When I bring the cards to you, you may start-and when you have finished please raise your hand.” When the examiner put the packet in front of the child, he would turn over the first card, leaving the rest face down-and then, each child when through would turn the next card over onto the previous one. Teachers helped pass out some of the cards. The administration in each condition took approximately one-half hour.

Finally, all the drawings were scored using the Koppitz (2) Developmental Scoring System and Emotional Indicators. Inter-rater reliability of ratings using two raters was .95 for Developmental scores and .84 for Emotional scores, using Spearman rank correlation.

The Developmental Scale was used exactly as described by KoppitzC2). How- ever, one emotional indicator (expansion: Use of two or more sheets of paper) was dropped from her Emotional Scale because children were given only one sheet of paper, and three indicators were added (constriction, overlapping, and boxing-in), because in our clinical experience, these signs are associated with emotional dis- turbance in children. Both scales are error scores; the range of the Developmental scale being 0-30, the range of the Emotional scale being 0-12.

RESULTS Item Analysis. All of the error signs of the Developmental and Emotional

scales appeared with frequencies ranging from 1-70%. Infrequently scored errors did not appear randomly distributed throughout the grades but occurred mostly

“I’hanks are due to Mr. Harold Rand, Superintendent, Mr. Robert Batchelder, Asst. Super- intendent, the principals and teachers of the Franklin and Beebe Schools, and Mother Mary Henry and teachers of St. Mary’s School for their cooperation.

’Kendall Bacon, School Psychologmt, administered all Bc testa. The authors are grateful for his help.

,

GROUP ADMINISTRATION OF TEE BENDEB QESTALT TEST 265

in the younger children's records where total scores were higher. This gives evidence of the validity of Koppitz' original item analysis, and it is felt that the scale cannot be profitably shortened.

Conditions of Administration. Analyses of variance within each grade revealed no differences on either Developmental or Emotional scores between the projector and card conditions, and for test administrations in morning or afternoon. The data were then combined for further analyses.

TABLE 1. DEVELOPMENTAL (ERROR) SCORES BY AGE, SEX AND GRADE BY BG "ESm ADMINISTERED AT END OF YEAR

;% 9% 10

> 10% - Grade K

1 2 3 4

Boys (N = 240)

N M SD

21 10.38 2.57 32 9.00 3.00 25 5.52 3.42 23 4.96 2.40 24 3.42 2.18 26 3.15 2.35 26 2.85 1.68 23 2.00 1.93 18 2.22 1.58 17 1.53 1.42 5 1.40 1.86

48 3.17 48 2.27 28 1.36 1.45

Girls (N = 252)

N M SD

34 8.21 2.67 17 8.00 2.45 23 5.17 1.93 25 4.20 2.58 36 3.31 2.22 25 2.80 2.08 28 2.11 2.00

53 8.11 2.56 48 4.52 2.26 61 3.26 2.25 58 2.35 I .94 32 2.00 1.52

Norms for the Developmental Scale. Table 1 presents age, grade and sex norms. The Developmental scores were highly related to both age and grade. The largest increase in perceptual-motor development occurred from ages five to seven, with decreasing slope of the curve from seven to nine, and leveling off from nine to eleven.

TABLE 2. EMOTIONAL (ERROR) SCORES BY AOE, SEX AND GRADE OF B-G TESTS ADMINISTERED AT END OF YEAR

7% 8 8% 9 9%

10 > 10%

Grade K 1 2 3 4

Boys (N = 228*)

N M SD

21 4.00 1.57 32 3.94 1.44 25 2.48 1.60 23 2.17 1.13 19 2.58 1.39 21 2.19 1.44 25 1.76 1.14 22 2.05 1.33 18 2.00 1.33 17 2.06 1 .OO 5 1.40 .49

61 3.93 1.49 55 2.24 1.25 36 1.91 1.40 48 2.13 1.22 28 1.82 1.17

Girls (N = 238*)

N M SD

34 3.32 1.34 17 3.53 1.50 23 2.61 1.34 24 2.50 1.36 27 2.11 22 2.05 27 1.63 19 1.63 15 1.73 20 1.85 10 1.80

1.23 1.43 1.25 1.56 1.53 1.20

.79

53 3.38 48 2.46 46 1.94 58 1.78 32 1.72

1.38 1.40 1.34 1.39 1.18

*N reduced because Emotional Scores in one claw affected by artifact in adminiatration.

266 ANDREW 9. DIBNER AND ERIC J. KORN

NO differences between sexes were found except in the kindergarten where the mean score for boys was higher than that for the girls ( t = 2.43, p < .02), indicating slower perceptual-motor development for boys a t this age. However, no single error item significantly distinguished the kindergarten boys from girls.

Norms for the Emotional Scale. Table 2 shows the mean Emotional scores for boys and girls by age, sex and grade. There was a slightly negative relationship between the total Emotional Score and age, especially for the younger children. Kindergarten boys had significantly higher total scores than girls ( t = 2.04, p < .05), and their scores were slightly but not significantly higher in older age groups.

Teachers’ Ratings. Intercorrelations of the various teacher ratings were com- puted within each grade. Rstings of general intelligence, adequacy of performance, arithmetic and reading yielded Pearson r’s in the .70 to 3 5 range. Original teachers’ predictions of success were also highly related to their ratings of children’s intelligence and school performance, especially in the higher grades.

The ratings of emotional control were made by teachers on a 5-point scale ranging from “behavior problem” to ‘(average control” to “over-controlled”. For purposes of analysis, the ends of the scale were combined as signs of poor emotional adjustment, as compared to ratings in the middle of the scale. These teacher ratings of emotional control yielded low positive Pearson correlations in the .20-.35 range with the other original teacher ratings of adequacy, reading and arithmetic, but were correlated approximately zero with their estimates of intelligence. TABLE 3. CONCURRENT RELATIONSHIPS: MEDIAN CORRELATIONS (ALL CR.4DES) OF DEVEL~PMENT

AND EMOTIONAL SCORES WITH ORIGINAL TEACHER RATINGS

Adeq. Emot. Predict. of BG Score of Perf. Arith. Reading Intell. Control Success

I) Score - .32* - .25* - .28* - .30* .12 - .31*

E Score - .14 - .07 -.13 .oo .02 - .07

’Significant at .05 level.

Concurrent Relationships. Comparisons of Developmental scores and teacher ratings were made within each grade and are summarized by their median correla- tions in Table 3. Developmental scores had significant low correlations with all original teacher ratings except ratings of emotional control. The findings were con- sistent across all grades except second grade.

Unlike the Developmental scores, the Emotional scores showed no significant correlations with original teacher ratings. Emotional scores were unrelated to teachera’ ratings of Emotional Control either when the latter was considered as a scale of over-contiol us. lack of control ( r = .13) or as a scale of emotional adjustment US. lack of adjustment (where the extremes of over- and under-control were com- bined) (r = .02).

Predictive Relationships. The Developmental scores had low to moderate pre- dictive ability (Table 4) which were strongest in kindergarten and first grade. Analysis of the scatter plots of the kindergarten and first grade data showed linear relationships between Developmental scores and later school performance. The correlations were not due solely to extreme scorers doing poorly. Predictive ability of the Developmental score was not found in the second grade but again appeared in third and fourth grades. Developmental scores showed equal ability to predict performance in reading and arithmetic.

The Emotional scores also showed significant predictive ability in the first and second grades, but these correlations were low.

GROUP ADMINISTRATION OF THE BENDER GESTALT TEST 267

TABLE 4. PREDICTING SCHOOL PERFORMANCE: CORRELATIONS OF DEVELOPMENTAL AND EMOTIONAL SCORES, AND ORIGINAL TEACHER PREDICTIONS OF SUCCESS WITH NEW TEACHER RATINGS BY GRADE

New Tchr. Kindergarten Cr 1 Gr 2 Gr 3 Cr 4 Item Ratirtgs (N = 99) (N = 95) (N = 95) (N = 101) (N = 55)

Adeq. of D Perf. - .51** - .41** - .13 - .31** - .32** Scores k i th . - .37** - .46** - .19 - .30** - .25*

Reading - .4P* - .34** - .10 - .30** - .29**

Adeq. of E Perf. - .08 - .31* - .20* - -09 .08

Scores k i t h .05 - .26* - .25* - .09 .16 Reading - .07 - .22* - .10 - .09 - .03

Orig. Adeq. of Teacher Perf. .48** .71** .65** .74** .56**

.a** .70** .57** .65** .61** Predictioiis Arith,

.45** .70** .a** 73** .52** of Success lleadillg

~

*Significant at .oj level; ** at .01 level.

The most powerful predictors of new teacher ratings of school performance were the original teacher predictions of success. These had higher predictive value than either of the RGT Scores in every grade except kindergarten, where the Develop- mental scores gave as good a result.

DISCUSSION The group card conditions used in this study more closely approximate a n

individual testing situation than does Keogh and Smith’s (’ group technique, where the child draws only one design on a paper. The card condition was found to have some advantages in administration over the projector technique. Each child could proceed at his own pace, whereas in the projected condition some who would finish a design quickly iiiight get restless and disturbing while waiting for a new stimulus. Also, more children tended to look at others’ drawings in the projected condition.

The findings confirni those summarized by Iioppitz ( * ) that the Developmental scale of the BGT is highly reflective of psychomotor development at the kindergarten and first grade level. The Developmental scale is as good a predictor of future school performance of kindergarten childreii as are their teachers’ ratings. The scale may be considered a better predictor, since teacher-teacher correlations may be expected to be inflated as compared to test-teacher correlations because of the redundancy of elenients entering into two sets of teachers’ ratings. For example, teachers’ ratings of school performance would be influenced by their impression of the social behavior of the children.

The Developiiiental score would be especially valuable for transfer students or others entering a school systerii directly to the first grade where teachers’ ratings are not available. However, its value as a predictive tool diminishes rapidly above the first grade.

The poor predictive results obtained with the Emotional scale are not as sur- prising as the fact that it is related to age, especially at the younger levels. This scale was developed by Koppitz to identify emotionally disturbed children, and the difficulty in distinguishing indicators of emotional disturbance from developnientally inimature behavior is evident in our obtained correlation of Emotional scores with age.

268 ANDREW S. DIBNER AND ERIC J. EORN

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The Bender Gestalt Test was administered at the end of a school year to 492

boys and girls in kindergarten through the fourth grade in a public school system to predict school performance the next year. Two conditions of group administra- tion gave equivalent results, and time of day of administration did not affect the test. The Koppitz Developmental scores were related to concurrent teachers’ ratings of school performance and to ratings of the children’s performance the next year. For kindergarten children, the Development score was as good a predictor of school performance the next year as teachers’ ratings. The Emotional score had poor predictability.

REFERENCES 1. KEOQH, B. K. and SMITH, C. E. Group techniques and proposed scoring system for the Bender

2. KOPPITZ, E. M. The Bender Gealau Test for Young Children. New York: Grune and Stratton, Gestalt Test with children. J . din. Psydrol., 1961, 17, 172-175.

1964.

EFFECTIVENESS OF T H E WISC AND BENDER-GESTALT TEST I N PREDICTING ARITHMETIC AND READING ACHIEVEMENT

FOR WHITE AND NONWHITE CHILDREN* NORMAN B. HENDERSON, BRUCE V. BUTLER AND BARBARA OOFFENEY

Unwerdy of Oregon Medical School

PROBLEM The central focus of this study was the differential effectiveness of the Bender-

Gestalt Test for white and nonwhite seven year old children in predicting arith- metic and reading achievement. Performance on the Bender-Gestalt p. a) and similar tests of different ethnic groups has been compared. (5. p. 6 ) . Peixottoc 7 - p. 871)’

studying 35 Ss, found variances between seven cultural groups significant “at the 5% level of confidence and while not definitive because of the small N, do suggest the probability that various ethnic groups will produce different protocols.”

Carlaon(‘) found that a group of 31 schizophrenic Caucasians performed better than a group of 31 schizophrenic Negroes (ages between 15 and 55) on the Bender-) Gestalt Test. This was true even though the Negro group had more years of formal education than the Caucasian. She surmised that “with equal education the differ- ences might have been greater.” Serious doubt could be raised about equating education for Caucasians and Negroes in terms of years only. Further doubt of generalizations about ethnic groups from the performance of a small schizophrenic sample to a whole population is appropriate,

PROCEDURE All the children in this study were from the University of Oregon Medical

School sample of the Collaborative Study on Cerebral Palsy and Other Neurological and Sensory Disorders of Infancy and Childhood. This population has been de- scribed elsewhere(o* p. and was randomly selected from among the gravidae pre- senting for prenatal examination at the Multnomah County General Hospital. While random in the sense that they were selected in order of presentation, the sample reflected the low socioeconomic educational characteristics of the total county hospital population. This manner of selection controlled relatively effectively the

*The research upon which this publication is based was performed (in part) pursuant to Contract No. 4368-10 with the National Institute of Health, Public Health Service, Department of Health, Education and Welfare.